Exhaust gas treatment system and method

Abstract

A method and apparatus for heating an exhaust gas treatment system comprising a catalytic converter and a heat source, the catalytic converter having a first temperature above which the catalytic reaction is of high efficiency, whereby the heat source is controlled so as to generate a heated sub-volume of the catalyst which is in excess of the first temperature and propagates along the length of the catalytic converter such that at any one time the total conversion efficiency of catalytic converter is sufficient to remove a target amount of pollutants from the exhaust gas stream.

Claims

1. An exhaust gas treatment system for removing pollutants from an exhaust gas stream of a combustion engine to form a converted gas stream, the system comprising: a catalytic converter with a gas inlet for the exhaust gas stream and a gas outlet for the converted gas stream, a catalytic reaction of the catalytic converter having a higher efficiency above a first temperature than below a second temperature which is lower than the first temperature, wherein the second temperature is equal to or less than a light-out temperature of the catalytic converter; a heat source for increasing a temperature of the catalytic converter; a control unit for controlling the heat source such that a sub-volume of the catalytic converter is above the first temperature, thereby creating a hot volume having a higher conversion efficiency than a remaining cooler volume of the catalytic converter; the control unit being configured to: in a first phase of a heating cycle, control the heat source such that the hot volume extends from the gas inlet of the catalytic converter in a direction of the exhaust gas stream; and in a second phase of the heating cycle, control the heat source such that a temperature of the gas inlet of the catalytic converter is reduced below the second temperature, allowing the hot volume to travel towards the gas outlet of the catalytic converter and a cooler volume to extend from the gas inlet of the catalytic converter in the direction of the exhaust gas stream.

2. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 1, wherein the first and second phase are timed such that as the hot volume travels towards the gas outlet of the catalytic converter, a total conversion efficiency of the hot and cold volume of the catalytic converter is such that the exhaust gas stream is converted to a converted gas stream with a required reduction of pollutants.

3. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 1, wherein the hot volume travels substantially a full length of the catalytic converter.

4. The exhaust gas treatment of claim 1, wherein the heating cycle is repeated.

5. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 1, wherein a plurality of hot volumes exists along a length of the catalytic converter at any one time, separated by intervening cooler volumes.

6. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 1, wherein the converted gas stream is 90% free from pollutants.

7. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 1, wherein the first temperature is equal to or greater than the light-off temperature of the catalytic converter.

8. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 1, wherein the controller calculates a timing of the first and second phase taking into account heat generated by the exothermic conversion reaction of the exhaust gas stream into the converted gas stream, thereby enabling heat input to be reduced.

9. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 1, wherein the controller calculates a timing of the first and second phase taking into account hysteresis in a relationship between conversion efficiency and temperature of the catalytic converter, thereby enabling heat input to be reduced.

10. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 1, wherein the controller uses pre-defined values for a duration of the first phase, a temperature level to be achieved in the first phase, a duration of the second phase, and a temperature level to be achieved in the second phase.

11. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 10, wherein the pre-defined values are determined as a function of at least a temperature of the exhaust gas, or an actual power output of the combustion engine.

12. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 10, wherein the predefined values are determined based on an expected change in power output of the combustion engine.

13. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 12, wherein the expected change of the power output of the combustion engine is derived from position data or advanced driver assistance systems.

14. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 10, wherein the predefined values are determined based on one or more of a temperature of the exhaust gas, a temperature of the catalytic converter and a flow rate of the exhaust gas through the catalytic converter.

15. The exhaust gas treatment system of claim 1, wherein the heater is powered by a generator within a hybrid electric vehicle.

16. A vehicle comprising the exhaust gas treatment system of claim 1.

17. A method of heating a catalytic converter having a gas inlet for an exhaust gas stream and a gas outlet for a converted gas stream formed by removing pollutants from the exhaust gas stream, the method comprising: in a first phase, supplying heat at a first level for a first amount of time to a catalytic converter such that a sub-volume of the catalytic converter is heated above a first temperature above which a catalytic reaction is of a higher efficiency than below a second temperature which is lower than the first temperature, wherein the second temperature is equal to or less than a light-out temperature of the catalytic converter, the sub-volume extending from the gas inlet of the catalytic converter in a direction of the exhaust gas stream thereby defining a hot volume having a higher conversion efficiency than a remaining cooler volume of the catalytic converter; and in a second phase, supplying heat at a second level for a second amount of time to the catalytic converter such that a temperature of the gas inlet of the catalytic converter is reduced below the second temperature, so as to allow the hot volume to travel towards the gas outlet of the catalytic converter and a cooler volume to extend from the gas inlet of the catalytic converter in the direction of the exhaust gas stream.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein the first and second phase are timed such that as the hot volume travels towards the gas outlet of the catalytic converter, a total conversion efficiency of the hot and cold volume of the catalytic converter is such that the exhaust gas stream is converted to a converted gas stream with a required reduction of pollutants.

19. A non-transitory computer readable medium having instructions stored thereon that when executed by a controller, causes the controller to perform the method of claim 17.

20. A control unit configured to carry out the steps of method claim 17.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) One or more embodiments of the invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

(2) FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a vehicle having an exhaust system;

(3) FIG. 2 is a schematic representation of an exhaust system;

(4) FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of the cross section of a catalytic converter;

(5) FIG. 4 is a schematic representation of a catalytic converter.

(6) FIG. 5 is a graph showing the general relationship between the conversion efficiency and temperature of the catalytic converter.

(7) FIGS. 6A-I are a group of graphs which depict the temperature, conversion efficiency, and exhaust gas stream pollutant level as a function of distance along the length of the catalytic converter for different heating schemes.

(8) FIG. 7 is schematic representation of the experimental set up used to determine the parameters of the first and second phase in a test engine;

(9) FIG. 8 is a graph showing the effect of the heating cycle on the diesel oxygen catalyst's temperature profiles;

(10) FIG. 9 is a graph showing the effect of the heating cycle on the CO and THC emissions at the diesel oxygen catalyst's outlet;

(11) FIG. 10 is a graph showing the effect of the heating cycle on the NO and NO2 Emissions at the diesel oxygen catalyst's outlet;

(12) FIGS. 11A-C are a set of graphs showing the effect of 885 W heating at various pulse widths on the diesel oxygen catalyst's temperature profiles: A) Pulse Width 10 s, B) Pulse Width 20 s, C) Pulse Width 30 s;

(13) FIG. 12 is a graph showing the effect of different phase (885 W) timings on the CO and THC emissions reduction compared to a control case;

(14) FIG. 13 is a graph depicting the calibration and validation of an Axisuite model based on an experimental heating cycle (885 W Power and a 30 pulse width between the first and second phase);

(15) FIG. 14 is a series of graphs depicting the effect of different first phase timings (at 885 W) on the temperature contours of a diesel oxidation catalyst;

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(16) In an aspect of the invention, a method is carried out in an exhaust gas treatment system, otherwise known as an aftertreatment system installed in a vehicle, such as a motor vehicle. Whilst the following embodiments are described with reference to a motor vehicle, the disclosure and the concepts described herein are applicable to other engines producing an exhaust gas stream, for example those installed on other forms of vehicle or generator systems.

(17) Particularly, but not exclusively, the disclosure relates to an exhaust gas treatment system within a motor vehicle which utilises a catalytic convertor to process exhaust gasses. The examples can be, but are not limited to, cars, buses, lorries, trucks, excavators and construction and farming or other commercial vehicles.

(18) FIG. 1 shows a vehicle 10 having an engine 12, an exhaust manifold 16, a turbocharger 18, exhaust transfer pipe 20, rear end exhaust arrangement 28 having muffler boxes 30 and tail pipes 32, a catalytic converter system 34, the catalytic converter system 34 comprising the catalytic converter 24 of the exhaust system 14, an Engine Control Unit (ECU) 36 having an input 38 and an output 40, a Heat Control Unit (HCU) 42 having an input 44 and an output 46, a plurality of sensors 48, 50, 52 and at least one heat source, provided by suitable heating devices 54.

(19) The exhaust system is shown in more detail in FIG. 2.

(20) As shown in FIG. 3, the catalytic converter 24 includes a sealed outer case 56, or housing, a substrate 58, at least one catalyst 60 and a mounting mat 62. The outer case 56 itself defines an interior volume within which the mounting mat 62 and substrate 58 are provided. The mounting mat 62 is formed from ceramic fibres and is positioned intermediate the outer case 56 and the substrate 58, such that the outer case 56, the mounting mat 62 and the substrate 58 are arranged in concentric relation.

(21) The outer case 56 may be manufactured from steel and is hollow and generally cylindrical in shape, encapsulating the substrate 58, which fills a major portion of the interior space. A central portion of the outer case 56 forms a main body 64, which tapers symmetrically at upstream 241 and downstream 242 ends of the outer case 56 to form substantially identical cylindrical forward and rearward connecting ends 66, 68, each having a smaller diameter than the main body 64.

(22) The substrate 58 may be manufactured from any suitable material, such as a ceramic or steel, and takes the form of a honeycomb structure having a plurality of pores 70. It should be appreciated that the substrate 58 could comprise a multi-channelled structure taking any number of alternative forms, and that the invention is not limited to a substrate 58 taking the form of a honeycomb structure. Typically, the substrate 58 is a catalytic substrate 58 and the pores 70 may be coated with a suitable catalyst 60, such as platinum, palladium and/or rhodium, which increases the conversion rate of carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons in the exhaust gases to harmless compounds for dispelling into the atmosphere through the tail pipes 32 (shown in FIG. 1) of the vehicle 10.

(23) It is to be understood that the catalysts 60 identified are merely examples, and that any suitable addition or alternative may be used. The mounting mat 62 intermediate the outer case 56 and substrate 58 is positioned so as to accommodate the different thermal coefficients of expansion of the outer case 56 and substrate 58.

(24) FIG. 4 shows the catalytic converter substrate 58 in proximity to the heater 54. In an embodiment, the heater 54 is located in the upstream end 241 of the casing 56 so as to heat the exhaust gas stream before it flows through the catalytic converter substrate 58, thereby indirectly heating the substrate 58. The skilled person would understand that the exact position of the heater 54 and its arrangement relative to the substrate 58 is not limited to that shown in FIG. 4. Rather any suitable arrangement may be used which enables heat to be transferred from the heater 24 to a portion of the substrate 58, such as direct heating means.

(25) Equally, the heater 54 may be an electrical heater or any other suitable heating means capable of performing the required action.

(26) The catalytic converter system comprises a heat control unit (HCU) 42 and an engine control unit (ECU) 36. In an embodiment, the ECU 36 has an input configured to receive sensor data and an output configured to transmit a signal to the HCU 42 in dependence on the sensor data. The HCU 42 is configured to command a temperature change of the heating device in dependence on the signal transmitted from the ECU 36. The HCU 42 is therefore configured to command a temperature change of the heating device 24 in dependence on the sensor data. In an embodiment, this sensor data relates to one or more of the exhaust gas temperature, engine load, engine power output, expected change in the power output of the engine, position data (for example GPS), ADAS data, the temperature of the catalytic converter and the flow rate of the exhaust gas through the catalytic converter 24.

(27) In operation, in a first phase of a heating cycle, the HCU 42 receives data from ECU 36 which indicates the catalytic converter substrate 58 requires heating in order to provide the necessary conversion efficiency for the present engine conditions and exhaust gas stream pollutant level. In an embodiment, the data may represent current conditions and/or predicted conditions, the latter enabling the catalytic converter substrate 58 to pre-emptively reach the required temperature. In an embodiment, the sensor data is used to index a lookup table for the corresponding required heater output for the given conditions and the particular catalytic converter 24 being used. In an embodiment, the sensor data is used to calculate the required heater output using a computational model.

(28) The heater 54 is activated and the temperature of the substrate 58 begins to increase towards a first target temperature. Given the finite time it takes for the thermal energy to dissipate evenly throughout the substrate 58, the portion of the substrate 58 in closest proximity to the heater 24 is heated above the rest of the substrate 58, thereby creating a heated sub-volume of the substrate 58, otherwise referred to as a hot volume or hot zone, having a front edge towards the downstream end 242 of the catalytic converter 24 and a back edge at the upstream end 241 of the catalytic converter 24. This hot volume will have a higher temperature and thus a higher conversion efficiency than the remaining unheated, or cold volume, of the substrate. In an embodiment, the hot volume of the substrate is above the light-off temperature of the catalytic converter such that the conversion reactions are initiated in the hot volume only.

(29) If left for a sufficient length of time, the hot volume would spread out along the entire length of the substrate 58 as the front edge advances or otherwise propagates towards the downstream end 242 of the converter 24, as shown in FIGS. 6A-C. Before this can occur, the output from the heater 54 is reduced such that the temperature of the substrate sub-volume in closest proximity to the heater 54 is lowered below a second temperature, in a second phase of the heating cycle. In an embodiment, this second temperature is below the light-out temperature of the catalytic converter 24. As a result, the back edge of the hot volume moves in the downstream direction towards the downstream end 242 along with the front edge. Thus the hot volume travels as a distinct heat pulse along the entire length of the catalytic converter substrate 58 as shown in FIGS. 6G-6I, where at any given time, the hot volume is the active portion of the catalyst, performing the catalytic conversion reaction.

(30) In an alternative embodiment, the remaining cold volume of the catalyst is also active, with the second temperature being above the light-off temperature, the hot volume being at a high temperature still having an associated higher conversion efficiency.

(31) The output of the heater 54 in the first phase is controlled such that the temperature and volume of the hot volume is sufficient to maintain a required level of total conversion efficiency across the catalytic converter as a whole as the hot volume propagates through the substrate 58. The temperature of the hot volume is a function of the heater output power in conjunction with the length of the first phase of the heating cycle. The extent of the hot volume, or in other words, the extent to which it spreads towards the downstream end 242 of the substrate 58 during the first cycle is controlled by the timing between the first and second cycles.

(32) Once the hot volume reaches the end of the substrate 58, the heater is reactivated and a second hot volume is created which subsequently advances or otherwise propagates towards the downstream end 242 of the converter 24 as described above, as shown in FIG. 6G. Accordingly, the total effective conversion efficiency of the catalytic converter is maintained at level sufficient to convert the incoming exhaust gas stream into a converted gas stream with the required reduction in pollutants, as shown in FIG. 6I. In an embodiment, only a single cycle is required.

(33) Due to the highly non-linear relationship between catalytic conversion efficiency and temperature (as depicted in FIG. 5), the above detailed heating scheme is more efficient than maintaining the entire catalyst a temperature necessary to achieve the desired total conversion efficiency, as demonstrated by a comparison between FIGS. 6F and 6I.

(34) Operating the catalytic converter 24 at a varying temperature where waves of heat are pulsed through the catalyst and optionally along the length of the catalyst substrate 58, such that the hot volume is active with a high conversion efficiency and the surrounding cold volume has a lower conversion efficiency or is dormant (having a temperature such that the conversion efficiency is lower or zero) is equivalent to a highly efficient catalyst of a smaller volume, rather than a full size catalyst with lower efficiency.

(35) As FIG. 5 shows, running a catalytic converter at a temperature of, for example, 490 C. has a much higher conversion efficiency than the same converter running at 410 C. As a consequence, a small sub-volume of the catalytic converter at a high temperature can have a greater conversion efficiency than a catalytic converter having a larger volume at a lower temperature

(36) By pulsing the output of the heater 54 to create a small hot volume as described, a higher gaseous pollutant conversion efficiency is achieved than if the whole catalyst were maintained at the temperature that would otherwise be achieved with continuous heating at the same electrical power level, as shown in FIGS. 6D-6I.

(37) By repeating the cycle to maintain the thermal wave through the catalyst and ensuring that sufficient catalyst volume is maintained at high conversion efficiency, the average catalyst heat input required to maintain high conversion efficiency can be reduced. The necessary heat outputs and timing of the first and second phases can be determined by experiment, an example of which is given below.

(38) FIGS. 7 to 14 relate to the development of a particular heat control strategy for an electrically heated catalyst (EHC) in a test environment by way of example only. In this section, this strategy is referred to as pulsating EHC (P-EHC) given that the electrical heating power turns on and off with a defined pulse width (PW) over the catalyst's heating period. In this study, the P-EHC's heating efficiency was evaluated based on the measured performance of a diesel oxide catalyst (DOC) when comparing the P-EHC to the conventional, non-pulsed EHC with similar electrical energy consumption. It is understood that conditional setup and physical dimensions of the apparatus demonstrated will have an effect on any temperatures, power, flow rates and time frames noted hereafter. For example, should the engine be more efficient it may provide less heat to the exhaust gas; or, should the catalytic converter be of different dimensions the power necessary would vary accordingly. By simple modification and experimentation, the following could be used to instruct a skilled person to provide the technical effect of the invention given different conditional setup and physical dimensions of the apparatus.

(39) For the experimental set up, a single cylinder diesel engine was used having an 84 mm bore, 90 mm stroke, a 160 mm connecting rod length, a displacement volume of 499 cc, compression ratio of 16.1:1, a maximum injection pressure of 1500 bar with a Euro 5 emissions standard. The four-stroke engine is naturally aspirated, water cooled, EGR equipped and utilises a common rail direct fuel injection. An alternating current (AC) electric dynamometer was used to motor and load the engine. The engine was fuelled with ultra-low sulphur diesel (ULSD). The setup is shown in FIG. 7.

(40) In-cylinder pressure was recorded using an AVL GH13P pressure transducer mounted in the cylinder head and its signal was amplified by an AVL FlexiFEM 2P2 amplifier. The crank shaft position was measured by a digital shaft encoder producing 360 pulses per revolution. The pressure and crank shaft position data was combined to create an in-cylinder pressure trace.

(41) The temperature at different points was recorded by using k-type thermocouples and a Pico Technology TC-08 thermocouple data logger. An airflow meter was used to measure the engine intake air flow.

(42) The engine operating parameters, including the injection strategy, were monitored and controlled by a data acquisition and/or control device. The programme analyses the engine's indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) for each cycle by considering Equation 3-1. To ensure combustion stability and minimizing cyclic variability, the coefficient of variation (COV) of the IMEP for 100 cycles was monitored and kept below 4% during the testing procedure.

(43) To ensure consistency, the engine was warmed up for approximately one hour prior to testing and the test cell's atmospheric conditions were monitored. The engine operating condition of 1200 RPM and 2 bar IMEP were selected as the engine rotational speed and load respectively to reproduce low-load driving conditions. The common rail fuel injection pressure was set at 550 bar. The pilot fuel injection was set to start at 15 bTDC with the duration of 0.150 ms; whereas the main injection started at 3 bTDC with the duration of 0.446 ms. In the cases with fuel post-injection, it started at either 25, 40 or 55 aTDC as indicated with the duration of 0.100 ms.

(44) The exhaust aftertreatment system consisted of an electrically heated catalyst (EHC) and a diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC). The size of the aftertreatment reactor was selected to maintain comparable gas hourly space velocity (GHSV) to commercial multi-cylinder engines exhaust aftertreatment systems.

(45) The DOC has dimensions of 58 mm in diameter and 101 mm in length. The ceramic catalyst substrate was made of cordierite with the cell density of 600 cpsi and wall thickness of 3 Mil. The catalyst was coated with the platinum group metals (PGM) loading of 100 g/ft.sup.3 and formulation ratio of 2:1:0 for platinum, palladium and rhodium respectively. Zeolite was also incorporated into the catalyst coating for improved low-temperature hydrocarbon adsorption and oxidation. The DOC was hydro-thermally aged at 700 C. for 16 hours prior to testing.

(46) The EHC has dimensions of 63 mm in diameter and 60 mm in length. It is made of a metallic substrate with 130 cpsi cell density and wall thickness of 2 Mil. The heating element has a resistance of 0.08 with a maximum operating voltage of 12 V. In this study, the EHC was catalytically uncoated and it was essentially used as an exhaust gas heater to investigate the heating effect individually. The EHC was powered using a TDK-Lambda GEN12.5-120 power supply which can deliver variable voltage up to 12.5 V and variable current up to 120 A.

(47) At the 1200 RPM and 2 bar IMEP engine operating condition, the exhaust flow rate was measured at 241 L/min which corresponds to the DOC's gas hourly space velocity of 49,900 h.sup.1. The exhaust gas travels from the exhaust manifold, where there is a thermocouple to measure the engine-out exhaust gas temperature and passes through 164 cm of pipework to reach the main reactor. This configuration helps to cool down the exhaust gas considerably and provides a more challenging environment for the emissions reduction in the aftertreatment system. Three thermocouples were integrated into the reactor to measure the temperature before the EHC, after the EHC and after the DOC. Two heated exhaust gas sampling lines were used to direct the exhaust gas to the emissions analysers before and after the reactor. The sampling lines temperature was kept at 179 C. to avoid hydrocarbon condensation and nucleation.

(48) An MKS MultiGas 2030 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analyser was used for the analysis of the engine's gaseous emissions. The FTIR spectroscopy technique distinguishes different gaseous species based on their light absorption characteristics. The real-time concentrations of the emissions were recorded with the frequency of one hertz and the data was averaged in steady-state conditions. The following species concentration were analysed: carbon dioxide (CO.sub.2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO and NO.sub.2), total hydrocarbon (THC), diesel (heavy hydrocarbons), methane (CH.sub.4), ethane (C.sub.2H.sub.6), ethylene (C.sub.2H.sub.4), acetylene (C.sub.2H.sub.2), propane (C.sub.3H.sub.8), propylene (C.sub.3H.sub.6), formaldehyde (CH.sub.2O) and water (H.sub.2O).

(49) Following data acquisition, the pulsating EHC with a pulse width of 20 seconds (20 seconds on followed by 20 seconds off) and electrical power of 885 W was compared to the EHC at 443 W as shown in FIG. 8. The DOC's inlet temperature (post EHC) tends to fluctuate from 173 C. to 234 C. as the electrical heating turns on and off in the P-EHC case. This results in fluctuations in the DOC's outlet temperature with reduced amplitude (from 199 C. to 212 C.) mainly due to the catalyst's thermal inertia. The average DOC's outlet temperature using the pulsating strategy is approximately 7 C. higher over the heating period compared to the EHC 443W case. Considering that a comparable amount of electrical energy was delivered to the catalyst in both cases, this temperature increase can be explained by promoted exothermic oxidation reactions in the pulsating catalyst heating case.

(50) As shown in FIG. 9, carbon monoxide (CO) and total hydrocarbon (THC) emissions at the DOC's outlet can be reduced by approximately 18% and 24% respectively using the pulsating heating strategy with respect to comparable steady electrical catalyst heating. The results indicate that CO emissions are more sensitive to temperature fluctuations while THC emissions proved to be stable over the pulsating heating period. This can be caused by the hydrocarbon storage capability of the zeolite in the catalyst coating. FIG. 10 shows that the pulsating heating has a relatively insignificant effect on the NO and NO2 emissions.

(51) The effect of the heating pulse width on the DOC's temperature profiles was investigated experimentally and is shown in FIG. 12. The 885 W of Pulsating heating with a pulse width of 10 seconds made the DOC's inlet temperature fluctuate in the range of 197 C. to 205 C. However the DOC's outlet temperature remained stable at approximately 204 C.; which is 5 C. higher compared to steady electrical catalyst heating with similar electrical energy consumption. In this case, CO and THC emissions tended to reduce by approximately 13% and 18% respectively, as shown in FIG. 13.

(52) Results show that increasing the heating pulse width to 30 seconds can lead to extended temperature fluctuations at the DOC's inlet in the range of 154 C. to 255 C. Consequently the DOC's outlet temperature varies from 183 C. to 228 C. over the pulsating heating period. Among the studied cases, the pulse width of 30 seconds showed the highest emissions reduction at the DOC's outlet with approximately a 34% and 31% decrease in the CO and THC emissions respectively. A further increase in the heating pulse width to 40 seconds leads to lower emissions conversion performance. This can be attributed to the catalyst's light-out during the extended heating off period.

(53) Considering the peaks in the DOC's inlet and outlet temperature profiles, it can be concluded that approximately 21 seconds are required for the heat wave to travel through the catalyst.

(54) In other words, the DOC's outlet temperature profile's phase is delayed by 21 seconds with respect to the DOC's inlet temperature profile in these conditions. It should be noted that this parameter can be affected by other factors (e.g. catalyst geometry and exhaust flow rate).

(55) In order to further investigate the pulsating heating effect on the catalyst's behaviour, a computational model was developed in the Axisuite software based on the experimental specifications and data. For model calibration purposes, the EHC's heating power was assumed to be 4% lower in the model compared to the experimental conditions due to electrical energy losses in the EHC's wiring. FIG. 13 shows that acceptable consistency was found for the model temperature profiles validation; however, the model tends to slightly overestimate the DOC's outlet temperature fluctuations. This can be associated with a higher heat loss in the experimental study.

(56) As illustrated in FIG. 14, the DOC's temperature contours for different heating pulse widths or duration were examined during minimum and maximum temperature periods. Relatively homogenous temperature contours were observed in the case of the P-EHC with 10 seconds pulse width or duration. The slight temperature fluctuations caused by the pulsating EHC at the catalyst's inlet tend to decrease considerably over the catalyst's length in this case.

(57) Results show that increasing the heating pulse width results in forming a hot spot with a higher temperature and larger size that travels through the catalyst. This hot spot is followed by a cold spot during the minimum temperature periods. For the case with 40 seconds heating pulse width, this cold spot can occupy the majority of the catalyst's volume and reduces the emissions reduction performance. Therefore this study reveals the importance of the heating control strategy in order to maximize the electrical catalyst heating efficiency on a driving cycle.