Methods for sub-typing and treating cancer

Abstract

This invention relates to a novel approach for the identification and stratification of subtypes of cancer, particularly subtypes of cancer characterized by an increased expression of BCAT1, particularly Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML). The invention furthermore relates to a novel approach with respect to the treatment of cancer, particularly subtypes of cancer characterized by an increased expression of BCAT1, particularly Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML).

Claims

1. A method of treating Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) in a patient suffering from AML, wherein said AML is characterized by BCAT1.sup.high expression and IDH.sup.wtTET.sup.wt, comprising the step of administering a compound that increases intracellular levels of α-ketoglutarate, wherein the compound is (i) a BCAT1 inhibitor selected from: an antisense molecule, wherein said antisense molecule consists of a nucleotide sequence from 12 to 25 nucleotides, wherein the sequence corresponds to the antisense strand of the nucleic acid sequence coding for BCAT1, an siRNA molecule, wherein said siRNA molecule has between 20 and 25 based pairs being complementary to the mRNA coding for BCAT1, and a small molecule inhibitor selected from 1-(aminomethyl) cyclohexaneacetic acid, compound 2 and compound 8 ##STR00002## or (ii) wherein said compound is selected from α-ketoglutaric acid, a mono- or dibasic salt of α-ketoglutaric acid, or a derivative of α-ketoglutaric acid having at least one of its carboxylic acid groups derivatized as ester or amide.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound is selected from 2-oxo-pentanedioic acid, 1-hexyl ester, 2-oxo-pentanedioic acid, 1-octyl ester, benzyl-α-ketoglutarate ester and 3-trifluoromethylbenzyl-α-ketoglutarate ester.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein said BCAT1.sup.high expression is determined by quantitative PCR.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein said BCAT1.sup.high expression is determined in relation to the expression of a reference.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound in (ii) is a mono-ester of α-ketoglutaric acid or a di-ester of α-ketoglutaric acid.

6. The method of claim 4, wherein said reference is ABL1.

7. The method of claim 6, wherein BCAT1.sup.high expression is characterized by a ratio of BCAT1/ABL1 of greater than 0.90.

Description

FIGURES

(1) FIG. 1 shows a schematic view of certain roles and functions of BCAT1 and of α-ketoglutarate in branched chain amino acid catabolism, as well as of α-ketoglutarate as co-factor for α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases such as EGLN1 or for the TET family of DNA demethylases.

(2) FIGS. 2 to 5 show the results of the experiments described in Example 1. Further explanations to the Figures and their individual sub-parts can be found in the text of Example 1.

(3) FIG. 6 shows the overall survival analysis of a BCAT1.sup.high patient population (BCAT1/ABL1 ratio>0.9) in comparison to a BCAT1.sup.low patient population (BCAT1/ABL1 ratio<0.9).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

(4) The present invention may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of the invention and the examples included therein.

(5) Thus, in one aspect, the present invention relates to a compound that increases intracellular levels of α-ketoglutarate for use in the treatment of a patient suffering from AML, wherein said AML is characterized by BCAT1.sup.high expression and IDH.sup.wtTET.sup.wt.

(6) In the context of the present invention, the term “comprises” or “comprising” means “including, but not limited to”. The term is intended to be open-ended, to specify the presence of any stated features, elements, integers, steps or components, but not to preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, elements, integers, steps, components, or groups thereof. The term “comprising” thus includes the more restrictive terms “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of”.

(7) In certain embodiments, the compound is a BCAT1 inhibitor.

(8) In certain embodiments, said BCAT1 inhibitor is selected from: an antisense molecule, an siRNA molecule, an shRNA molecule, an inactive variant of BCAT1, and a small molecule inhibitor, particularly 1-(aminomethyl) cyclohexane acetic acid.

(9) In the context of the present invention, the term “antisense molecule” refers to an oligonucleotide consisting of from 8 to 30 nucleotides, particularly from 12 to 25 nucleotides, more particularly from 13 to 20 nucleotides, wherein the sequence of said oligonucleotide corresponds to the antisense strand of the nucleic acid sequence coding for a protein of interest to be inhibited. In particular embodiments one or more nucleotide(s) in said oligonucleotide and/or one or more of the phosphate linkage groups are modified.

(10) A nucleotide forms the building block of an oligonucleotide, and is for example composed of a nucleobase (nitrogenous base, e.g., purine or pyrimidine), a five-carbon sugar (e.g., ribose, 2-deoxyribose, arabinose, xylose, lyxose, allose, altrose, glucose, mannose, gulose, idose, galactose, talose or stabilized modifications of those sugars), and one or more phosphate groups. Examples of modified phosphate groups are phosphorothioate or methylphosphonate. Each compound of the nucleotide is modifiable, and is naturally or non-naturally occurring. Examples of the latter are: locked nucleic acid (LNA), 2′,4′ constrained ethyl nucleic acids (c-ET), 2′-0,4′-C-ethylene-bridged nucleic acid (ENA), polyalkylene oxide- (such as triethylene glycol (TEG)), 2′-fluoro-, 2′-deoxy-2′-fluoro-beta-D-arabinonucleic acid (FANA), 2′-0-methoxy- and 2′-O-methyl-modified nucleotides. FIG. 5 shows examples of a number of different modified nucleotides that may be used in the context of the present invention.

(11) An “LNA” is a modified RNA nucleotide, wherein the ribose moiety is modified with an extra bridge connecting the 2′ oxygen and 4′ carbon (2′-4′ribonucleoside). The bridge locks the ribose in the 3′-endo (North) conformation, which is often found in the A-form duplexes. LNA nucleosides and nucleotides, respectively, comprise for example the forms of thio-LNA, oxy-LNA, or amino-LNA, in alpha-D- or beta-L-configuration, and can be mixed or combined, respectively, with DNA or RNA residues in the oligonucleotide.

(12) A “bridged nucleic acid” is modified RNA nucleotide, sometimes also referred to as constrained or inaccessible RNA molecule, which may contain a five-membered, six-membered or even a seven-membered bridged structure with a “fixed” C3′-endo sugar puckering. The bridge is synthetically incorporated at the 2′,4′-position of the ribose to afford a 2′,4′-BNA monomer. Specific examples are “ENA” nucleotides, wherein the bridge is an ethylene bridge. FIG. 5 shows a number of BNA nucleotides that may be used in the context of the present invention.

(13) In a particular embodiment, one or more nucleotide(s) in said oligonucleotide are modified, wherein the modified nucleotide contains a modified phosphate group, particularly selected from a phosphorothioate and a methylphosphonate, particularly a phosphorothioate. In particular embodiments, all phosphate groups of the oligonucleotide are modified phosphate groups, particularly independently selected from phosphorothioates and methylphosphonates, particularly wherein all phosphate groups are phosphorothioates.

(14) In a particular embodiment, one or more nucleotide(s) in said oligonucleotide are modified, wherein the modified nucleotide is an LNA, a c-ET, an ENA, a polyalkylene oxide-, a 2′-fluoro-, a 2′-O-methoxy-, a FANA and/or a 2′-O-methyl-modified nucleotide.

(15) In particular embodiments, the modified nucleotide(s) is/are located within the stretch of 5 nucleotides at the 5′- and/or 3′-end of the oligonucleotide, particularly at the 5′- and the 3′-end of the oligonucleotide.

(16) In particular embodiments, the oligonucleotides of the present invention comprise at least one modified nucleotide, particularly at least one LNA, c-ET and/or ENA, at the 5′- and/or 3′-end of the oligonucleotide. In a particular embodiment, the oligonucleotide comprises 1, 2, 3, or 4 LNAs or c-ETs or ENAs within the stretch of up to 5 nucleotides at the 5′-end, and 1, 2, 3, or 4 LNAs or c-ETs or ENAs within the stretch of up to 5 nucleotides at the 3 ‘-end. In another particular embodiment, the oligonucleotide comprises 1, 2, 3, or 4 LNAs, c-ETs, or ENAs at the within the stretch of 5 nucleotides 5’-end or 3′-end, and a polyalkylene oxide such as TEG within the stretch of 5 nucleotides at the 3′- or 5′-end.

(17) In particular embodiments, said oligonucleotide is a Gapmer comprising at least one LNA nucleotide within the stretch of 5 nucleotides at the 5′-end of said oligonucleotide, and at least one LNA nucleotide within the stretch of 5 nucleotides at the 3′-end of said oligonucleotide. In particular embodiments, said Gapmer comprises 2 or 3 LNA nucleotides within the stretch of 5 nucleotides at the 5′-end of said oligonucleotide, and 2 or 3 LNA nucleotides within the stretch of 5 nucleotides at the 3′-end of said oligonucleotide.

(18) In the context of the present invention, the term “Gapmer” refers to a chimeric antisense oligonucleotide that contains a central block of deoxynucleotide monomers sufficiently long to induce RNase H cleavage. The central block of a Gapmer is flanked by blocks of 2′-O modified ribonucleotides or other artificially modified ribonucleotide monomers such as bridged nucleic acids (BNAs) that protect the internal block from nuclease degradation. In many earlier studies modified DNA analogs were investigated for their stability in biological fluids. In the majority of these experiments phosphorothioate DNA analogs were used. More recently, several types of artificial nucleotide monomers including BNA monomers have been investigated for their usefulness in the design of Gapmers. Gapmers have been used to obtain RNase-H mediated cleavage of target RNAs, while reducing the number of phosphorothioate linkages. Phosphorothioates possess increased resistance to nucleases compared to unmodified DNA. However, they have several disadvantages. These include low binding capacity to complementary nucleic acids and non-specific binding to proteins that cause toxic side-effects limiting their applications. The occurrence of toxic side-effects together with non-specific binding causing off-target effects has stimulated the design of new artificial nucleic acids for the development of modified oligonucleotides that provide efficient and specific antisense activity in vivo without exhibiting toxic side-effects.

(19) LNA Gapmers are powerful tools for loss of function studies of proteins, mRNA and IncRNAs. These single strand antisense oligonucleotides catalyze RNase H-dependent degradation of complementary RNA targets. LNA Gapmers are typically 12-20 nucleotides long enriched with LNA in the flanking regions and DNA in a LNA free central gap-hence the name Gapmer. The LNA-containing flanking regions confers nuclease resistance to the antisense oligo while at the same time increases target binding affinity regardless of the GC content. The central DNA “gap” activates RNase H cleavage of the target RNA upon binding.

(20) Antisense molecules for the inhibition of BCAT1 have been described in the prior art (e.g. in EP 2 481 801 A1).

(21) In the context of the present invention, the term “siRNA” refers to small (or short) interfering RNA molecules, which are a class of double-stranded RNA molecules having between 20 and 30, particularly between 20 and 25 base pairs in length. siRNA molecules interfere with the expression of the mRNA of genes with complementary nucleotide sequences and cause that mRNA to be cleaved after transcription resulting in no translation. siRNA constructs for the inhibition of BCAT1 have been described in the prior art (e.g. in WO 2012/100957) and are commercially available (e.g. from ThermoFisher Scientific, SigmaAldrich or Dharmacon).

(22) In the context of the present invention, the term “shRNA” refers to small RNA-based molecules comprising sequences that form a small (or short) hairpin. Such shRNA sequence can be used to silence target gene expression via RNA interference (RNAi). Expression of shRNA in cells is typically accomplished by delivery of plasmids or through viral or bacterial vectors. shRNA constructs for the inhibition of BCAT1 have been described in the prior art (e.g. in Tönjes et al., Nature Medicine 19 (2013) 901-908) and are commercially available (e.g. from Origene, SigmaAldrich or Dharmacon).

(23) In the context of the present invention, the term “inactive variant of BCAT1” refers to protein variants of BCAT1 that have a strongly reduced or completely abolished enzymatic activity of wild-type BCAT1, in particular variants resulting from modification at, or in vicinity to, the active site (lysine at amino acid position 202) or the core CXXC motif (amino acid positions 315 to 318 of BCAT1). Such modifications include the oxidation or labeling of hBCATm with sulfhydryl reagents. Inactive variants of BCAT1 have been described in the prior art (e.g. in Coles et al., Biochemistry 48 (2009):645-56).

(24) Specific small-molecule inhibitors of BCAT1 are known in the art. For example, 1-(aminomethyl) cyclohexane acetic acid is described in WO 2012/100957. Additional small-molecule inhibitors being derivatives of 5-keto valeric acid are described in US 2016/368862, including the compounds 2 and 8:

(25) ##STR00001##

(26) In certain other embodiments, said compound is selected from α-ketoglutaric acid, a mono- or dibasic salt of α-ketoglutaric acid, or a derivative of α-ketoglutaric acid having at least one of the carboxlic acid groups derivatized as ester or amide, particularly a mono-ester of α-ketoglutaric acid or a di-ester of α-ketoglutaric acid.

(27) The compound α-ketoglutarate is known as a “molecule with pleiotropic activity”, and its use in a number of therapeutic indications have been studied or at least suggested (for a review see Zdzisińnska et al. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz). 65 (2017) 21-36),

(28) In certain such embodiments, said compound is selected from 2-oxo-pentanedioic acid, 1-hexyl ester, 2-oxo-pentanedioic acid, 1-octyl ester, benzyl-α-ketoglutarate ester and 3-trifluoromethylbenzyl-α-ketoglutarate ester.

(29) The synthesis of derivatives of α-ketoglutaric acid has been published (see, for example, Zengeya et al., Org Lett. 17 (2015):2326-9; MacKenzie et al., Mol Cell Biol. 27 (2007) 3282-3289)

(30) In the context of the present invention, “characterized by BCAT1.sup.high expression and IDH.sup.wtTET.sup.wt” refers to BCAT1 expression above median in normal karyotype AML patients devoid of IDH and TET2 mutations.

(31) In certain embodiments, said BCAT1.sup.high expression is determined by quantitative PCR.

(32) In certain embodiments, said BCAT1.sup.high expression is determined in relation to the expression of a reference, particularly wherein said reference is ABL1, particularly wherein BCAT1.sup.high expression is characterized by a ratio of BCAT1/ABL1 of greater than 0.90. In particular embodiments, BCAT1.sup.high expression is characterized by a ratio of BCAT1/ABL1 of greater than 0.95, in particular greater than 1.00.

(33) In another aspect, the present invention relates to a method of treating a patient suffering from AML, wherein said AML is characterized by BCAT1.sup.high expression and IDH.sup.wtTET.sup.wt, comprising the step of administering a compound that increases intracellular levels of α-ketoglutarate.

(34) In certain embodiments, the compound is a BCAT1 inhibitor.

(35) In certain embodiments, said BCAT1 inhibitor is selected from: an antisense molecule, an siRNA molecule, an shRNA molecule, an inactive variant of BCAT1, and a small molecule inhibitor, particularly 1-(aminomethyl) cyclohexaneacetic acid.

(36) In certain other embodiments, said compound is selected from α-ketoglutaric acid, a mono- or dibasic salt of α-ketoglutaric acid, or a derivative of α-ketoglutaric acid having at least one of the carboxlic acid groups derivatized as ester or amide, particularly a mono-ester of α-ketoglutaric acid or a di-ester of α-ketoglutaric acid.

(37) In certain such embodiments, said compound is selected from 2-oxo-pentanedioic acid, 1-hexyl ester and 2-oxo-pentanedioic acid, 1-octyl ester.

(38) In certain embodiments, said BCAT1.sup.high expression is determined by quantitative PCR.

(39) In certain such embodiments, said BCAT1.sup.high expression is determined in relation to the expression of a reference, particularly wherein said reference is ABL1, particularly wherein BCAT1.sup.high expression is characterized by a ratio of BCAT1/ABL1 of greater than 0.90. In particular embodiments, BCAT1.sup.high expression is characterized by a ratio of BCAT1/ABL1 of greater than 0.95, in particular greater than 1.00.

(40) In another aspect, the present invention relates to an in vitro method for the characterization of the status of a patient suffering from AML, characterized by the steps of (i) measuring expression of BCAT1 and (ii) determining the genotype with respect to IDH and TET, in a sample comprising AML cells from said patient.

(41) In another aspect, the present invention relates to an in vitro method of stratifying a patient suffering from AML, the method comprising the steps of: in vitro measuring expression of BCAT1 in AML tumor cells obtained from said patient; determining the status of said AML tumor cells with respect to IDH and TET; and stratifying said patient into a drug treatment cohort based on the status determined in steps (a) and (b); wherein a patient characterized by BCAT1.sup.high expression and IDH.sup.wtTET.sup.wt may be treated by a compound that increases intracellular levels of α-ketoglutarate.

(42) In certain embodiments, said BCAT1.sup.high expression is determined by quantitative PCR.

(43) In certain embodiments, said BCAT1.sup.high expression is determined in relation to the expression of a reference, particularly wherein said reference is ABL1, particularly wherein BCAT1.sup.high expression is characterized by a ratio of BCAT1/ABL1 of greater than 0.90. In particular embodiments, BCAT1.sup.high expression is characterized by a ratio of BCAT1/ABL1 of greater than 0.95, in particular greater than 1.00.

(44) In certain embodiments, said tumor cells are cells from a tumor sample.

(45) In certain embodiments, said sample is obtained from a mammal, particularly a human.

(46) In the context of the present invention, the term “stratifying” or “stratification” relates to the identification of a group of patients with shared “biological” characteristics by using molecular and biochemical diagnostic testing to select the optimal management for the patients.

(47) In certain embodiments, said tumor cells are obtained by purifying tumor cells from a tumor sample from said patient, particularly wherein the purification comprises flow sorting or laser capture microdissection.

(48) In a particular embodiment, the patient sample is selected from blood, serum, and plasma. In a particular embodiment, the patient sample is a collection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs), particularly isolated from the blood of a patient. In particular embodiments, the CTCs are isolated by apheresis.

(49) In certain embodiments, said tumor cells are (i) isolated from the blood of said patient; or (ii) isolated from a tumor sample, which is a tumor biopsy.

EXAMPLES

Example 1

Branched Chain Amino Acid Catabolism is Overactivated in Leukemic Stem Cells Mimicking Epigenetic Changes Induced By Mutations in IDH and TET2

(50) In an unbiased high-resolution proteomics analysis of leukemic stem cell (LSC+) and non-LSC (LSC−) populations of human Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) samples, we identified the BCAA pathway and BCAT1 as commonly overexpressed in LSCs. Knockdown (KD) of BCAT1 in leukemic cells caused an accumulation of αKG resulting in HIF1 protein degradation mediated by EGLN1 activity. BCAT1-KD cells display decreased leukaemia-initiating potential and a growth and survival defect rescued by overexpression of HIF1 or knockdown of EGLN1. In contrast, overexpression (OE) of BCAT1 in leukemic cells decreases intracellular αKG levels and results in DNA hypermethylation mediated by decreased αKG dependent DNA demeythylase activity. BCAT1.sup.high AML samples displayed a DNA hypermethylation phenotype similar to IDH.sup.mut cases in which αKG is inhibited by the oncometabolite 2-HG. High levels of BCAT1 is strongly correlated with shorter overall survival in IDH.sup.wtTET.sup.wt, but not IDH.sup.mutAMLs. Gene sets characteristic for IDH.sup.mut AMLs and LSCs were enriched both in IDH.sup.wtTET.sup.wtBCAT1.sup.high patients and in BCAT1-OE leukemic cells. In summary, BCAT1 influences the cellular methylome by controlling intracellular αKG and the associated activity of αKG-dependent dioxygenases. High BCAT1 expression partially mimics IDH mutations in AML and BCAT1-derived αKG functions as a naturally occurring tumour suppressor metabolite. Therapeutic strategies to increase αKG by inhibition of BCAT1 in order to compromise LSC function, may lead to lower relapse rates and improved survival of AML patients.

(51) Primary AML samples of two different subgroups (FLT3.sup.ITD/NPM1.sup.mut and FLT3.sup.wt/NPM1.sup.wt) were fractionated according to CD34 and CD38 surface expression and functionally tested for the presence of leukaemia stem cells (LSCs) by xenotransplantation into NOD.Prkdc.sup.scid.ll2rg.sup.null (NSG) mice (FIG. 2a). Consistent with previous reports we found LSC activity mainly in the CD34+fractions.sup.5-7, however, LSCs were detected in all fractions with the exception of CD34-CD38+(FIG. 2b), underscoring the importance of functional assays to define LSC activity. 18 fractions (10 LSC+and 8 LSC−) of 6 primary AML samples were subjected to in-depth quantitative multiplex proteomic analysis employing tandem mass tag (TMT) labelling and high-resolution mass spectrometry (FIG. 2 a, b). More than 7,200 proteins, including low abundance proteins such as transcription factors, receptors and cell adhesion molecules, were detected (FIG. 2c). To derive LSC protein signatures for individual AML cases, we first calculated differentially expressed proteins between CD34+CD38−LSC+ and CD34−CD38+ LSC− fractions (padj<0.001) and subsequently selected those proteins that were over-represented also in the remaining LSC+ or LSC− fraction, respectively, of the individual patient. We detected between 1097 and 1937 differentially expressed proteins for each sample (FIG. 2d) and, interestingly, these proteins clustered per AML subtype, suggesting subtype-specific differences also in the LSC containing compartment (FIG. 2e). Gene Set Enrichment analyses (GSEA) on the protein data revealed, among others, a significant enrichment of DNA replication and protein translation in LSC− fractions, in line with their more proliferative state.sup.8 (FIG. 2f). The most highly enriched process in LSC+ fractions across all patients was the degradation of the branched chain amino acids (BCAA) valine, leucine and isoleucine. The BCAA pathway has recently been associated with tumour aggressiveness in different entities, including IDH.sup.wt gliomas.sup.1, hepatocellular.sup.3 and ovarian cancer.sup.2. In agreement with the GSEA results, the vast majority of enzymes within this pathway were overexpressed in LSCs (FIG. 2g). We focused on BCAT1 that catalyses the first step of BCAA degradation and confirmed its higher expression levels in LSCs in an extended set of primary AML samples (FIG. 2h). To assess the functional role of BCAT1, we performed lentiviral knockdown (KD) experiments with functionally validated LSC+ populations (FIG. 2i). While control transduced cells proliferated normally, BCAT1-KD significantly impaired proliferation and survival (FIG. 2j-l). BCAT1-KD AML LSCs of all tested patients produced significantly less colonies in Colony Forming Unit (CFU) assays (FIG. 2m) and showed strongly reduced leukemia-initiating potential when transplanted into NSG mice (FIG. 2n). BCAT1-KD in healthy CD34+ cord blood impaired erythroid colony formation only, while the potential to from myeloid colonies was unaffected (FIG. 20), in line with a recent report that interference with glutamine/glutamate metabolism impairs erythroid differentiation.sup.9 (see below). Together, we found BCAT1 overexpressed in the AML LSC+compartment, constituting a critical enzyme for proliferation, survival and stem cell maintenance in primary AMLs.

(52) Cytosolic BCAT1 transfers an α-amino group from BCAAs to α-ketoglutarate (αKG) yielding glutamate and the respective branched-chain α-ketoacid (BCKA).sup.10. After this transamination, BCKAs are thought to be further catabolised to acetyl- and succinyl-CoA, which enter the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (FIG. 3a). However, in tracing experiments with isotope-labelled BCAAs using the HL-60 AML cell line no labelled carbons were detected in the TCA intermediates, suggesting an alternative metabolic route of BCKA in these cells (FIG. 3b). Similar observations have been recently reported for other cell types, suggesting a general feature of the BCAA degradation pathway.sup.4,11. BCAA nitrogen transamination contributes to nonessential amino acid biosynthesis and downstream of this pathway, the nitrogen can be incorporated into nucleotides (ref). Consistently, we found incorporation of .sup.15N into glutamate and aspartate (FIG. 3c), and other non-essential amino acids (NEAA) (data not shown). Upon knockdown of BCAT1 the fraction of .sup.15N-labelled NEAAs was significantly decreased (FIG. 3c). Unexpectedly, global nucleotide levels were not decreased (but elevated) in BCAT1-KD cells (FIG. 3d), suggesting a very limited contribution of BCAA-derived nitrogen to nucleotide production in these cells. Consequently, supplementation of nucleotides was not sufficient to rescue the proliferation defect of BCAT1-KD cells. Given that BCAT1 utilizes αKG as substrate for the transamination we next hypothesized that BCAT1 activity contributes to the regulation of intracellular αKG levels. Indeed, upon BCAT1-KD the intracellular levels of αKG significantly increased in HL-60 cells (FIG. 3e). We validated this finding in K562 (leukaemia), U87 and U251 (glioma) and MDA MB-231 (breast cancer) cell lines, consistently showing significantly higher levels of αKG (between 1.4 and 2.4-fold) upon knockdown of BCAT1 (FIG. 3e). In summary, these experiments identify BCAT1 as a critical regulator of intracellular αKG levels in a broad range of different tumour types. Beyond its role in intermediary metabolism, αKG functions also as a signalling molecule being an essential co-substrate for cellular dioxygenases.sup.12, which have activities potentially susceptible to small changes in αKG levels.sup.13. Among others, these enzymes include the Egl-9 Family Hypoxia Inducible Factor 1 (EGLN1) that hydroxylates and targets HIFs for proteasomal degradation.sup.14 and the TET family of DNA demethylases.sup.15.

(53) To gain additional mechanistic insight into cellular pathways affected by BCAT1, we utilized the HL-60 AML cell line. Both, defective growth (FIG. 4a) and impaired colony forming capacity (FIG. 4b) upon BCAT1-knockdown were recapitulated and KD-cells showed enhanced myeloid differentiation (FIG. 4c). Gene set enrichment analysis of transcriptome data derived from shBCAT1 and control transduced HL-60 cells revealed HIF1 target genes down-regulated upon BCAT1-KD (FIG. 4d), whereas PU.1 target genes were enriched, molecularly underpinning the differentiation phenotype. Western blot analysis confirmed HIF1 as downstream target of BCAT1 (FIG. 4e), and decreased HIF1 levels were due to enhanced protein degradation since the relative amount of hydroxylated Proline564 was increased after BCAT1 knockdown (FIG. 4f), as intracellular αKG is a co-factor of EGLN1 activity.sup.14. To inhibit EGLN1 activity, we treated cells with cobalt chloride (Carmeliet Review), which resulted in an attenuated decrease of HIF1 protein levels in BCAT1 knockdown cells (FIG. 4g). Finally, lentiviral overexpression of HIF1 as well as shRNA-mediated knockdown of EGLN1 was sufficient to rescue the proliferation and survival defect after BCAT1-KD (FIG. 4h, i). Together, these analyses place BCAT1 upstream of HIF1 mediating its effect via the αKG-dependent activation of EGLN1. This activation resulted in enhanced degradation of HIF1 protein upon BCAT1 knockdown leading a proliferation and survival defect of these cells. Knockdown of HIF1 is sufficient to abrogate LSC function.sup.16.

(54) Mutations in Isocitrate Dehydroxygenase (IDH) 1 and 2 genes frequently occur in AMLs.sup.17 and result in the production of the oncometabolite 2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG).sup.18. 2-HG acts as competitive inhibitor of αKG-dependent dioxygenases such as TET2.sup.19, thus mimicking a state of low intracellular αKG levels. We therefore hypothesised that BCAT1 expression levels may impact on the clinical outcome only in IDHwt and TET2wt (TET2 mutations are mutually exclusive to IDH mutations.sup.20) AML patients. Indeed, BCAT1 expression above median (BCAT1.sup.high) in normal karyotype AML patients devoid of IDH and TET2 mutations was associated with a strikingly shorter overall survival in two independent cohorts (Bullinger and Delwel, GSE14468) (402 days vs. undefined; p=0.0009, HR=2.57 and 306 vs. 1279 days, p=0.0002, HR=2.11) compared to BCAT1.sup.low patients. As expected, the BCAT1.sup.high group in patients carrying IDH or TET2 mutations had a non-significant trend towards better OS (380 vs. 306 days, p=0.35, HR=0.76 and 1708 vs. 1046 days, p=0.58, HR=0.79) (FIG. 5a). The overall BCAT1 expression level distribution was similar among these groups, which is in contrast to gliomas, in which IDH mutations and BCAT1 expression are mutually exclusive.sup.5. Similar results were also obtained by analysis of the TCGA.sup.21 dataset. IDH mutations are mutually exclusive to TET2 mutations and both lead to DNA hypermethylation due to reduced activity of the αKG-dependent dioxygenase TET2.sup.20. We next hypothesised that high BCAT1 expression would lead to DNA hypermethylation comparable to AML samples carrying mutations in IDH or TET2 genes. Indeed, in the TOGA dataset (excluding samples with mutations in the epigenetic modifier DNMT3a) we found a significant positive correlation between BCAT1 expression levels and global DNA methylation in IDH.sup.wtTET2.sup.wtAML cases, which was not significant and not present in IDH.sup.mut and TET2.sup.mut cases, respectively (FIG. 5b). Unsupervised hierarchical clustering of the GpG methylation status revealed a close relationship of IDH.sup.wtTET2.sup.wtBCAT1.sup.high AML samples with IDH.sup.mut and TET2.sup.mut patients, whereas IDH.sup.wtTET2.sup.wtBCAT1.sup.low samples clustered separately (FIG. 5c). Comparing the transcriptomes of BCAT1.sup.high and BCAT1.sup.low samples revealed a strong enrichment of gene sets characteristic of IDH.sup.mut AMLs.sup.22 in IDH.sup.wtTET2.sup.wtBCAT1.sup.high cases in all patient cohorts (FIG. 5d). In addition, enrichment for an LSC signature.sup.5 further supports the role of BCAT1 in LSCs (FIG. 5d). To establish a causal link between high BCAT1 expression, αKG levels and DNA methylation we overexpressed BCAT1 in HL-60 cells. αKG levels significantly decreased (FIG. 5e) and at the transcriptome level we found an enrichment of the IDH.sup.mut gene set.sup.22 and the LSC signature in BCAT1 overexpressing cells (FIG. 5f). Prolonged BCAT1-overexpression for 10 weeks (approx. 35 cell doublings) resulted in a clear shift towards DNA hypermethylation (FIG. 5g). In the TCGA data set, 77% of the hypermethylated probes (p<0.001, diffMeth>0.25) between IDH.sup.wtBCAT1.sup.high and IDH.sup.wtBCAT1.sup.low AML patients showed hypermethylation also in IDH.sup.mut patients (p<0.001, diffMeth >0.25) (FIG. 5h). 1039 (87%) of these 1193 probes were also higher methylated in BCAT1-overexpressing HL-60 cells.

(55) Together, high levels of BCAT1 expression in primary AMLs and overexpression of BCAT1 in HL-60 cells is associated with alterations in DNA methylation characteristic for IDH.sup.mut AMLs. A prognostic effect of BCAT1 expression levels was observed only for IDH.sup.wt cases, as IDH.sup.mut AMLs per se show a reduced activity of αKG-dependent dioxygenases (via competitive inhibition by 2-HG.sup.19) and lowering of intracellular αKG levels by BCAT1 may not further decrease the activity of these enzymes.

(56) AML patient survival is usually associated with sensitivity to standard chemotherapy.sup.23,24. In AML cells with long-term BCAT1-overexpression we observed increased resistance to daunorubicin (FIG. 5i). Along these lines, BCAT1 expression was consistently higher (on average 6.6-fold) in the relapse versus the paired diagnostic sample (FIG. 5j).

(57) In summary, our study identifies BCAT1 as a critical enzyme for αKG homeostasis and thus specifically links branched chain amino acids metabolism to epigenetic and post-translational regulation though the regulation of αKG-dependent dioxygenases. BCAT1 acts upstream of mutations in the epigenetic modifiers IDH and TET2 and αKG may act as a naturally occurring tumour suppressor metabolite. While we cannot formally prove that αKG levels are lower in BCAT1high primary AML cells due to technical limitations our results strongly support that causative link. A recent publication suggested LSC fractions to be hypomethylated.sup.25. However, when analysing the subgroup of cases with a hierarchical organisation, i.e. presence of LSC+ and LSC− populations within one individual, LSC+ populations were more methylated, in line with our results.

(58) While high intracellular αKG levels maintain the pluripotenty of mouse embryonic stem cells.sup.26 leukemia stem cells maintain high BCAT1 levels to suppress αKG. For the future, therapeutic strategies to increase αKG in order to compromise LSC function i.e. by inhibition of BCAT1, may lead to lower relapse rates and improved survival of AML patients.

Example 2

Determination of BCAT1 Expression Levels

(59) The BCAT1 expression level and the determination of BCAT1.sup.high or BCAT1.sup.low status, in particular by using the ratio of BCAT1/ABL1 expression, can be determined by qPCR, particularly by qRT-PCR as shown in the literature, e.g. as in Tönjes et al., Nat Med. 2013 July; 19(7): 901-908.

(60) In particular, total RNA can be extracted using the AllPrep DNA/RNA/Protein Mini Kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. FirstChoice Human Brain Reference Total RNA from Ambion can serve as the normal brain RNA pool. Total RNA (500 ng) can be reverse transcribed using random primers and superscript II (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Each cDNA sample can be analyzed in triplicate with the Applied Biosystems Prism 7900HT Fast Real-Time PCR System using Absolute SYBR Green ROX Mix (ABgene). The relative amount of specific BCAT1 mRNA can be normalized to ABL1 mRNA. Alternatively, the relative amount of specific BCAT1 mRNA can be normalized to ARF1, B2M or TBP mRNA. Primer sequences are shown below in Table 1.

(61) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1  Primer Sequences primers BCAT1  Forward CAACTATGGAGAATGGTCCTAAGCT (all isoforms) Reverse TGTCCAGTCGCTCTCTTCTCTTC BCAT1 T1  Forward GCTACGACCCTTGGGATCT (ENST00000261192) BCAT1 T4  Forward GTGCCACTGCCGCTCTCT (ENST00000539282) BCAT1 T6  Forward TGGTTGTCTGAGCCTCCTTT (ENST00000538118) BCAT1 Exon 2 Reverse AAGTCCCCACCACCTCTTTT BCAT1 Exon 5 Reverse CCCATTCTTGATCCAATTTCA HEY1 Forward CGAGCTGGACGAGACCAT Reverse GAGCCGAACTCAAGTTTCCA ARF Forward GACCACGATCCTCTACAAGC Reverse TCCCACACAGTGAAGCTGATG B2M Forward ACTGAATTCACCCCCACTGA Reverse CCTCCATGATGCTGCTTACA TBP Forward GAACCACGGCACTGATTTTC Reverse CCCCACCATGTTCTGAATCT ABL1 Forward TTCAGCGGCCAGTAGCATCTGACTT Reverse GATGTAGTTGCTTGGGACCCA

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