DEPOLYMERIZATION OF POLYMERS

Abstract

Provided herein is technology relating to depolymerization of polymers and particularly, but not exclusively, to methods and systems for de-crosslinking polyacrylate salt-based polymers and other polymers and compositions made from de-crosslinking polyacrylate salt-based polymers and other polymers.

Claims

1. A method for producing polyacrylic acid (PAA) from a superabsorbent polymer (SAP), said method comprising sonicating an aqueous SAP hydrogel to produce said PAA.

2. The method of claim 1 further comprising adding base to said aqueous SAP hydrogel.

3. The method of claim 1 further comprising adding NaOH to said aqueous SAP hydrogel.

4. The method of claim 1 wherein said sonicating provides an ultrasonic frequency.

5. The method of claim 1 wherein said sonicating provides a frequency of 20 kHz.

6. The method of claim 1 wherein said method recovers at least 85% of said SAP as PAA.

7. The method of claim 1 wherein said aqueous SAP hydrogel comprises at least 0.50%, 1.0%, 2.5%, or 5.0% weight per volume SAP.

8. The method of claim 1 wherein said PAA has a M.sub.w of approximately 50 to 2500 kg/mol.

9. The method of claim 1 wherein said PAA has a dispersity of approximately 1.0 to 10.0.

10. The method of claim 1 wherein the maximum specific energy of said sonicating is less than or equal to 50 MJ/kg SAP.

11. The method of claim 1 wherein said sonicating is performed for at least 1 to 25 minutes.

12. The method of claim 1 further comprising obtaining said SAP from a post-consumer source or a post-industrial source.

13-34. (canceled)

35. A method for recycling superabsorbent polymer (SAP), said method comprising: a) obtaining SAP from a post-consumer and/or post-industrial source; and b) sonicating said SAP to produce polyacrylic acid (PAA).

36. The method of claim 35 further comprising adding NaOH to said SAP.

37. The method of claim 35 further comprising producing a new SAP from said PAA.

38. The method of claim 35 further comprising producing an adhesive from said PAA.

39. The method of claim 35 wherein said post-consumer source comprises a personal disposable hygiene product.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0016] These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the present technology will become better understood with regard to the following drawings. The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawings will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

[0017] FIG. 1 shows .sup.1H-NMR spectra for three trials of sonicated PAA.sub.SPP spiked with known amounts of DMSO (relaxation delay=25 s, 500 MHz, CDCl.sub.3). The peak labeled b corresponds to the chemical shift of the PAA repeat unit and was used to quantify PAA relative to the known amount of DMSO standard corresponding to the peak labeled a.

[0018] FIG. 2 shows SEC traces for two trials of sonicated PAA.sub.SPP at 0.50% w/v. Labels indicate elution peaks for samples sonicated for 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes.

[0019] FIG. 3 shows SEC traces for two trials of sonicated PAA.sub.SPP at 1.0% w/v. Labels indicate elution peaks for samples sonicated for 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes.

[0020] FIG. 4 shows SEC traces for two trials of sonicated PAA.sub.SPP at 2.5% w/v. Labels indicate elution peaks for samples sonicated for 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes.

[0021] FIG. 5 shows SEC traces for two trials of sonicated PAA.sub.SPP at 5.0% w/v. Labels indicate elution peaks for samples sonicated for 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes.

[0022] FIG. 6 shows is a plot of M.sub.w and maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) versus time for the sonication of PAA.sub.SPP at 0.50% w/v.

[0023] FIG. 7 shows is a plot of M.sub.w and maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) versus time for the sonication of PAA.sub.SPP at 1.0% w/v.

[0024] FIG. 8 shows is a plot of M.sub.w and maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) versus time for the sonication of PAA.sub.SPP at 2.5% w/v.

[0025] FIG. 9 shows is a plot of M.sub.w and maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) versus time for the sonication of PAA.sub.SPP at 5.0% w/v.

[0026] FIG. 10 shows SEC traces for two trials of sonicated PAA.sub.P&G at 5.0% w/v. Labels indicate elution peaks for samples sonicated for 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 minutes.

[0027] FIG. 11 shows a plot of M.sub.w and maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) versus time for the sonication of PAA.sub.P&G at 5.0% w/v.

[0028] FIG. 12 shows samples of 5% w/v PAA.sub.SPP treated with NaCl or NaOH. Vials from left to right comprised 5.0% w/v PAA.sub.SPP in deionized water, 5.0% w/v PAA.sub.SPP in 0.1 M NaCl, 5.0% w/v PAA.sub.SPP in 3 M NaOH after 5 hours at 80 C., 5.0% w/v PAA.sub.SPP in 1 M NaOH after 5 hours at 80 C., and 5.0% w/v PAA.sub.SPP in 0.3 NaOH after 24 hours at 80 C.

[0029] It is to be understood that the figures are not necessarily drawn to scale, nor are the objects in the figures necessarily drawn to scale in relationship to one another. The figures are depictions that are intended to bring clarity and understanding to various embodiments of apparatuses, systems, and methods disclosed herein. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts. Moreover, it should be appreciated that the drawings are not intended to limit the scope of the present teachings in any way.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0030] Provided herein is technology relating to depolymerization of polymers and particularly, but not exclusively, to methods and systems for de-crosslinking and/or degrading polyacrylate-based polymers and other polymers and compositions made from de-crosslinking polyacrylate-based polymers and other polymers. In some embodiments, the technology provides a practical method to de-crosslink sodium polyacrylate-based superabsorbent polymers (SAP). SAP is an insoluble, crosslinked network polymer with an absorbency capacity of at least approximately 10,000% by weight (e.g., for deionized water). In some embodiments, the technology finds use in providing materials for synthesizing pressure sensitive adhesives (PSAs). Both SAP and PSA are used in common consumer products; accordingly, the present technology is related in some embodiments to recycling discarded SAP for use in a new material, PSA. The technology relates to degrading (e.g., de-crosslinking and/or depolymerizing) SAP, e.g., using ultrasound (e.g., as provided by a sonicator) and/or treatment with base (e.g., NaOH).

[0031] During the development of embodiments of the technology described herein, experiments were conducted in which SAP was partially de-crosslinked with approximately 0.3 M NaOH in approximately 24 hours or with approximately 3 M NaOH in approximately 5 hours. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the technology provides a method comprising adding aqueous base (e.g., NaOH (e.g., approximately 0.3 to 3 M NaOH (e.g., approximately 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, or 3.5 M NaOH))) to SAP (e.g., approximately 5% w/v) and stirring (e.g., at approximately 80 C. (e.g., 75.0, 75.1, 75.2, 75.3, 75.4, 75.5, 75.6, 75.7, 75.8, 75.9, 76.0, 76.1, 76.2, 76.3, 76.4, 76.5, 76.6, 76.7, 76.8, 76.9, 77.0, 77.1, 77.2, 77.3, 77.4, 77.5, 77.6, 77.7, 77.8, 77.9, 78.0, 78.1, 78.2, 78.3, 78.4, 78.5, 78.6, 78.7, 78.8, 78.9, 79.0, 79.1, 79.2, 79.3, 79.4, 79.5, 79.6, 79.7, 79.8, 79.9, 80.0, 80.1, 80.2, 80.3, 80.4, 80.5, 80.6, 80.7, 80.8, 80.9, 81.0, 81.1, 81.2, 81.3, 81.4, 81.5, 81.6, 81.7, 81.8, 81.9, 82.0, 82.1, 82.2, 82.3, 82.4, 82.5, 82.6, 82.7, 82.8, 82.9, 83.0, 83.1, 83.2, 83.3, 83.4, 83.5, 83.6, 83.7, 83.8, 83.9, 84.0, 84.1, 84.2, 84.3, 84.4, 84.5, 84.6, 84.7, 84.8, 84.9, or 85.0 C.) for approximately 0.5 to 24 hours (e.g., 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10.0, 10.5, 11.0, 11.5, 12.0, 12.5, 13.0, 13.5, 14.0, 14.5, 15.0, 15.5, 16.0, 16.5, 17.0, 17.5, 18.0, 18.5, 19.0, 19.5, 20.0, 20.5, 21.0, 21.5, 22.0, 22.5, 23.0, 23.5, or 24.0 hours)) to provide partially de-crosslinked SAP, e.g., comprising at least 60% (e.g., at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, or 85%) soluble fragments (e.g., as confirmed by mass recovery). In some embodiments, the technology provides a method comprising adding aqueous base (e.g., NaOH (e.g., approximately 0.1 to 5.0 M NaOH (e.g., approximately 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, or 5.0 M NaOH))) to SAP (e.g., approximately 2-10% w/v (e.g., 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, or 10.0% w/v)) and stirring (e.g., at approximately 70-95 C. (e.g., 70.0, 70.5, 71.0, 71.5, 72.0, 72.5, 73.0, 73.5, 74.0, 74.5, 75.0, 75.5, 76.0, 76.5, 77.0, 77.5, 78.0, 78.5, 79.0, 79.5, 80.0, 80.5, 81.0, 81.5, 82.0, 82.5, 83.0, 83.5, 84.0, 84.5, 85.0, 85.5, 86.0, 86.5, 87.0, 87.5, 88.0, 88.5, 89.0, 89.5, 90.0, 90.5, 91.0, 91.5, 92.0, 92.5, 93.0, 93.5, 94.0, 94.5, or 95.0 C.)) for at least 5 minutes (e.g., 5 to 7000 minutes)) to provide partially de-crosslinked SAP, e.g., comprising at least 60% (e.g., at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, or 85%) soluble fragments (e.g., as confirmed by mass recovery).

[0032] Next, in some embodiments, methods comprise sonicating the partially de-crosslinked SAP hydrogel. In some embodiments, 50 mL of 5% w/v partially de-crosslinked SAP (e.g., produced by treating SAP with aqueous base) is sonicated in a 50-mL jacketed beaker at 100% amp, 220 W for 1-2 minutes using a Sonics & Materials, Inc. ultrasound unit equipped with a 13-mm replaceable tip probe. In some embodiments, the methods produce a degraded polymer with at least 80% to 90% recovery.

[0033] In this detailed description of the various embodiments, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments disclosed. One skilled in the art will appreciate, however, that these various embodiments may be practiced with or without these specific details. In other instances, structures and devices are shown in block diagram form. Furthermore, one skilled in the art can readily appreciate that the specific sequences in which methods are presented and performed are illustrative and it is contemplated that the sequences can be varied and still remain within the spirit and scope of the various embodiments disclosed herein.

[0034] All literature and similar materials cited in this application, including but not limited to, patents, patent applications, articles, books, treatises, and internet web pages are expressly incorporated by reference in their entirety for any purpose. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as is commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the various embodiments described herein belongs. When definitions of terms in incorporated references appear to differ from the definitions provided in the present teachings, the definition provided in the present teachings shall control. The section headings used herein are for organizational purposes only and are not to be construed as limiting the described subject matter in any way.

Definitions

[0035] To facilitate an understanding of the present technology, a number of terms and phrases are defined below. Additional definitions are set forth throughout the detailed description.

[0036] Throughout the specification and claims, the following terms take the meanings explicitly associated herein, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The phrase in one embodiment as used herein does not necessarily refer to the same embodiment, though it may. Furthermore, the phrase in another embodiment as used herein does not necessarily refer to a different embodiment, although it may. Thus, as described below, various embodiments of the invention may be readily combined, without departing from the scope or spirit of the invention.

[0037] In addition, as used herein, the term or is an inclusive or operator and is equivalent to the term and/or unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The term based on is not exclusive and allows for being based on additional factors not described, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. In addition, throughout the specification, the meaning of a, an, and the include plural references. The meaning of in includes in and on.

[0038] As used herein, the terms about, approximately, substantially, and significantly are understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art and will vary to some extent on the context in which they are used. If there are uses of these terms that are not clear to persons of ordinary skill in the art given the context in which they are used, about and approximately mean plus or minus less than or equal to 10% of the particular term and substantially and significantly mean plus or minus greater than 10% of the particular term.

[0039] As used herein, disclosure of ranges includes disclosure of all values and further divided ranges within the entire range, including endpoints and sub-ranges given for the ranges.

[0040] As used herein, the suffix -free refers to an embodiment of the technology that omits the feature of the base root of the word to which -free is appended. That is, the term X-free as used herein means without X, where X is a feature of the technology omitted in the X-free technology. For example, a calcium-free composition does not comprise calcium, a mixing-free method does not comprise a mixing step, etc.

[0041] Although the terms first, second, third, etc. may be used herein to describe various steps, elements, compositions, components, regions, layers, and/or sections, these steps, elements, compositions, components, regions, layers, and/or sections should not be limited by these terms, unless otherwise indicated. These terms are used to distinguish one step, element, composition, component, region, layer, and/or section from another step, element, composition, component, region, layer, and/or section. Terms such as first, second, and other numerical terms when used herein do not imply a sequence or order unless clearly indicated by the context. Thus, a first step, element, composition, component, region, layer, or section discussed herein could be termed a second step, element, composition, component, region, layer, or section without departing from technology.

[0042] As used herein, a system refers to a plurality of real and/or abstract components operating together for a common purpose. In some embodiments, a system is an integrated assemblage of hardware and/or software components. In some embodiments, each component of the system interacts with one or more other components and/or is related to one or more other components. In some embodiments, a system refers to a combination of components and software for controlling and directing methods.

[0043] As used herein, the term ultrasonic refers to sound having a frequency above the limit of human hearing (approximately 18,000 Hertz).

[0044] As used herein, the term shear refers to a strain produced by pressure in the structure of a substance when its layers are laterally shifted in relation to each other.

[0045] As used herein, the term turbulence refers to the irregular and disordered flow of fluids.

[0046] As used herein, the term cavitation refers to the formation of bubbles in a liquid due to the hydrodynamics of the liquid and the subsequent collapsing of those bubbles.

[0047] As used herein, the term SAP refers to crosslinked poly(acrylic acid)-based superabsorbent polymer. Exemplary SAPs are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,383,746 and 9,822,203, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. SAPs absorb aqueous solutions to form a gel. Absorption is generally driven by osmotic pressure.

[0048] As used herein, the term poly(acrylic acid) or PAA or polymer of acrylic acid refers to water soluble poly(acrylic acid) molecules with acrylic acid as the monomeric unit. The PAA molecules may be crosslinked, branched, and/or linear. In some embodiments, the degree of polymerization is 2 or higher. As used herein, the terms poly(acrylic acid) or PAA or polymer of acrylic acid refer both to a polymer of acrylic acid and an oligomer of acrylic acid.

[0049] As used herein, the term solution refers to a homogeneous mixture comprising two or more substances, e.g., a solute dissolved in a solvent. The term solution is also used to refer to colloids, gels, and suspensions, e.g., colloidal gels comprising hydrophilic polymers in a dispersion medium (e.g., water). In some embodiments, aqueous SAP hydrogels are treated (e.g., with base and/or sonication) to produce aqueous solutions of PAA. Accordingly, in some embodiments the technology relates to compositions that are intermediate compositions formed from the degradation of hydrogels (e.g., SAP hydrogels) to form solutions (e.g., PAA solutions) and that have some characteristics of solutions and some characteristics of hydrogels. Accordingly, the term solution is used to refer to the hydrogels, the solutions, and the intermediate compositions having some characteristics of both hydrogels and solutions.

[0050] As used herein, the term degradation refers to the conversion of SAP into PAA via the actions of depolymerization, de-crosslinking, molecular backbone breaking, or any combination thereof. As used herein, the terms degradation, recycling, and conversion are used interchangeably to refer to the transformation of SAP to PAA. Further, in some embodiments degradation essentially preserves the carboxylic groups of the SAP and thus the product PAA comprises those carboxylic groups.

[0051] As used herein, the terms viscosity ratio or viscosity reduction ratio refer to a ratio of viscosities, e.g., the viscosity of a product relative to the viscosity of an input material used to produce said product. In some embodiments, the negative of the logarithm of the viscosity ratio indicates the extent of the SAP degradation to PAA in orders of magnitude. Typically, viscosity and molecular weight are correlated, e.g., such that a lower viscosity PAA solution comprises a lower molecular weight PAA.

[0052] As used herein, the term degree of neutralization or DN refers to the molar percentage of the acid groups in SAP or PAA that are neutralized by the reaction with a base (typically, sodium hydroxide). A typical method to measure the DN of an SAP is to measure the Na content using the Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) analytical technique, as it is well known to those skilled in the art.

[0053] As used herein, M.sub.n is the number average molecular weight (e.g., in g/mol (or Da) or kg/mol), M.sub.w is the weight average molecular weight (e.g., in g/mol (or Da) or kg/mol), and M.sub.z is the z-average molecular weight (e.g., in g/mol (or Da) or kg/mol). The terms dispersity () and polydispersity index (PDI) are used interchangeably and are defined as M.sub.w/M.sub.n.

DESCRIPTION

[0054] Although the disclosure herein refers to certain illustrated embodiments, it is to be understood that these embodiments are presented by way of example and not by way of limitation.

SAP

[0055] The technology provided herein relates to degradation (e.g., decrosslinking and/or depolymerization) of polymers. In some embodiments, the technology provided herein relates to degradation (e.g., decrosslinking and/or depolymerization) of SAP (e.g., a SAP comprising poly-acrylic acid sodium salt (sodium polyacrylate)). In some embodiments, the technology provided herein relates to degradation (e.g., decrosslinking and/or depolymerization) of SAP (e.g., an SAP comprising poly-acrylic acid sodium salt (sodium polyacrylate)) to produce PAA. Exemplary types and/or sources of SAP include, e.g., virgin SAP, post-consumer recycled SAP (PCR SAP), post-industrial recycled SAP (PIR SAP), or a combination of those materials. In some embodiments, the SAP is obtained from one or more personal disposable hygiene products, (e.g., baby diapers, adult diapers, sanitary napkins, etc.) The typical properties used to characterize SAP are mechanical properties, swelling capacity, saline flow conductivity (SFC), absorption against pressure (AAP), residual monomer, extractables, and cylinder retention capacity (CRC). SAP may also include other co-monomers, e.g., itaconic acid, acrylamide, etc., or other materials e.g., starch, cellulosic fibers, clays, etc.

[0056] SAP is typically prepared using a homogeneous solution polymerization process or by multiphase polymerization techniques, such as inverse emulsion or suspension polymerization. SAP is generally polymerized in the presence of a relatively small amount of di-functional and/or poly-functional monomers, such as N,N-methylene bisacrylamide, trimethylolpropane triacrylate, ethylene glycol di(meth)acrylate, triallylamine, etc. The di-functional or poly-functional monomer compounds crosslink the acrylate polymer chains, thereby rendering the SAP water-insoluble, yet water-swellable. Furthermore, SAP can be surface-crosslinked after polymerization by reaction with a suitable crosslinking agent, such as di/poly-epoxides, di/poly-alcohols, di/poly-haloalkanes, etc. SAP is typically provided in particulate form, which is produced from a slab of material with any typical size reduction techniques, such as milling.

[0057] In some embodiments, SAP is provided in a composition comprising SAP (e.g., an aqueous SAP hydrogel). In some embodiments, a composition comprises SAP and water. In some embodiments, a composition comprises SAP and ethylene glycol. In some embodiments, a composition comprises SAP, water, and ethylene glycol. The water in the composition can be reverse osmosis water, regular tap water, or water containing dissolved inorganic salts at various salt concentrations (e.g., sodium chloride (e.g., 0.9% (w/v) solution of sodium chloride)). In some embodiments, other salts (e.g., comprising monovalent cations, having higher ionic strength, etc.) are used to reduce the viscosity of a composition comprising SAP or alternatively to provide a higher SAP concentration in the composition. A non-limiting example of a viscosity reducing salt is sodium sulfate.

[0058] In some embodiments, compositions comprising SAP also comprise a free radical producing chemical compound. Nonlimiting examples of such chemical compounds are hydrogen peroxide (H.sub.2O.sub.2), persulfate (e.g., sodium persulfate or potassium persulfate), perborate, perphosphate, percarbonate, diazo compounds, ozone, organic free radical initiators (e.g. di-ter-butyl peroxide (DTBP)), combinations thereof, etc.

[0059] In some embodiments, compositions comprise SAP at a concentration greater than 0.25% (w/v), greater than 0.50% (w/v), greater than 1.0% (w/v), greater than 2.0% (w/v), greater than 5.0% (w/v), or greater than 10.0% (w/v). For example, in some embodiments, compositions comprise SAP at a concentration of at least 0.25 to 10.0% (w/v) (e.g., at least 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75, 2.00, 2.25, 2.50, 2.75, 3.00, 3.25, 3.50, 3.75, 4.00, 4.25, 4.50, 4.75, 5.00, 5.25, 5.50, 5.75, 6.00, 6.25, 6.50, 6.75, 7.00, 7.25, 7.50, 7.75, 8.00, 8.25, 8.50, 8.75, 9.00, 9.25, 9.50, 9.75, or 10.00% (w/v)).

[0060] In some embodiments, the viscosity of compositions comprising SAP is higher than 200 Pa-s (or equivalently, 200,000 cP).

[0061] The non-renewable energy use (NREU) to make acrylic acid (AA) from the fossil-derived propylene is estimated to be approximately 50 MJ/kg SAP (equivalently, 50 MJ/kg AA). Therefore, embodiments of the technology providing an improved degradation of SAP (e.g., relative to extant methods) expend less energy than the NREU to make AA, e.g., a maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) of less than 50 MJ/kg SAP.

Degradation

[0062] The technology relates to degrading (e.g., depolymerizing and/or de-crosslinking) polymers (e.g., SAP) to produce polymer fragments (e.g., PAA). In some embodiments, degrading comprises inputting energy into a polymer (e.g., a composition comprising a polymer). In some embodiments, degrading comprises inputting sound energy (e.g., vibration) into a polymer (e.g., a composition comprising a polymer). In some embodiments, the technology comprises use of an apparatus that produces acoustic cavitation in a liquid (e.g., using ultrasonic vibration). Acoustic cavitation arises from pressure variations in a liquid produced using high frequency sound waves (e.g., frequencies in the range of 16 kHz-5 MHz (e.g., 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 100, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1000, 1050, 1100, 1150, 1200, 1250, 1300, 1350, 1400, 1450, 1500, 1550, 1600, 1650, 1700, 1750, 1800, 1850, 1900, 1950, 2000, 2050, 2100, 2150, 2200, 2250, 2300, 2350, 2400, 2450, 2500, 2550, 2600, 2650, 2700, 2750, 2800, 2850, 2900, 2950, 3000, 3050, 3100, 3150, 3200, 3250, 3300, 3350, 3400, 3450, 3500, 3550, 3600, 3650, 3700, 3750, 3800, 3850, 3900, 3950, 4000, 4050, 4100, 4150, 4200, 4250, 4300, 4350, 4400, 4450, 4500, 4550, 4600, 4650, 4700, 4750, 4800, 4850, 4900, 4950, or 5000 kHz). If a sufficiently large negative pressure is applied to a liquid so that the average distance between the molecules exceeds the critical molecular distance required to hold the liquid intact, cavities or voids are created. Subsequent compression and rarefaction cycles of the sound waves cause the cavity to expand, reach a maximum cavity size (the magnitude of which depends on the operating conditions), and then collapse releasing energy. The magnitude of the pressure pulse or the temperature generated depends on the operating conditions, e.g., the intensity of the irradiation, the frequency of irradiation, and the physicochemical properties of the liquid medium (e.g., which decides the initial size of the nuclei generated in the reactor and the ease of generation of cavitation).

[0063] Cavitation of liquids can be produced, e.g., using a swiftly moving solid body (as an impeller), hydrodynamically, or by high-frequency sound waves (e.g., sonication). In some embodiments, a component of an apparatus for producing cavitation in a liquid (e.g., sonicator) is a transducer that converts supplied electrical energy into mechanical energy (e.g., vibrations) that produces sound energy that propagates though the liquid. The dissipation of the sound energy into the medium results in the generation of a cavitation field. In some embodiments, transducers operate at a fixed frequency of irradiation and emit radiations through a fixed area of irradiation. The type of transducer coupled with the total area of irradiation and the operating frequency are some important factors that relate to the efficiency of the transducer. Three types of exemplary transducers are: a) gas driven; b) liquid driven; and c) electromechanical transducers. Gas-driven transducers are whistles that produce high frequencies in gases such as, e.g., dog whistles and sirens. Similarly, liquid-driven transducers (liquid whistles) produce high frequency sound energy and cavitation in liquids. Electromechanical transducers (sonicators) include, e.g., piezoelectric, magnetostrictive, and capacitive transducers. Piezoelectric transducers are constructed using a piezoelectric material, such as quartz, which expands and contracts in an oscillating electric field producing sound waves (pressure waves) from the electric signal. Magnetostrictive transducers are constructed from materials, such as nickel alloys, that expand and contract in an alternating magnetic field. Capacitive transducers use electrostatic fields between a conductive diaphragm and a backing plate. An example of a sonicator is a Sonics and Materials Vibra-cell VCX 600 Ultrasonic Liquid Processor.

[0064] In some embodiments, the technology comprises use of a sonicator that provides high-frequency sound waves at ultrasonic frequencies (e.g., greater than 18 kHz (e.g., 18.0, 18.1, 18.2, 18.3, 18.4, 18.5, 18.6, 18.7, 18.8, 18.9, 19.0, 19.1, 19.2, 19.3, 19.4, 19.5, 19.6, 19.7, 19.8, 19.9, 20.0, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3, 20.4, 20.5, 20.6, 20.7, 20.8, 20.9, 21.0, 21.1, 21.2, 21.3, 21.4, 21.5, 21.6, 21.7, 21.8, 21.9, 22.0, 22.1, 22.2, 22.3, 22.4, 22.5, 22.6, 22.7, 22.8, 22.9, 23.0, 23.1, 23.2, 23.3, 23.4, 23.5, 23.6, 23.7, 23.8, 23.9, 24.0, 24.1, 24.2, 24.3, 24.4, 24.5, 24.6, 24.7, 24.8, 24.9, 25.0, 25.1, 25.2, 25.3, 25.4, 25.5, 25.6, 25.7, 25.8, 25.9, 26.0, 26.1, 26.2, 26.3, 26.4, 26.5, 26.6, 26.7, 26.8, 26.9, 27.0, 27.1, 27.2, 27.3, 27.4, 27.5, 27.6, 27.7, 27.8, 27.9, 28.0, 28.1, 28.2, 28.3, 28.4, 28.5, 28.6, 28.7, 28.8, 28.9, 29.0, 29.1, 29.2, 29.3, 29.4, 29.5, 29.6, 29.7, 29.8, 29.9, 30.0, 30.1, 30.2, 30.3, 30.4, 30.5, 30.6, 30.7, 30.8, 30.9, 31.0, 31.1, 31.2, 31.3, 31.4, 31.5, 31.6, 31.7, 31.8, 31.9, 32.0, 32.1, 32.2, 32.3, 32.4, 32.5, 32.6, 32.7, 32.8, 32.9, 33.0, 33.1, 33.2, 33.3, 33.4, 33.5, 33.6, 33.7, 33.8, 33.9, 34.0, 34.1, 34.2, 34.3, 34.4, 34.5, 34.6, 34.7, 34.8, 34.9, 35.0, 35.1, 35.2, 35.3, 35.4, 35.5, 35.6, 35.7, 35.8, 35.9, 36.0, 36.1, 36.2, 36.3, 36.4, 36.5, 36.6, 36.7, 36.8, 36.9, 37.0, 37.1, 37.2, 37.3, 37.4, 37.5, 37.6, 37.7, 37.8, 37.9, 38.0, 38.1, 38.2, 38.3, 38.4, 38.5, 38.6, 38.7, 38.8, 38.9, 39.0, 39.1, 39.2, 39.3, 39.4, 39.5, 39.6, 39.7, 39.8, 39.9, or 40.0 kHz). In some embodiments, the technology comprises use of a sonicator that provides high-frequency sound waves at approximately 20 kHz.

[0065] In some embodiments, the technology comprises adding aqueous base to SAP and sonicating the base-treated (e.g., partially de-crosslinked) SAP. In some embodiments, the technology comprises adding aqueous base (e.g., NaOH (e.g., approximately 0.3 to 3 M NaOH (e.g., approximately 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, or 3.5 M NaOH))) to SAP (e.g., approximately 0.5 to 10.0% w/v SAP (e.g., 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, or 10.0% w/v SAP) and stirring (e.g., at approximately 80 C. (e.g., 75.0, 75.1, 75.2, 75.3, 75.4, 75.5, 75.6, 75.7, 75.8, 75.9, 76.0, 76.1, 76.2, 76.3, 76.4, 76.5, 76.6, 76.7, 76.8, 76.9, 77.0, 77.1, 77.2, 77.3, 77.4, 77.5, 77.6, 77.7, 77.8, 77.9, 78.0, 78.1, 78.2, 78.3, 78.4, 78.5, 78.6, 78.7, 78.8, 78.9, 79.0, 79.1, 79.2, 79.3, 79.4, 79.5, 79.6, 79.7, 79.8, 79.9, 80.0, 80.1, 80.2, 80.3, 80.4, 80.5, 80.6, 80.7, 80.8, 80.9, 81.0, 81.1, 81.2, 81.3, 81.4, 81.5, 81.6, 81.7, 81.8, 81.9, 82.0, 82.1, 82.2, 82.3, 82.4, 82.5, 82.6, 82.7, 82.8, 82.9, 83.0, 83.1, 83.2, 83.3, 83.4, 83.5, 83.6, 83.7, 83.8, 83.9, 84.0, 84.1, 84.2, 84.3, 84.4, 84.5, 84.6, 84.7, 84.8, 84.9, or 85.0 C.) for approximately 5 to 24 hours (e.g., 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10.0, 10.5, 11.0, 11.5, 12.0, 12.5, 13.0, 13.5, 14.0, 14.5, 15.0, 15.5, 16.0, 16.5, 17.0, 17.5, 18.0, 18.5, 19.0, 19.5, 20.0, 20.5, 21.0, 21.5, 22.0, 22.5, 23.0, 23.5, or 24.0 hours)) to provide partially de-crosslinked SAP, e.g., comprising at least 60% (e.g., at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, or 85%) soluble fragments (e.g., as confirmed by mass recovery). Next, in some embodiments, methods comprise sonicating the partially de-crosslinked SAP hydrogel. In some embodiments, the SAP is sonicated (e.g., at approximately 20 kHz) for approximately 20 minutes (e.g., 15.0, 15.5, 16.0, 16.5, 17.0, 17.5, 18.0, 18.5, 19.0, 19.5, 20.0, 20.5, 21.0, 21.5, 22.0, 22.5, 23.0, 23.5, 24.0, 24.5, or 25.0 minutes). In some embodiments, the SAP is sonicated (e.g., at approximately 20 kHz) for approximately 1 to 20 minutes (e.g., approximately 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10.0, 10.5, 11.0, 11.5, 12.0, 12.5, 13.0, 13.5, 14.0, 14.5, 15.0, 15.5, 16.0, 16.5, 17.0, 17.5, 18.0, 18.5, 19.0, 19.5, 20.0, 20.5, 21.0, 21.5, 22.0, 22.5, 23.0, 23.5, 24.0, 24.5, or 25.0 minutes). In some embodiments, the SAP is sonicated using high-frequency sound waves at ultrasonic frequencies (e.g., greater than 18 kHz (e.g., 18.0, 18.1, 18.2, 18.3, 18.4, 18.5, 18.6, 18.7, 18.8, 18.9, 19.0, 19.1, 19.2, 19.3, 19.4, 19.5, 19.6, 19.7, 19.8, 19.9, 20.0, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3, 20.4, 20.5, 20.6, 20.7, 20.8, 20.9, 21.0, 21.1, 21.2, 21.3, 21.4, 21.5, 21.6, 21.7, 21.8, 21.9, 22.0, 22.1, 22.2, 22.3, 22.4, 22.5, 22.6, 22.7, 22.8, 22.9, 23.0, 23.1, 23.2, 23.3, 23.4, 23.5, 23.6, 23.7, 23.8, 23.9, 24.0, 24.1, 24.2, 24.3, 24.4, 24.5, 24.6, 24.7, 24.8, 24.9, 25.0, 25.1, 25.2, 25.3, 25.4, 25.5, 25.6, 25.7, 25.8, 25.9, 26.0, 26.1, 26.2, 26.3, 26.4, 26.5, 26.6, 26.7, 26.8, 26.9, 27.0, 27.1, 27.2, 27.3, 27.4, 27.5, 27.6, 27.7, 27.8, 27.9, 28.0, 28.1, 28.2, 28.3, 28.4, 28.5, 28.6, 28.7, 28.8, 28.9, 29.0, 29.1, 29.2, 29.3, 29.4, 29.5, 29.6, 29.7, 29.8, 29.9, 30.0, 30.1, 30.2, 30.3, 30.4, 30.5, 30.6, 30.7, 30.8, 30.9, 31.0, 31.1, 31.2, 31.3, 31.4, 31.5, 31.6, 31.7, 31.8, 31.9, 32.0, 32.1, 32.2, 32.3, 32.4, 32.5, 32.6, 32.7, 32.8, 32.9, 33.0, 33.1, 33.2, 33.3, 33.4, 33.5, 33.6, 33.7, 33.8, 33.9, 34.0, 34.1, 34.2, 34.3, 34.4, 34.5, 34.6, 34.7, 34.8, 34.9, 35.0, 35.1, 35.2, 35.3, 35.4, 35.5, 35.6, 35.7, 35.8, 35.9, 36.0, 36.1, 36.2, 36.3, 36.4, 36.5, 36.6, 36.7, 36.8, 36.9, 37.0, 37.1, 37.2, 37.3, 37.4, 37.5, 37.6, 37.7, 37.8, 37.9, 38.0, 38.1, 38.2, 38.3, 38.4, 38.5, 38.6, 38.7, 38.8, 38.9, 39.0, 39.1, 39.2, 39.3, 39.4, 39.5, 39.6, 39.7, 39.8, 39.9, or 40.0 kHz) for approximately 1 to 20 minutes (e.g., approximately 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10.0, 10.5, 11.0, 11.5, 12.0, 12.5, 13.0, 13.5, 14.0, 14.5, 15.0, 15.5, 16.0, 16.5, 17.0, 17.5, 18.0, 18.5, 19.0, 19.5, 20.0, 20.5, 21.0, 21.5, 22.0, 22.5, 23.0, 23.5, 24.0, 24.5, or 25.0 minutes).

[0066] In some embodiments, the maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) provided to degrade SAP to PAA is less than 50 MJ/kg SAP (e.g., less than 50, 49, 48, 47, 46, 45, 44, 43, 42, 41, 40, 39, 38, 37, 36, 35, 34, 33, 32, 31, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, or 3 MJ/kg SAP). In some embodiments, the maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) provided to degrade SAP to PAA is less than 50 MJ/kg SAP (e.g., less than 50, 49, 48, 47, 46, 45, 44, 43, 42, 41, 40, 39, 38, 37, 36, 35, 34, 33, 32, 31, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, or 3 MJ/kg SAP) and the PAA has a M.sub.w of approximately 1200 kg/mol or less (e.g., 1200, 1150, 1100, 1050, 1000, 950, 900, 850, 800, 750, 700, 650, 600, 550, 500, 450, 400, 350, 300, 250, 200, 150, or 100 kg/mol), a M.sub.w of approximately 500 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 500, 475, 450, 425, 400, 375, 350, 325, 300, 275, 250, 225, 200, 175, 150, 125, 100, 75, or 50 kg/mol), a M.sub.w of approximately 400 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 400, 375, 350, 325, 300, 275, 250, 225, 200, 175, 150, 125, 100, 75, or 50 kg/mol), a M.sub.w of approximately 300 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 300, 275, 250, 225, 200, 175, 150, 125, 100, 75, or 50 kg/mol), a M.sub.w of approximately 250 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 250, 240, 230, 220, 210, 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 140, 130, 120, 110, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, or 50 kg/mol), or a M.sub.w of approximately 200 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 250, 245, 240, 235, 230, 225, 220, 215, 210, 205, 200, 195, 190, 185, 180, 175, 170, 165, 160, 155, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, or 50 kg/mol).

[0067] In some embodiments, the technology recovers PAA from SAP at a rate of at least 80% (e.g., at least 80.0, 80.5, 81.0, 81.5, 82.0, 82.5, 83.0, 83.5, 84.0, 84.5, 85.0, 85.5, 86.0, 86.5, 87.0, 87.5, 88.0, 88.5, 89.0, 89.5, 90.0, 90.5, 91.0, 91.5, 92.0, 92.5, 93.0, 93.5, 94.0, 94.5, or 95.0%).

PAA

[0068] In some embodiments, the degradation technology provided herein produces PAA (e.g., a composition comprising PAA). In some embodiments, the degradation technology provided herein produces a composition comprising PAA and SAP. In some embodiments, the PAA has a M.sub.w of approximately 1200 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 1200, 1150, 1100, 1050, 1000, 950, 900, 850, 800, 750, 700, 650, 600, 550, 500, 450, 400, 350, 300, 250, 200, 150, or 100 kg/mol). In some embodiments, the PAA has a M.sub.w of approximately 500 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 500, 475, 450, 425, 400, 375, 350, 325, 300, 275, 250, 225, 200, 175, 150, 125, 100, 75, or 50 kg/mol), a M.sub.w of approximately 400 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 400, 375, 350, 325, 300, 275, 250, 225, 200, 175, 150, 125, 100, 75, or 50 kg/mol), a M.sub.w of approximately 300 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 300, 275, 250, 225, 200, 175, 150, 125, 100, 75, or 50 kg/mol), a M.sub.w of approximately 250 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 250, 240, 230, 220, 210, 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 140, 130, 120, 110, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, or 50 kg/mol), or a M.sub.w of approximately 200 kg/mol or less (e.g., less than 250, 245, 240, 235, 230, 225, 220, 215, 210, 205, 200, 195, 190, 185, 180, 175, 170, 165, 160, 155, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, or 50 kg/mol).

[0069] In some embodiments, the PAA has a dispersity () less than 10. In some embodiments, the PAA has a dispersity () less than 6. In some embodiments, the PAA has a dispersity () less than 4. In some embodiments, the PAA has a dispersity () less than 2. In some embodiments, the PAA has a dispersity of approximately 1.0 to 3.0 (e.g., 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, or 3.0). In some embodiments, the PAA has a dispersity of approximately 1.0 to 10.0 (e.g., 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 6.0, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 7.0, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, or 10.0). In some embodiments, dispersity is the ratio of the weight-average molecular weight to the number-average molecular weight. In some embodiments, these molecular weights are measured by SEC as it is known to those skilled in the art.

[0070] The steady viscosity of the PAA product typically corresponds to a shear rate of 4 s.sup.1. Depending on the PAA concentration and molecular weight, the viscosity of the PAA product, in some embodiments, is as low as 1 mPa-s (or equivalently, 1 cP), which is nearly the viscosity of water.

[0071] The ratio of the viscosity of the SAP to that of the PAA product is the viscosity reduction ratio (or simply, viscosity ratio), and it indicates the extent of the SAP degradation to PAA. The negative logarithm of the viscosity ratio measures the change in orders of magnitude between the viscosity of the SAP and the PAA product. In some embodiments, the negative logarithm of the viscosity ratio is less than approximately 6. In some embodiments, the negative logarithm of the viscosity ratio is less than approximately 4. In some embodiments, the negative logarithm of the viscosity ratio is less than approximately 2.

Uses

[0072] In some embodiments, the PAA product is incorporated into virgin SAP (thus increasing its recycled content and supporting the circular economy of SAP) and/or derivatized into materials for other applications such as adhesives, coatings, water treatment, etc. In some embodiments, PAA is fed into a process to make SAP from acrylic acid. In some embodiments, PAA is used to make an adhesive. In some embodiments, PAA is used to make paint, a coating, or a binder. In some embodiments, PAA is derivatized for use as an adhesive. In some embodiments, PAA and/or derivatized PAA is used in fabric care applications. In some embodiments, PAA and/or derivatized PAA is used in water treatment applications.

[0073] In some embodiments, PAA is extracted from SAP degradation products (e.g., produced according to embodiments of the degradation technology described herein) using a number of processes, e.g., water evaporation, PAA filtration, water extraction, etc. In some embodiments, salts present in the PAA product from the use of SAP in AHPs are removed via any desalination technique known to those skilled in the art, e.g., membrane processes (e.g. reverse osmosis, forward osmosis, electrodialysis reversal (EDR), nanofiltration, etc.), freezing desalination, solar desalination, geothermal desalination, ion exchange, wave powered desalination, etc.

EXAMPLES

[0074] During the development of embodiments of the technology provided herein, experiments were conducted to produce degraded fragments from polyacrylate salt-based superabsorbent polymers by treatment with basic solution and sonication.

Materials and Methods

[0075] ChemicalsAll chemicals were used as received unless otherwise mentioned. Poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) with molecular weight listed as 750 kg/mol (PAA.sub.SPP) was purchased from Scientific Polymer Products. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and sodium nitrate (NaNO.sub.3) were purchased from Millipore Sigma. Methanol (MeOH) and sodium chloride (NaCl) were purchased from Fisher Scientific. Sodium polyacrylate (PAA.sub.P&G) was provided by Procter & Gamble Co. Sonicated polymer fragments were dialyzed in deionized (DI) water using Spectra/Por molecular porous membrane tubing (molecular weight cut-off: 3.5 kg/mol). Pressure tube vessels were purchased from Thomas Scientific. Jacketed beakers were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (catalog number Z202738-1EA).

[0076] SonicationSonication was performed at 100% amplitude (amp) using a Sonics and Materials Vibra-cell VCX 600 Ultrasonic Liquid Processor equipped with a 13-mm replaceable tip probe. A 3.5-cm inner diameter, 9-cm height jacketed beaker was used for all sonication procedures. Cold water (10-15 C.) was flowed through the jacket while stirring the polymer solution at 500 rpm. A thermocouple was immersed into the polymer solution to monitor temperature. The temperature was generally observed to increase to 45-50 C. from 10-15 C. during sonication. The power from the outlet was monitored using a kill-a-watt meter (#P4400). The maximum power (P.sub.max) reading observed at the beginning of sonication was recorded. The maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) for chain-shortening PAA of mass (m) for time (t) was determined using Equation 1.

[00001]$\begin{array}{cc}{w}_{m.Math..Math.\mathrm{ax}}\left(J/k.Math..Math.g\right)=\frac{P_{m.Math..Math.\mathrm{ax}}\left(W\right)t\left(s\right)}{m\left(\mathrm{kg}\right)}& \left(1\right)\end{array}$

[0077] NMR spectroscopyUnless otherwise noted, .sup.1H and .sup.13C NMR spectra for all compounds were acquired at room temperature. Chemical shift data are reported in units of (ppm) relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS) and referenced with residual solvent. Multiplicities are reported as follows: singlet (s), doublet (d), doublet of doublets (dd), triplet (t), quartet (q), multiplet (m), and broad resonance (br). Residual water is denoted by an asterisk (*). For all .sup.1H NMR spectra recorded for polymers, a 5-s acquisition time was used with a 25-s relaxation delay in between each pulse.

[0078] Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC) for PAA.sub.SPP and PAA.sub.P&G fragmentsSonicated PAA.sub.SPP and PAA.sub.P&G fragments were diluted (to 1-1.5 mg/mL) with 0.1 M NaNO.sub.3 (aq)/ethylene glycol (99:1 v/v) and filtered through a TITAN3 Nylon syringe filter (0.45 m) into a SEC vial. Polymer molecular weight (M) and dispersity () were determined by comparison with PEG/PEO EasiVial standards from Agilent at 40 C. in 0.1 M NaNO.sub.3 (aq) on a Waters SEC (Waters 1515 Isocratic HPLC pump, 717 plus autosampler, RI detector Model 214 and UV-PDA detector Model 487) equipped with four Ultrahydrogel columns: 120 (WAT011565), 250 (WAT011525), 500 (WAT011530), and 1000 (WAT011535).

Example 1Recovery of Sonicated Fragments

[0079] During the development of embodiments of the technology provided herein, experiments were conducted to evaluate the recovery and chemical structure of sonicated polymer fragments after sonication of polyacrylic acid. Three batches of 0.50% w/v PAA solution were prepared by dissolving PAA.sub.SPP (750 kg/mol, 250 mg, 3.47 mmol) with DI H.sub.2O (50.0 mL each) in jacketed beakers equipped with stir bars. The PAA solutions were stirred at 300 rpm for 15 hours at room temperature. Then, the PAA solutions were sonicated for 20 minutes. Next, the polymer solutions were concentrated under reduced pressure to dryness, spiked with a known amount of DMSO (1.14, 1.16, and 1.09 mmol, respectively) and redissolved with D.sub.2O for quantitative .sup.1H-NMR spectroscopic analysis (FIG. 1). Features of the NMR spectra were evaluated to confirm maintenance of the PAA chemical structure in the sonicated compositions (FIG. 1). In particular, a 1:2 ratio of peaks b and c was used to confirm the presence of carboxyl groups in the sonicated preparations. An average recovery of 87% was determined based on relative integrations (Table 1). In particular, the average recovery of sonicated fragments after sonication was determined using Equation 2 and the amount of DMSO (mmol), the mass of polymer sonicated (250 mg), the molar mass of the PAA repeat unit (72.06 g/mol), and the normalized integration for peak a (L) calculated from three independent trials.

[00002]$\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{recovery}.Math..Math.\left(\%\right)=\frac{D.Math.M.Math.S.Math.O\left(\mathrm{mmol}\right)I_{a}7.Math.2.0.Math.6.Math.\frac{g}{\mathrm{mol}}}{250.Math..Math.\mathrm{mg}}1.Math.0.Math.0& \left(2\right)\end{array}$

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Recovery of sonicated fragments DMSO recovery trial (mmol) I.sub.a (%) 1 1.14 2.6 85 2 1.16 2.6 87 3 1.09 2.8 88 avg 87

Example 2Effect of Time on Sonication of PAA.SUB.SPP

[0080] During the development of embodiments of the technology provided herein, experiments were conducted to evaluate the polymer fragments produced by sonication of PAA as a function of the length of the sonication time. Triplicate batches of PAA.sub.SPP solution (0.50%, 1.0%, and 2.5% w/v) were prepared by dissolving PAA with deionized H.sub.2O (50 mL each) in jacketed beakers equipped with stir bars. NaCl (100 mg, 1.71 mmol) was added to the 1.0% and 2.5% batches to lower the solution viscosity. The 0.50%, 1.0%, and 2.5% w/v PAA solutions were stirred at 300 rpm for 15 hours at room temperature. Triplicate batches of PAA.sub.SPP at 5.0% w/v were produced by slowly adding PAA.sub.SPP (7500 mg) to a 500-mL glass bottle containing DI H.sub.2O (150 mL) while vigorously stirring with a large stir bar. NaCl (300 mg, 5.13 mmol) was added to lower the solution viscosity. The 5.0% w/v PAA solutions were stirred at 300 rpm for 24 hours at room temperature. Thereafter, portions of this 5.0% w/v PAA solution (50 mL) were transferred to jacketed beakers. The PAA solutions were sonicated for 20 minutes while collecting 0.50-1.0 mL aliquots at 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes. The temperature was observed to increase to approximately 45-50 C. during irradiation. The aliquots were diluted to 1-1.5 mg/mL with 0.1 M NaNO.sub.3 (aq)/ethylene glycol (99:1 v/v) and analyzed via SEC.

[0081] SEC retention time measurements for 0.50%, 1.0%, 2.5%, and 5.0% w/v PAA.sub.SPP are provided in FIGS. 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. Weight average molecular weight (M.sub.w), dispersity (), and maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) data collected for 0.50%, 1.0%, 2.5%, and 5.0% w/v PAA.sub.SPP are provided in Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. M.sub.w and values in Table 5 marked with an asterisk (*) lie beyond the calibration upper limit (1100 kg/mol). Maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) values were determined using Equation 1. Measurements of the maximum power (P.sub.max) consumed from the power outlet during sonication of 0.50%, 1.0%, 2.5%, and 5.0% w/v PAA.sub.SPP are provided in Table 6. Plots of M.sub.w and maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) versus time for 0.50%, 1.0%, 2.5%, and 5.0% PAA.sub.SPP w/v are provided in FIGS. 6, 7, 8, and 9, respectively.

TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 M.sub.w, , and w.sub.max for sonications of 0.50% w/v PAA.sub.SPP time run 1 run 2 (min) M.sub.w(kg/mol) w.sub.max M.sub.w (kg/mol) w.sub.max 1 440 2.4 53 480 3.0 55 2 270 1.8 110 300 2.4 110 5 130 1.4 260 140 1.7 280 10 88 1.3 530 93 1.4 550 15 78 1.4 790 73 1.3 830 20 65 1.3 1100 64 1.3 1100

TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 M.sub.w, , and w.sub.max for sonications of 1.0% w/v PAA.sub.SPP time run 1 run 2 (min) M.sub.w (kg/mol) w.sub.max M.sub.w (kg/mol) w.sub.max 1 600 2.9 29 540 2.8 29 2 340 2.3 58 420 2.6 58 5 190 1.8 140 190 1.8 140 10 120 1.5 290 120 1.6 290 15 93 1.5 430 90 1.4 430 20 76 1.3 580 79 1.4 580

TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 M.sub.w, , and w.sub.max for sonications of 2.5% w/v PAA.sub.SPP time run 1 run 2 (min) M.sub.w (kg/mol) w.sub.max M.sub.w (kg/mol) w.sub.max 1 880 5.3 12 1200 6.1 12 2 530 3.7 25 550 3.7 25 5 250 2.6 62 320 2.5 62 10 190 2.2 125 210 2.0 125 15 150 1.9 187 150 2.1 187 20 120 1.7 250 120 1.9 250

TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5 M.sub.w, , and w.sub.max for sonications of 5.0% w/v PAA.sub.SPP time run 1 run 2 (min) M.sub.w (kg/mol) w.sub.max M.sub.w (kg/mol) w.sub.max 1 2200* 9.9* 7.0 2600* 8.9* 7.0 2 1900* 5.4* 14 1900* 6.7* 14 5 1200 4.5 35 1200 4.7 35 10 730 2.6 70 770 3.0 70 15 470 2.1 105 460 2.2 105 20 350 2.0 140 350 2.2 140

TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 6 P.sub.max consumed during sonication of PAA.sub.SPP PAA mass amount run 1 P.sub.max run 2 P.sub.max (w/v %) (mg) (mmol) (W) (W) 0.50 250 3.47 220 230 1.0 500 6.94 240 240 2.50 1250 17.3 260 260 5.0 2500 34.6 290 290

[0082] The data collected indicated that longer sonication produced smaller degraded fragments (see, e.g., FIGS. 2, 3, 4, and 5 and Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5). The data indicated that the sonication produced degraded fragments having a weight average molecular weight (M.sub.w) of approximately 50 to 3000 kg/mol (e.g., approximately 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1000, 1050, 1100, 1150, 1200, 1250, 1300, 1350, 1400, 1450, 1500, 1550, 1600, 1650, 1700, 1750, 1800, 1850, 1900, 1950, 2000, 2050, 2100, 2150, 2200, 2250, 2300, 2350, 2400, 2450, 2500, 2550, 2600, 2650, 2700, 2750, 2800, 2850, 2900, 2950, or 3000 kg/mol). The M.sub.w decreased with increased sonication time and increased with increased PAA.sub.SPP concentration. The data indicated that the degraded fragments had a dispersity () of approximately 1.0 to 10.0 (e.g., approximately 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 6.0, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 7.0, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, or 10.0). Dispersity decreased with increasing sonication time and increased with increasing PAA.sub.SPP concentration. The maximum power (P.sub.max) from the power outlet during sonication increased as a function of increasing PAA.sub.SPP concentration. Plots of M.sub.w versus sonication time indicated that sonication for approximately 20 minutes (e.g., 15.0, 15.5, 16.0, 16.5, 17.0, 17.5, 18.0, 18.5, 19.0, 19.5, 20.0, 20.5, 21.0, 21.5, 22.0, 22.5, 23.0, 23.5, 24.0, 24.5, or 25.0 minutes) resulted in nearly complete degradation into fragments as shown by the plateaus of the curves connecting the data points. Degradation was substantially complete at 5 minutes of sonication with minimal additional degradation observed from 5 to 20 minutes (FIGS. 6, 7, 8, and 9). Plots of maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) versus sonication time were linear.

Example 3Effect of Time on Sonication of PAA.SUB.P&G

[0083] During the development of embodiments of the technology provided herein, experiments were conducted to test the effect of sonication time on degradation of PAA.sub.P&G at 5.0% w/v. A batch of 5.0% w/v de-crosslinked PAA.sub.P&G hydrogel was prepared by stirring PAA.sub.P&G (10 g) in NaOH(aq) (0.3 M, 200 mL) in a 500-mL glass bottle at 80 C. for 24 hours. A portion of the de-crosslinked PAA.sub.P&G hydrogel (50 mL) was poured into a jacketed beaker equipped with a stir bar. The PAA.sub.P&G hydrogels were sonicated and aliquots of 0.50-1.00 mL were collected after 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 minutes of sonication. The temperature was observed to increase to approximately 45-50 C. during irradiation. The aliquots were diluted with deionized water (5 mL) and dialyzed overnight in deionized water to remove NaOH. The aliquots were diluted to 1.0-1.5 mg/mL with 0.1 M NaNO.sub.3 (aq)/ethylene glycol (99:1 v/v) and analyzed via SEC.

[0084] SEC retention time measurements for sonications of de-crosslinked PAA.sub.P&G at 5.0% w/v are provided in FIG. 10. Weight average molecular weight dispersity (), and maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) data for sonications of de-crosslinked PAA.sub.P&G at 5.0% w/v are provided in Table 7. M.sub.w and values marked with an asterisk (*) lie beyond the calibration upper limit (1100 kg/mol). Measurements of the maximum power (P.sub.max) from the power outlet during sonication are provided in Table 8. Plots of M.sub.w and maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) versus time are provided in FIG. 11.

TABLE-US-00007 TABLE 7 M.sub.w, , and w.sub.max for sonications of 5.0% w/v PAA.sub.P&G time run 1 run 2 (min) M.sub.w (kg/mol) w.sub.max M.sub.w (kg/mol) w.sub.max 0 2400* 5.4* 0 2500* 5.4* 0 1 1300 3.2 7.7 1200 3.2 7.7 2 790 2.3 15 660 2.2 15 3 570 2.2 23 560 2.1 23 5 390 1.7 38 340 1.8 38 10 260 1.7 77 270 1.5 77

TABLE-US-00008 TABLE 8 P.sub.max consumed during sonication of PAA.sub.P&G PAA mass run 1 P.sub.max run 2 P.sub.max (w/v %) (mg) mmol (W) (W) 5.0 2500 26.6 320 320

[0085] The data collected indicated that longer sonication produced smaller degraded fragments (see, e.g., FIG. 10 and Table 7). The data indicated that the sonication produced degraded fragments having a weight average molecular weight (M.sub.w) of approximately 250 to 3000 kg/mol (e.g., approximately 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1000, 1050, 1100, 1150, 1200, 1250, 1300, 1350, 1400, 1450, 1500, 1550, 1600, 1650, 1700, 1750, 1800, 1850, 1900, 1950, 2000, 2050, 2100, 2150, 2200, 2250, 2300, 2350, 2400, 2450, 2500, 2550, 2600, 2650, 2700, 2750, 2800, 2850, 2900, 2950, or 3000 kg/mol). The M.sub.w decreased with increased sonication time. The data indicated that the degraded fragments had a dispersity () of approximately 1.5 to 6.0 (e.g., approximately 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 5.0, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, or 6.0). Dispersity decreased with increasing sonication time. A plot of M.sub.w versus sonication time indicated that sonication for approximately 10 minutes (e.g., 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10.0, 10.5, 11.0, 11.5, 12.0, or 12.5 minutes) resulted in nearly complete degradation into fragments as shown by the plateau of the curve connecting the data points. A plot of maximum specific energy (w.sub.max) versus sonication time was linear.

Example 4Sonicating with NaCl and/or NaOH

[0086] During the development of embodiments of the technology provided herein, experiments were conducted to test adjusting the viscosity and absorbent capacity of SAP hydrogels and sonicating SAP hydrogels comprising NaCl and/or NaOH. SAP is highly absorbent; accordingly, data collected during experiments indicated that sonication does not degrade and/or does not sufficiently degrade SAP at concentrations of SAP in aqueous hydrogels greater than approximately 1% w/v. Without being constrained to theory, it is contemplated that the SAP in an SAP hydrogel of 1% or greater w/v absorbs all the water and therefore no water is available for cavitation during sonication. Experiments were conducted in which the viscosity and/or turbidity of SAP hydrogels was evaluated in the presence of NaCl or NaOH (FIG. 12). As shown in FIG. 12, treating 5% w/v SAP with NaCl or NaOH reduced the viscosity (e.g., as indicated by a decrease in observed turbidity or by increased ability to stir with a stir bar) of aqueous SAP compositions. While 5% w/v SAP in deionized water remained a flocculant hydrogel, adding 0.1 M NaCl to 5% w/v SAP provided a more fluid and less flocculant hydrogel (FIG. 12). However, the SAP hydrogel in NaCl remained highly viscous. Adding 0.3 M to 3 M NaOH to 5% w/v SAP and incubating for 5 to 24 hours produced substantially less viscous aqueous SAP compositions (FIG. 12).

[0087] Further, aqueous compositions of SAP were treated with NaCl or NaOH to provide a composition for sonication to produce soluble PAA fragments. During the development of embodiments of the technology provided herein, experiments were conducted and data were collected indicating that adding a salt (e.g., NaCl) to SAP hydrogels and/or decrosslinking the SAP hydrogel (e.g., by adding a base (e.g., NaOH)) decreases the absorbent capacity of SAP, thus also decreasing the viscosity of SAP hydrogels and providing an SAP hydrogel comprising water (e.g., unabsorbed water) available for cavitation by sonication.

[0088] Data collected indicated that sonicating a 5.0% w/v SAP hydrogel comprising 0.1 M NaCl produced less than 50% soluble fragments. In particular, a 5.0% w/v hydrogel was prepared by adding 2.5 g of PAA (e.g., PAA.sub.SPP or PAA.sub.P&G) to 50 mL of 0.1 M aqueous NaCl in a jacketed beaker equipped with a stir bar. The aqueous hydrogel was sonicated for 5 minutes. The temperature was observed to increase to 45-50 C. during irradiation. Aliquots were collected for SEC analysis and recovery was determined by .sup.1H NMR. Data indicated that: 1) sonication of SAP in deionized water (e.g., salt-free water) at SAP concentrations of greater than 1% w/v produced no degraded fragments; 2) sonication of 5% w/v SAP in 0.1 M NaCl produced less than 50% soluble PAA fragments; and 3) sonication of 5% w/v SAP after decrosslinking with NaOH produced nearly quantitative (e.g., nearly 100% recovery) soluble PAA fragments.

[0089] Thus, these data surprisingly indicated that adding a salt (e.g., NaCl) to SAP hydrogels increases the recovery of soluble PAA fragments by sonication. However, the recovery of soluble PAA fragments from aqueous SAP hydrogels comprising NaCl was less than 50%. More surprisingly, the data collected indicated that adding a base (e.g., NaOH) to de-crosslink SAP in aqueous SAP hydrogels increases the recovery of soluble PAA fragments by sonication to nearly 100% (e.g., nearly quantitative recovery of soluble PAA from aqueous SAP hydrogels).

[0090] All publications and patents mentioned in the above specification are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. Various modifications and variations of the described compositions, methods, and uses of the technology will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the technology as described. Although the technology has been described in connection with specific exemplary embodiments, it should be understood that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention that are obvious to those skilled in the art are intended to be within the scope of the following claims.