Lithium metal secondary battery containing a protected lithium anode
10777810 ยท 2020-09-15
Assignee
Inventors
Cpc classification
Y02P70/50
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
H01M50/46
ELECTRICITY
Y02E60/10
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
H01M50/409
ELECTRICITY
H01M2004/021
ELECTRICITY
H01M10/0561
ELECTRICITY
H01M50/489
ELECTRICITY
H01M10/0525
ELECTRICITY
H01M10/4235
ELECTRICITY
International classification
H01M4/36
ELECTRICITY
H01M10/0525
ELECTRICITY
Abstract
Provided is a lithium secondary battery, comprising a cathode, an anode, and a porous separator or electrolyte, wherein the anode comprises: (a) an anode active layer containing a layer of lithium or lithium alloy, in a form of a foil, coating, or multiple particles aggregated together, as an anode active material; (b) a first anode-protecting layer having a thickness from 1 nm to 100 m (preferably <1 m and more preferably <100 nm) and comprising a lithium ion-conducting material having a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.8 S/cm to 510.sup.2 S/cm; and (c) a second anode-protecting layer having a thickness from 1 nm to 100 m and comprising an elastomer having a fully recoverable tensile elastic strain from 2% to 1,000% and a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.8 S/cm to 510.sup.2 S/cm.
Claims
1. A lithium metal secondary battery comprising a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte or an electrolyte/porous separator assembly disposed between said cathode and said anode, wherein said anode comprises: a) an anode active material layer comprising a layer of lithium or lithium alloy, in a form of a foil, coating, or multiple particles aggregated together, as an anode active material; b) a first anode-protecting layer having a thickness from 1 nm to 100 m and comprising a lithium ion-conducting material having a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.8 S/cm to 510.sup.2 S/cm and being in physical contact with the anode active material layer; and c) a second anode-protecting layer in physical contact with said first anode-protecting layer, having a thickness from 1 nm to 100 m and comprising an elastomer having a fully recoverable tensile elastic strain from 2% to 1,000% and a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.8 S/cm to 510.sup.2 S/cm when measure at room temperature; wherein said lithium metal secondary battery does not include a lithium-sulfur battery or lithium-selenium battery.
2. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said elastomer contains a material selected from the group consisting of non-sulfonated versions or sulfonated versions of natural polyisoprene, synthetic polyisoprene, polybutadiene, chloroprene rubber, polychloroprene, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, nitrile rubber, ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene rubber, metallocene-based poly(ethylene-co-octene) elastomer, poly(ethylene-co-butene) elastomer, styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene elastomer, epichlorohydrin rubber, polyacrylic rubber, silicone rubber, fluorosilicone rubber, perfluoroelastomers, polyether block amides, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene-vinyl acetate, thermoplastic elastomer, protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, and combinations thereof.
3. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said lithium ion-conducting material in the first anode-protecting layer is selected from the group consisting of Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, LiOH, LiX, ROCO.sub.2Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.xSO.sub.y, and combinations thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x1 and 1y4.
4. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said lithium ion-conducting material in the first anode-protecting layer comprises a lithium salt selected from the group consisting of lithium perchlorate (LiClO.sub.4), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF.sub.6), lithium borofluoride (LiBF.sub.4), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF.sub.6), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium nitrate (LiNO.sub.3), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF.sub.3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.
5. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said lithium ion-conducting material in the first anode-protecting layer comprises a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from the group consisting of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazene, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethyl siloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a co-polymer thereof, sulfonated derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof.
6. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said lithium ion-conducting material comprises an inorganic solid-state electrolyte material having a lithium ion conductivity greater than 10.sup.6 S/cm and containing a material selected from NASICON-type, garnet-type, LISICON-type, perovskite-type, sulfide-type, Li.sub.3N-type, Argyrodite-type, or a thin-film solid state electrolyte.
7. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said lithium ion-conducting material comprises an inorganic solid-state electrolyte material selected from a ceramic electrolyte, glass electrolyte, glass-ceramic electrolyte, sulfide electrolyte, or a combination thereof.
8. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 7, wherein said solid-state electrolyte material comprises particles of a ceramic electrolyte, glass electrolyte, glass-ceramic-type, Li.sub.3N-type, argyrodite-type, or sulfide-type electrolyte that are bonded together by a resin binder to form said first anode-protecting layer.
9. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said elastomer further comprises from 0.1% to 40% by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed therein.
10. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 9, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from the group consisting of Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, LiOH, LiX, ROCO.sub.2Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.xSO.sub.y, and combinations thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x1 and 1y4.
11. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 9, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive contains a lithium salt selected from the group consisting of lithium perchlorate (LiClO.sub.4), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF.sub.6), lithium borofluoride (LiBF.sub.4), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF.sub.6), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium nitrate (LiNO.sub.3), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF.sub.3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.
12. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 9, wherein said lithium ion-conducting additive comprises a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from the group consisting of poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazene, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), sulfonated derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof.
13. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said elastomer further contains a conductive reinforcement material dispersed therein and said conductive reinforcement material is selected from an electron-conducting polymer, a metal particle or wire, a graphene sheet, a carbon fiber, a graphite fiber, a carbon nanofiber, a graphite nanofiber, a carbon nanotube, a graphite particle, an expanded graphite flake, an acetylene black particle, or a combination thereof.
14. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 13, wherein said electron-conducting polymer is selected from the group consisting of polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, sulfonated derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof.
15. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said first or second anode-protecting layer has a thickness from 10 nm to 10 m.
16. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said cathode active material is selected from an inorganic material, an organic material, a polymeric material, or a combination thereof, and said inorganic material does not include sulfur or alkali metal polysulfide.
17. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a metal oxide, metal phosphate, metal silicide, metal selenide, transition metal sulfide, or a combination thereof.
18. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from the group consisting of lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, lithium metal silicide, and combinations thereof.
19. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a metal fluoride or metal chloride including the group consisting of CoF.sub.3, MnF.sub.3, FeF.sub.3, VF.sub.3, VOF.sub.3, TiF.sub.3, BiF.sub.3, NiF.sub.2, FeF.sub.2, CuF.sub.2, CuF, SnF.sub.2, AgF, CuCl.sub.2, FeCl.sub.3, MnCl.sub.2, and combinations thereof.
20. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a lithium transition metal silicate, denoted as Li.sub.2MSiO.sub.4 or Li.sub.2Ma.sub.xMb.sub.ySiO.sub.4, wherein M and Ma are selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, or VO; Mb is selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, Ti, Al, B, Sn, or Bi; and x+y1.
21. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof.
22. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from the group consisting of TiS.sub.2, TaS.sub.2, MoS.sub.2, NbSe.sub.3, MnO.sub.2, COO.sub.2, iron oxide, vanadium oxide, and combinations thereof.
23. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 17, wherein said metal oxide comprises a vanadium oxide selected from the group consisting of VO.sub.2, Li.sub.xVO.sub.2, V.sub.2O.sub.5, Li.sub.xV.sub.2O.sub.5, V.sub.3O.sub.8, Li.sub.xV.sub.3O.sub.8, Li.sub.xV.sub.3O.sub.7, V.sub.4O.sub.9, Li.sub.xV.sub.4O.sub.9, V.sub.6O.sub.13, Li.sub.xV.sub.6O.sub.13, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x5.
24. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 17, wherein said metal oxide or metal phosphate is selected from a layered compound LiMO.sub.2, spinel compound LiM.sub.2O.sub.4, olivine compound LiMPO.sub.4, silicate compound Li.sub.2MSiO.sub.4, tavorite compound LiMPO.sub.4F, borate compound LiMBO.sub.3, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.
25. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said inorganic material is selected from the group consisting of (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, and (e) combinations thereof.
26. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said organic material or polymeric material is selected from the group consisting of poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS.sub.2).sub.3]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN).sub.6), 5-benzylidene hydantoin, isatine lithium salt, pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi.sub.4), N,N-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAQ), calixquinone, Li.sub.4C.sub.6O.sub.6, Li.sub.2C.sub.6O.sub.6, Li.sub.6C.sub.6O.sub.6, and combinations thereof.
27. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 26, wherein said thioether polymer is selected from the group consisting of poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)] (PMTTM), poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), polymer containing poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene](PTKPTB, and poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).
28. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 16, wherein said organic material comprises a phthalocyanine compound selected from the group consisting of copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, chemical derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof.
29. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said cathode comprises a cathode active material in a form of nanoparticle, nanowire, nanofiber, nanotube, nanosheet, nanobelt, nanoribbon, nanodisc, nanoplatelet, or nanohorn having a thickness or diameter from 0.5 nm to 100 nm.
30. The lithium metal secondary battery of claim 1, wherein said battery does not contain a porous separator and the second anode-protecting layer acts as a separator that electronically separates the anode active material layer from the cathode.
Description
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
(7) This invention is directed at a lithium metal secondary battery, which is preferably based on an organic electrolyte, a polymer gel electrolyte, an ionic liquid electrolyte, a quasi-solid electrolyte, or a solid-state electrolyte. The shape of a lithium metal secondary battery can be cylindrical, square, button-like, etc. The present invention is not limited to any battery shape or configuration or any type of electrolyte. The invented lithium secondary battery does not include a lithium-sulfur cell or lithium-selenium cell.
(8) The invention provides a lithium metal secondary battery, comprising a cathode, an anode, and electrolyte or separator-electrolyte assembly (porous separator and liquid electrolyte, gel electrolyte, quasi-solid electrolyte, etc.) disposed between the cathode and the anode.
(9) In certain embodiments, the anode comprises: (a) a layer of lithium or lithium alloy (in the form of a foil, coating, or multiple particles aggregated together) as an anode active material layer; (b) a first anode-protecting layer having a thickness from 1 nm to 100 m and comprising a thin layer of a lithium ion-conducting material (having a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.8 S/cm to 510.sup.2 S/cm) in physical contact with and in protecting relation to the anode active material layer (e.g. covering the anode active material); and (c) a second anode-protecting layer, in contact with the first protecting layer (e.g. physically supporting or chemically bonded to the first anode-protecting layer), having a thickness from 1 nm to 100 m and comprising an elastomer having a fully recoverable tensile elastic strain from 2% to 1,000%, a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.8 S/cm to 510.sup.2 S/cm when measured at room temperature.
(10) The foil or coating of lithium or lithium alloy, as the anode active material layer or electrode, may be supported by a current collector (e.g. a Cu foil, a Ni foam, a porous layer of nanofilaments, such as membrane, paper, foam, or fabric of graphene sheets, carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, etc. forming a 3D interconnected network of electron-conducting pathways). In some embodiments, the first anode-protecting layer partially or, preferably, completely covers the anode active material layer when the battery is made.
(11) In certain embodiments, the lithium ion-conducting material in the first anode-protecting layer comprises one or multiple materials selected from Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, LiOH, LiX, ROCO.sub.2Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.xSO.sub.y, or a combination thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x1 and 1y4.
(12) In some embodiments, the lithium ion-conducting material in the first anode-protecting layer comprises a lithium salt selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO.sub.4), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF.sub.6), lithium borofluoride (LiBF.sub.4), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF.sub.6), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium nitrate (LiNO.sub.3), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF.sub.3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.
(13) The lithium ion-conducting material in the first anode-protecting layer may comprise a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazene, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a co-polymer thereof, a sulfonated derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.
(14) In certain embodiments, the lithium ion-conducting material comprises an inorganic solid-state electrolyte material having a lithium ion conductivity greater than 10.sup.6 S/cm. There are a wide variety of solid electrolyte materials that can be adapted as a lithium ion-conducting material in the presently invented first anode-protecting layer. The solid-state electrolyte material may be selected from a ceramic electrolyte, glass-ceramic electrolyte, glass electrolyte, metal sulfide electrolyte, or a combination thereof. Commonly used solid electrolytes that can be implemented in the presently invented first anode-protecting layer include the well-known NASICON-type, Granet-type, LISICON-type, Perovskite-type, sulfide-type, and thin-film solid state electrolytes.
(15) The synthesis or production of solid state electrolyte-types of inorganic materials is well-known in the art. The following review articles provide a good description of various types of solid-state electrolyte materials: 1) Feng Zheng, et. al. Review on solid electrolytes for all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries, Journal of Power Sources, Volume 389, 15 Jun. 2018, Pages 198-213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.04.022 2) Kazunori Takada, Progress in solid electrolytes toward realizing solid-state lithium batteries, Journal of Power Sources, Volume 394, 1 Aug. 2018, Pages 74-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.05.003 3) Zhonghui Gao, et al., Promises, Challenges, and Recent Progress of Inorganic Solid-State Electrolytes for All-Solid-State Lithium Batteries, Advanced Materials, https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201705702 4) Arumugam Manthiram, et al. Lithium battery chemistries enabled by solid-state electrolytes, Nature Reviews Materials volume 2, Article number: 16103 (2017)
(16) The lithium ion-conducting inorganic materials for use in the first anode-protecting layer may be selected from commonly used solid electrolytes, such as, Li.sub.3N, lithium-phosphorous-oxynitride (LiPON), Li.sub.2S-based glass, NaSICON-type oxides, Li.sub.0.05-3xLa.sub.0.5+xTiO.sub.3, Li.sub.7La.sub.3Zr.sub.2O.sub.12, their mixtures with a polymer electrolyte. These materials have demonstrated fairly good Li-ion conductivity.
(17) Lithium ion conducting sulfide glasses, such as Li.sub.2SGeS.sub.2, Li.sub.2SP.sub.2S.sub.5, Li.sub.2SB.sub.2S.sub.3, and Li.sub.2SSiS.sub.2 systems can exhibit lithium ion conductivities higher than 10.sup.4 S/cm at room temperature. Among these systems, lithium thio-silicate Li.sub.2SSiS.sub.2 glasses show not only higher conductivity, but also higher glass transition temperatures and easy preparation without vacuum sealing. When these Li.sub.2SSiS.sub.2 glasses are composited with small amounts of ortho-oxosalts, such as Li.sub.3PO.sub.4, Li.sub.4SiO.sub.4 and Li.sub.4GeO.sub.4, significantly higher conductivities over 10.sup.3 S/cm at room temperature and a wide electrochemical window could be obtained. Furthermore, the addition of a small amount of those ortho-oxosalts to the Li.sub.2SSiS.sub.2 sulfide system could also improve the glass stability against crystallization. Both high conductivity and high thermal stability of the Li.sub.2SSiS.sub.2-based oxy-sulfide glasses are desirable features for use in the first anode-protecting layer.
(18) Thio-LiSICON-based electrolytes have high conductivity and low activation energy at room-temperature. For example, glass ceramics with thio-LiSICON structures could exhibit even higher conductivity (3.210.sup.3 S/cm for 70Li.sub.2S-30P.sub.2S.sub.5), about an order of magnitude higher conductivity at room temperature than their amorphous counterparts.
(19) Elemental substitution may be used to increase lithium ion conductivity of solid electrolyte crystals. For example, the conductivity of Li.sub.3PS.sub.4 crystal could be significantly increased by incorporating phosphorus and germanium into Li.sub.3PS.sub.4 crystals and the resulting Li.sub.3.25P.sub.0.75Ge.sub.0.25 S.sub.4 crystals can exhibit a high conductivity higher than 2.210.sup.3 S/cm at room temperature. Further, Li.sub.10GeP.sub.2S.sub.12 with a three-dimensional framework structure could exhibit an extremely high lithium ionic conductivity of 1.210.sup.2 S/cm at room temperature.
(20) Another class of lithium ion-conducting material is the so-called sodium super ionic conductors, such as (NASICON)-type lithium ion conductors, due to their high conductivity (710.sup.4 S/cm) at room temperature and their stability in both atmosphere and water. For example, glass-ceramics could exhibit an ionic conductivity over 10.sup.4 S/cm at room temperature and the Al.sup.3+ substitution to form a Li.sub.1+xAl.sub.xTi.sub.2-x(PO.sub.4).sub.3 system (x=0.4) could make two orders of magnitude enhancement in conductivity. The substitution of Ti.sup.4+ by smaller sized Al.sup.3+ cation could reduce the unit-cell dimension of NASICON framework, significantly increasing Li.sup.+ conductivity. The Li.sub.1+xAl.sub.xTi.sub.2-x(PO.sub.4).sub.3 materials with a high conductivity up to 1.310.sup.3 S/cm are commercially available.
(21) The Perovskite structure, such as Li.sub.0.05-3xLa.sub.0.5+xTiO.sub.3 (LLTO), could show a bulk conductivity as high as 110.sup.3 S/cm. Garnet-like structural compounds, such as Li.sub.5La.sub.3Ta.sub.2O.sub.12 (LLTa) and Li.sub.7La.sub.3Zr.sub.2O.sub.12 (LLZ), are relatively stable against Li metal. In addition, their bulk Li-ion conductivity is as high as 510.sup.4 S/cm at room temperature.
(22) The lithium ion-conducting material may be formed as a layer of sintered ceramic, glass, glass-ceramic, or sulfide material, etc. as would be normally used as a solid-state electrolyte in a lithium battery. Alternatively, this material may be formed into a thin film (e.g. via sputtering or laser-assisted deposition) deposited on a primary surface of the anode active material layer or a primary surface of the second anode-protecting layer. The layer preferably has a thickness from 2 nm to 2 m, more preferably from 2 nm to 100 nm. However, in some embodiments, the solid-state electrolyte material used in the first anode protecting layer may comprise particles of a sintered or un-sintered solid electrolyte material that are bonded together by a resin binder to form a layer of structural integrity. Preferably the resin binder is from 1% to 50% of this second anode-protecting layer. This layer may be chemically bonded to the elastomer layer or integral with the elastomer layer. For instance, this layer may be an extension of the elastomer layer, but preferably having a different composition than the rest of the elastomer layer; e.g. having a much higher concentration of solid electrolyte material particles or other additives near the skin zone of the elastomer layer than the rest of the elastomer layer.
(23) Preferably, the second anode-protecting layer (i.e. the elastomer layer) has a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10.sup.6 S/cm (typically and desirably from 10.sup.5 S/cm to 510.sup.2 S/cm, measured at room temperature), and a thickness from 10 nm to 20 m. These conditions are more amenable to allowing lithium ions to migrate in and out of the elastomer layer without much resistance.
(24) Preferably, the elastomer contains a sulfonated or non-sulfonated version of an elastomer selected from natural polyisoprene, synthetic polyisoprene, polybutadiene, chloroprene rubber, polychloroprene, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, nitrile rubber, ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene rubber, metallocene-based poly(ethylene-co-octene) (POE) elastomer, poly(ethylene-co-butene) (PBE) elastomer, styrene-ethylene-butadiene-styrene (SEBS) elastomer, epichlorohydrin rubber, polyacrylic rubber, silicone rubber, fluorosilicone rubber, perfluoroelastomers, polyether block amides, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene-vinyl acetate, thermoplastic elastomer, protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, or a combination thereof.
(25) Preferably, the second anode-protecting layer (the elastomer layer) is different in composition than the electrolyte per se used in the lithium battery and maintains as a discrete layer (not to be dissolved in the electrolyte) that is disposed between the protected anode active material layer (e.g. Li foil protected by the first protecting layer) and the electrolyte (or electrolyte-separator layer). The second anode-protecting layer may contain a liquid electrolyte that permeates or impregnates into the sulfonated or non-sulfonated elastomer.
(26) We have discovered that the two anode-protecting layers, in combination, provide several unexpected benefits: (a) the formation of dendrite has been essentially eliminated; (b) uniform deposition of lithium back to the anode side is readily achieved; (c) the layers ensure smooth and uninterrupted transport of lithium ions from/to the lithium foil/coating and through the interface between the lithium foil/coating and the protective layer with minimal interfacial resistance; (d) significant reduction in the amount of dead lithium particles near the Li foil; and (e) cycle stability can be significantly improved and cycle life increased.
(27) In a conventional lithium metal cell, as illustrated in
(28) We have solved these challenging issues that have troubled battery designers and electrochemists alike for more than 30 years by developing and implementing two anode-protecting layers disposed between the lithium foil/coating and the separator layer. As schematically shown in
(29) The elastomer in the second anode-protecting layer exhibits an elastic deformation of at least 2% when measured under uniaxial tension. In the field of materials science and engineering, the elastic deformation is defined as a deformation of a material (when being mechanically stressed) that is essentially fully recoverable upon release of the load and the recovery is essentially instantaneous. The elastic deformation is preferably greater than 5%, more preferably greater than 10%, further more preferably greater than 30%, and still more preferably greater than 100% but less than 500%.
(30) It may be noted that although
(31) The presently invented lithium secondary batteries can contain a wide variety of cathode active materials. The cathode active material layer may contain a cathode active material selected from an inorganic material, an organic material, a polymeric material, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material may be selected from a metal oxide, metal phosphate, metal silicide, metal selenide, transition metal sulfide, or a combination thereof.
(32) The inorganic cathode active material may be selected from a lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium manganese oxide, lithium vanadium oxide, lithium-mixed metal oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lithium manganese phosphate, lithium vanadium phosphate, lithium mixed metal phosphate, lithium metal silicide, or a combination thereof.
(33) In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material as a cathode active material for the lithium battery is selected from a metal fluoride or metal chloride including the group consisting of CoF.sub.3, MnF.sub.3, FeF.sub.3, VF.sub.3, VOF.sub.3, TiF.sub.3, BiF.sub.3, NiF.sub.2, FeF.sub.2, CuF.sub.2, CuF, SnF.sub.2, AgF, CuCl.sub.2, FeCl.sub.3, MnCl.sub.2, and combinations thereof. In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from a lithium transition metal silicate, denoted as Li.sub.2MSiO.sub.4 or Li.sub.2Ma.sub.xMb.sub.ySiO.sub.4, wherein M and Ma are selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, or VO; Mb is selected from Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, V, Ti, Al, B, Sn, or Bi; and x+y1.
(34) In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material as a cathode active material is selected from a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, or a combination thereof. The inorganic material is selected from TiS.sub.2, TaS.sub.2, MoS.sub.2, NbSe.sub.3, MnO.sub.2, CoO.sub.2, an iron oxide, a vanadium oxide, or a combination thereof.
(35) The cathode active material layer may contain a metal oxide containing vanadium oxide selected from the group consisting of VO.sub.2, Li.sub.xVO.sub.2, V.sub.2O.sub.5, Li.sub.xV.sub.2O.sub.5, V.sub.3O.sub.8, Li.sub.xV.sub.3O.sub.8, Li.sub.xV.sub.3O.sub.7, V.sub.4O.sub.9, Li.sub.xV.sub.4O.sub.9, V.sub.6O.sub.1.3, Li.sub.xV.sub.6O.sub.13, their doped versions, their derivatives, and combinations thereof, wherein 0.1<x5.
(36) The cathode active material layer may contain a metal oxide or metal phosphate, selected from a layered compound LiMO.sub.2, spinel compound LiM.sub.2O.sub.4, olivine compound LiMPO.sub.4, silicate compound Li.sub.2MSiO.sub.4, tavorite compound LiMPO.sub.4F, borate compound LiMBO.sub.3, or a combination thereof, wherein M is a transition metal or a mixture of multiple transition metals.
(37) In some embodiments, the inorganic material is selected from: (a) bismuth selenide or bismuth telluride, (b) transition metal dichalcogenide or trichalcogenide, (c) sulfide, selenide, or telluride of niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, titanium, cobalt, manganese, iron, nickel, or a transition metal; (d) boron nitride, or (e) a combination thereof.
(38) The cathode active material layer may contain an organic material or polymeric material selected from poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide) (PAQS), a lithium oxocarbon, 3,4,9,10-perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA), poly(anthraquinonyl sulfide), pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone (PYT), polymer-bound PYT, quino(triazene), redox-active organic material, tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), 2,3,6,7,10,11-hexamethoxytriphenylene (HMTP), poly(5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone) (PADAQ), phosphazene disulfide polymer ([(NPS.sub.2).sub.3]n), lithiated 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetraol formaldehyde polymer, hexaazatrinaphtylene (HATN), hexaazatriphenylene hexacarbonitrile (HAT(CN).sub.6), 5-benzylidene hydantoin, isatine lithium salt, pyromellitic diimide lithium salt, tetrahydroxy-p-benzoquinone derivatives (THQLi.sub.4), N,N-diphenyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PHP), N,N-diallyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (AP), N,N-dipropyl-2,3,5,6-tetraketopiperazine (PRP), a thioether polymer, a quinone compound, 1,4-benzoquinone, 5,7,12,14-pentacenetetrone (PT), 5-amino-2,3-dihydro-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADDAQ), 5-amino-1,4-dyhydroxy anthraquinone (ADAQ), calixquinone, Li.sub.4C.sub.6O.sub.6, Li.sub.2C.sub.6O.sub.6, Li.sub.6C.sub.6O.sub.6, or a combination thereof.
(39) The thioether polymer is selected from poly[methanetetryl-tetra(thiomethylene)](PMTTM), poly(2,4-dithiopentanylene) (PDTP), a polymer containing poly(ethene-1,1,2,2-tetrathiol) (PETT) as a main-chain thioether polymers, a side-chain thioether polymer having a main-chain consisting of conjugating aromatic moieties, and having a thioether side chain as a pendant, poly(2-phenyl-1,3-dithiolane) (PPDT), poly(1,4-di(1,3-dithiolan-2-yl)benzene) (PDDTB), poly(tetrahydrobenzodithiophene) (PTHBDT), poly[1,2,4,5-tetrakis(propylthio)benzene] (PTKPTB, or poly[3,4(ethylenedithio)thiophene] (PEDTT).
(40) In other embodiments, the cathode active material layer contains an organic material selected from a phthalocyanine compound, such as copper phthalocyanine, zinc phthalocyanine, tin phthalocyanine, iron phthalocyanine, lead phthalocyanine, nickel phthalocyanine, vanadyl phthalocyanine, fluorochromium phthalocyanine, magnesium phthalocyanine, manganous phthalocyanine, dilithium phthalocyanine, aluminum phthalocyanine chloride, cadmium phthalocyanine, chlorogallium phthalocyanine, cobalt phthalocyanine, silver phthalocyanine, a metal-free phthalocyanine, a chemical derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.
(41) Preferably and typically, the elastomer has a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10.sup.5 S/cm, more preferably no less than 10.sup.4 S/cm, further preferably no less than 10.sup.3 S/cm, and most preferably no less than 10.sup.2 S/cm. In some embodiments, the elastomer comprises from 0.1% to 50% (preferably 1% to 35%) by weight of a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in an elastomer matrix material. The elastomer must have a high elasticity (elastic deformation strain value >2%). An elastic deformation is a deformation that is fully recoverable and the recovery process is essentially instantaneous (no significant time delay). The elastomer composite can exhibit an elastic deformation from 2% up to 1,000% (10 times of its original length), more typically from 5% to 500%, and further more typically from 10% to 300%, and most typically and desirably from 30% to 300%. It may be noted that although a metal typically has a high ductility (i.e. can be extended to a large extent without breakage), the majority of the deformation is plastic deformation (non-recoverable) and only a small amount of elastic deformation (typically <1% and more typically <0.2%).
(42) Further, we have unexpectedly discovered that the presence of an amount of a lithium salt or sodium salt (1-35% by weight) and a liquid solvent (0-50%) can significantly increase the lithium-ion or sodium ion conductivity.
(43) Typically, an elastomer is originally in a monomer or oligomer states that can be cured to form a cross-linked polymer that is highly elastic. Prior to curing, these polymers or oligomers are soluble in an organic solvent to form a polymer solution. An ion-conducting or electron-conducting additive may be added to this solution to form a suspension. This solution or suspension can then be formed into a thin layer of polymer precursor on a surface of the first anode-protecting layer. The polymer precursor (monomer or oligomer and initiator) is then polymerized and cured to form a lightly cross-linked polymer. Alternatively, this thin layer of polymer may be tentatively deposited on a solid substrate (e.g. surface of a polymer or glass), dried, and separated from the substrate to become a free-standing polymer layer. This free-standing layer is then laid on a primary surface of the first anode-protecting layer or implemented between a protected lithium film/coating layer and electrolyte or separator. polymer layer formation can be accomplished by using one of several procedures well-known in the art; e.g. spraying, spray-painting, printing, coating, extrusion-based film-forming, casting, etc.
(44) One may dispense and deposit a layer of a sulfonated or un-sulfonated elastomer onto a primary surface of the anode active material layer. Alternatively, one may dispense and deposit a layer of an elastomer onto a primary surface of a separator layer. Further alternatively, one may prepare separate free-standing discrete layers of the elastomer (intended as the second anode-protecting layer) and the lithium ion-conducting material (intended as the first anode-protecting layer) first. These two layers are then laminated together with the anode active material layer, electrolyte or a separator/electrolyte assembly, and a cathode layer to form a battery cell.
(45) Thus, the invention also provides a method of manufacturing a lithium battery, the method comprising: (a) providing a cathode active material layer and an optional cathode current collector to support the cathode active material layer; (b) providing an anode active material layer (e.g. containing a lithium metal or lithium alloy foil or coating) and an optional anode current collector to support the lithium metal or lithium alloy foil or coating; (c) providing a first anode-protecting layer having a thickness from 1 nm to 100 m (preferably from 2 nm to 100 nm) and comprising a thin layer of a lithium ion-conducting material having a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.8 S/cm to 510.sup.2 S/cm and being in physical contact with the anode active material layer; (d) providing a second anode-protecting layer of an elastomer having a recoverable tensile elastic strain from 2% to 1,000% (preferably from 5% to 300%), a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10.sup.8 S/cm at room temperature, and a thickness from 1 nm to 100 m (preferably from 10 nm to 10 m); and (e) providing an electrolyte in contact with the second anode-protecting layer and the cathode active material layer and an optional separator electrically separating the anode and the cathode. This second anode-protecting layer is disposed between the first anode protecting layer (covering the lithium metal or lithium alloy foil or coating) and the porous separator (or the electrolyte).
(46) The invention also provides a method of improving the cycle-life of a lithium metal secondary battery (not including a lithium-sulfur battery or lithium-selenium battery). The method comprises implementing two anode-protecting layers between an anode active material layer and an electrolyte or a porous separator/electrolyte combination. The first anode-protecting layer has a thickness from 1 nm to 100 m (preferably from 2 nm to 100 nm) and comprises a thin layer of a lithium ion-conducting material having a lithium ion conductivity from 10.sup.8 S/cm to 510.sup.2 S/cm and being in physical contact with the anode active material layer. The second anode-protecting layer comprises an elastomer having a recoverable tensile elastic strain from 2% to 1,000% (preferably from 5% to 300%), a lithium ion conductivity no less than 10.sup.8 S/cm at room temperature, and a thickness from 1 nm to 100 m (preferably from 10 nm to 10 m).
(47) It may be noted that the presently invented lithium secondary battery comprises at least the following layers: an optional anode current collector (e.g. a Cu foil or a graphene foam), an anode active material layer (e.g. a discrete lithium foil, a lithium coating layer, or a layer of lithium particles) supported by the anode current collector (if present), a first anode-protecting layer (e.g. a layer of polymer or inorganic lithium ion-conductor) substantially fully covering the anode active material layer and in good contact thereto, a second anode-protecting layer (elastomer or elastomer composite) substantially fully covering the first anode-protecting layer, an electrolyte/separator assembly (electrolyte alone or in combination with a layer of porous separator or membrane), a cathode active material layer, and an optional cathode current collector (e.g. Al foil, graphene paper sheet, etc.). The porous membrane or separator is optional.
(48) There are many different sequences with which these individual layers may be produced and combined together. For instance, one may produce all components in a free-standing form and then combine them together. Alternatively, one may produce certain components in single free-standing films but other components in a 2-layer or 3-layer structure, followed by combining these components and structures together. For instance, one may spray, cast, coat, or deposit a layer of ion-conducting material onto a primary surface of a lithium foil to form a two-layer structure. One may also spray, cast, or coat an elastomer layer onto a primary surface of a separator to form a two-layer structure. These two-layer structures are then laminated with other components to form a battery cell.
(49) Thus, the step of implementing a first anode-protecting layer may be conducted by spraying a slurry of a conductive material (e.g. particles of an inorganic solid electrolyte and an optional binder resin) dispersed in a liquid (e.g. an organic solvent) onto a primary surface of the anode active material layer, followed by liquid removal. Alternatively, one may prepare a free-standing layer of such a lithium ion-conductive material first, which is then laid over a primary surface of the anode active material layer (e.g. a Li foil).
(50) The step of implementing a second anode-protecting layer may be conducted by depositing a layer of an elastomer onto one primary surface of the first protective layer that in turn covers the anode active material layer. This step includes optionally compressing the protected anode to improve the contact between the anode-protecting layers and the anode active material layer, followed by combining the protected anode, the separator/electrolyte, and the cathode together to form the lithium metal secondary battery. A good contact between the anode active material layer and the anode-protecting layer is essential to reducing internal resistance.
(51) In certain embodiments, the step of implementing the anode-protecting layers is conducted by (i) preparing a lithium ion-conductive material-protected anode active material layer; (ii) depositing a layer of an elastomer onto one primary surface of a separator to form a coated separator; and (iii) combining the ion-conducting material (first protecting layer)-protected active anode layer, the coated separator, a cathode, and the electrolyte together to form the lithium metal secondary battery. A compressive stress may be advantageously applied (e.g. via press-rolling) to improve the contact between the anode-protecting layer and the anode active material layer to be protected.
(52) In certain embodiments, the step of implementing anode-protecting layers is conducted by forming a first protecting layer of ion-conducting material and a second protecting layer of elastomer, followed by laminating the anode active material layer, the first protecting layer, the second protecting layer of elastomer, the separator layer, the cathode layer, along with the electrolyte to form the lithium metal secondary battery, wherein an optional (but desirable) compressive stress is applied to improve the contact between the anode-protecting layers and the anode active material layer during or after this laminating step.
(53) Sulfonation of an elastomer or rubber may be accomplished by exposing the elastomer/rubber to a sulfonation agent in a solution state or melt state, in a batch manner or in a continuous process. The sulfonating agent may be selected from sulfuric acid, sulfonic acid, sulfur trioxide, chlorosulfonic acid, a bisulfate, a sulfate (e.g. zinc sulfate, acetyl sulfate, etc.), a mixture thereof, or a mixture thereof with another chemical species (e.g. acetic anhydride, thiolacetic acid, or other types of acids, etc.). In addition to zinc sulfate, there are a wide variety of metal sulfates that may be used as a sulfonating agent; e.g. those sulfates containing Mg, Ca, Co, Li, Ba, Na, Pb, Ni, Fe, Mn, K, Hg, Cr, and other transition metals, etc.
(54) For instance, a triblock copolymer, poly(styrene-isobutylene-styrene) or SIBS, may be sulfonated to several different levels ranging from 0.36 to 2.04 mequiv./g (13 to 82 mol % of styrene; styrene being 19 mol % of the unsulfonated block copolymer). Sulfonation of SIBS may be performed in solution with acetyl sulfate as the sulfonating agent. First, acetic anhydride reacts with sulfuric acid to form acetyl sulfate (a sulfonating agent) and acetic acid (a by-product). Then, excess water is removed since anhydrous conditions are required for sulfonation of SIBS. The SIBS is then mixed with the mixture of acetyl sulfate and acetic acid. Such a sulfonation reaction produces sulfonic acid substituted to the para-position of the aromatic ring in the styrene block of the polymer. Elastomers having an aromatic ring may be sulfonated in a similar manner.
(55) A sulfonated elastomer also may be synthesized by copolymerization of a low level of functionalized (i.e. sulfonated) monomer with an unsaturated monomer (e.g. olefinic monomer, isoprene monomer or oligomer, butadiene monomer or oligomer, etc.).
(56) A broad array of elastomers can be sulfonated to become sulfonated elastomers. The elastomeric material may be selected from natural polyisoprene (e.g. cis-1,4-polyisoprene natural rubber (NR) and trans-1,4-polyisoprene gutta-percha), synthetic polyisoprene (IR for isoprene rubber), polybutadiene (BR for butadiene rubber), chloroprene rubber (CR), polychloroprene (e.g. Neoprene, Baypren etc.), butyl rubber (copolymer of isobutylene and isoprene, IIR), including halogenated butyl rubbers (chloro butyl rubber (CIIR) and bromo butyl rubber (BIIR), styrene-butadiene rubber (copolymer of styrene and butadiene, SBR), nitrile rubber (copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile, NBR), EPM (ethylene propylene rubber, a copolymer of ethylene and propylene), EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene rubber, a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and a diene-component), epichlorohydrin rubber (ECO), polyacrylic rubber (ACM, ABR), silicone rubber (SI, Q, VMQ), fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ), fluoroelastomers (FKM, and FEPM; such as Viton, Tecnoflon, Fluorel, Aflas and Dai-El), perfluoroelastomers (FFKM: Tecnoflon PFR, Kalrez, Chemraz, Perlast), polyether block amides (PEBA), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSM; e.g. Hypalon), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), protein resilin, protein elastin, ethylene oxide-epichlorohydrin copolymer, polyurethane, urethane-urea copolymer, and combinations thereof.
(57) In some embodiments, an elastomer in the second anode-protecting layer can form a polymer matrix composite containing a lithium ion-conducting additive dispersed in the elastomer matrix material, wherein the lithium ion-conducting additive is selected from Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4, LiOH, LiX, ROCO.sub.2Li, HCOLi, ROLi, (ROCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2, Li.sub.2S, Li.sub.xSO.sub.y, or a combination thereof, wherein X=F, Cl, I, or Br, R=a hydrocarbon group, 0<x1 and 1y4.
(58) In some embodiments, the elastomer in the second anode-protecting layer can be mixed with a lithium ion-conducting additive, which contains a lithium salt selected from lithium perchlorate (LiClO.sub.4), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF.sub.6), lithium borofluoride (LiBF.sub.4), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF.sub.6), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium (LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium nitrate (LiNO.sub.3), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphate (LiPF.sub.3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3), lithium bisperfluoro-ethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (LiTFSI), an ionic liquid-based lithium salt, or a combination thereof.
(59) The elastomer in the second anode-protecting layer may form a mixture, blend, or interpenetrating network with an electron-conducting polymer selected from polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyfuran, a bi-cyclic polymer, derivatives thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the elastomer may form a mixture, co-polymer, or semi-interpenetrating network with a lithium ion-conducting polymer selected from poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), polypropylene oxide (PPO), poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), poly bis-methoxy ethoxyethoxide-phosphazene, polyvinyl chloride, polydimethylsiloxane, poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), a derivative thereof (e.g. sulfonated versions), or a combination thereof.
(60) The electrolyte for a lithium secondary cell may be an organic electrolyte, ionic liquid electrolyte, gel polymer electrolyte, solid-state electrolyte (e.g. polymer solid electrolyte or inorganic solid electrolyte), quasi-solid electrolyte or a combination thereof. The electrolyte typically contains an alkali metal salt (lithium salt, sodium salt, and/or potassium salt) dissolved in a solvent.
(61) The solvent may be selected from 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME), tetraethylene glycol dimethylether (TEGDME), poly(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME), diethylene glycol dibutyl ether (DEGDBE), 2-ethoxyethyl ether (EEE), sulfone, sulfolane, ethylene carbonate (EC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), methylethyl carbonate (MEC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), ethyl propionate, methyl propionate, propylene carbonate (PC), gamma-butyrolactone (-BL), acetonitrile (AN), ethyl acetate (EA), propyl formate (PF), methyl formate (MF), toluene, xylene, methyl acetate (MA), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylene carbonate (VC), allyl ethyl carbonate (AEC), a hydrofluoroether, a room temperature ionic liquid solvent, or a combination thereof.
(62) The electrolytic salts to be incorporated into a non-aqueous electrolyte may be selected from a lithium salt such as lithium perchlorate (LiClO.sub.4), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF.sub.6), lithium borofluoride (LiBF.sub.4), lithium hexafluoroarsenide (LiAsF.sub.6), lithium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (LiCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide lithium [LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2], lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium oxalyldifluoroborate (LiBF.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4), lithium nitrate (LiNO.sub.3), Li-fluoroalkyl-phosphates (LiPF.sub.3(CF.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.3), lithium bisperfluoroethylsulfonylimide (LiBETI), an ionic liquid salt, sodium perchlorate (NaClOO.sub.4), potassium perchlorate (KClO.sub.4), sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF.sub.6), potassium hexafluorophosphate (KPF.sub.6), sodium borofluoride (NaBF.sub.4), potassium borofluoride (KBF.sub.4), sodium hexafluoroarsenide, potassium hexafluoroarsenide, sodium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (NaCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), potassium trifluoro-methanesulfonate (KCF.sub.3SO.sub.3), bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide sodium (NaN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2), sodium trifluoromethanesulfonimide (NaTFSI), and bis-trifluoromethyl sulfonylimide potassium (KN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2). Among them, LiPF.sub.6, LiBF.sub.4 and LiN(CF.sub.3SO.sub.2).sub.2 are preferred for LiS cells, NaPF.sub.6 and LiBF.sub.4 for NaS cells, and KBF.sub.4 for KS cells. The content of aforementioned electrolytic salts in the non-aqueous solvent is preferably 0.5 to 3.0 M (mol/L) at the cathode side and 3.0 to >10 M at the anode side.
(63) The ionic liquid is composed of ions only. Ionic liquids are low melting temperature salts that are in a molten or liquid state when above a desired temperature. For instance, a salt is considered as an ionic liquid if its melting point is below 100 C. If the melting temperature is equal to or lower than room temperature (25 C.), the salt is referred to as a room temperature ionic liquid (RTIL). The IL salts are characterized by weak interactions, due to the combination of a large cation and a charge-delocalized anion. This results in a low tendency to crystallize due to flexibility (anion) and asymmetry (cation).
(64) A typical and well-known ionic liquid is formed by the combination of a 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium (EMI) cation and an N,N-bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonamide (TFSI) anion. This combination gives a fluid with an ionic conductivity comparable to many organic electrolyte solutions and a low decomposition propensity and low vapor pressure up to 300-400 C. This implies a generally low volatility and non-flammability and, hence, a much safer electrolyte for batteries.
(65) Ionic liquids are basically composed of organic ions that come in an essentially unlimited number of structural variations owing to the preparation ease of a large variety of their components. Thus, various kinds of salts can be used to design the ionic liquid that has the desired properties for a given application. These include, among others, imidazolium, pyrrolidinium and quaternary ammonium salts as cations and bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide, bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, and hexafluorophosphate as anions. Based on their compositions, ionic liquids come in different classes that basically include aprotic, protic and zwitterionic types, each one suitable for a specific application.
(66) Common cations of room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) include, but not limited to, tetraalkylammonium, di-, tri-, and tetra-alkylimidazolium, alkylpyridinium, dialkyl-pyrrolidinium, dialkylpiperidinium, tetraalkylphosphonium, and trialkylsulfonium. Common anions of RTILs include, but not limited to, BF.sub.4.sup., B(CN).sub.4.sup., CH.sub.3BF.sub.3.sup., CH.sub.2CHBF.sub.3.sup., CF.sub.3BF.sub.3.sup., C.sub.2F.sub.5BF.sub.3.sup., n-C.sub.3F.sub.7BF.sub.3.sup., n-C.sub.4F.sub.9BF.sub.3.sup., PF.sub.6.sup., CF.sub.3CO.sub.2.sup., CF.sub.3SO.sub.3.sup., N(SO.sub.2CF.sub.3).sub.2.sup., N(COCF.sub.3)(SO.sub.2CF.sub.3).sup., N(SO.sub.2F).sub.2.sup., N(CN).sub.2.sup., C(CN).sub.3.sup., SCN.sup., SeCN.sup., CuCl.sub.2.sup., AlCl.sub.4.sup., F(HF).sub.2.3.sup., etc. Relatively speaking, the combination of imidazolium- or sulfonium-based cations and complex halide anions such as AlCl.sub.4.sup., BF.sub.4.sup., CF.sub.3CO.sub.2.sup., CF.sub.3SO.sub.3.sup., NTf.sub.2.sup., N(SO.sub.2F).sub.2.sup., or F(HF).sub.2.3.sup. results in RTILs with good working conductivities.
(67) RTILs can possess archetypical properties such as high intrinsic ionic conductivity, high thermal stability, low volatility, low (practically zero) vapor pressure, non-flammability, the ability to remain liquid at a wide range of temperatures above and below room temperature, high polarity, high viscosity, and wide electrochemical windows. These properties, except for the high viscosity, are desirable attributes when it comes to using an RTIL as an electrolyte ingredient (a salt and/or a solvent) in a lithium metal cell.
(68) The following provide some representative examples to illustrate the best mode of practice and should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention.
Example 1: Ion-Conducting Polyethylene Oxide (PEO) and Polypropylene Oxide (PPO) Polymers Containing Nanoparticles of ZrO.SUB.2., SiO.SUB.2., or Al.SUB.2.O.SUB.3 .as a First Anode-Protecting Layer
(69) Sulfated zirconia was prepared by treating commercial ZrO.sub.2 powders (Aldrich nanopowders, 20-30 nm) with a concentrated (NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4 solution. As a first step, the procedure included drying the commercial ZrO.sub.2 powders at 240 C. for 24 h in a vacuum oven. Then, the powders were added to an aqueous solution of (NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4 and stirred vigorously. The mixture was subsequently filtered and the collected wet powders dried in a vacuum oven. The dried powders were thermally treated according to the following scheme: (i) heating up to 350 C. at 1 C./min; (ii) resting at 350 C. for 2 h; (iii) heating up to 550 C. at 1 C./min; and (iv) resting at 550 C. for 2 h. Particles of SiO.sub.2 and Al.sub.2O.sub.3 were similarly treated. Sulfated-ZrO.sub.2, SiO.sub.2, and Al.sub.2O.sub.3, respectively, along with 1-10% by wt. of LiBF.sub.4, were mixed with PEO and PPO using a melt-mixing procedure to obtain polymer composite layers for use as the first anode-protecting layer.
Example 2: A Layer of Lithium Ion-Conducting Polymer as a First Anode-Protecting Layer
(70) Poly [(oxyethylene).sub.9 methacrylate]-g-poly(dimethyl siloxane) (POEM-g-PDMS) (70:30) was synthesized by free radical methods. In one representative procedure, 6 mL of poly(dimethyl siloxane) monomethacrylate macromonomer (Aldrich, Mn=10,000 g/mol) and 13 mL of poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate monomer (Aldrich, Mn=475 g/mol) were added to 80 mL of ethyl acetate under a constant-stirring condition. This formulation corresponds to a weight ratio of 70:30 (POEM:PDMS) or a molar ratio of 50:1 (POEM:PDMS side chains). Subsequently, 6 mg of the initiator 2,2-azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN, Aldrich) were added (monomer/initiator ratio==825/1) and the flask was sealed and purged for 30 min with argon. The solution was then heated to 68 C. in an oil bath and left under constant stirring. After 24 h, the polymer was precipitated in hexane and cast into films. The product had a molecular weight of 480,000 g/mol with respect to a polystyrene calibration curve as determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC), corresponding to roughly 15 PDMS side chains per molecule.
Example 3: LiBH.SUB.4 .as a Lithium Ion-Conducting Material for Use in a First Anode-Protecting Layer
(71) LiBH.sub.4 (Aldrich, >90% purity) and KI (Aldrich, >99.998% purity) were mixed in a mortar at a given molar ratio and pelletized under 1 t/cm.sup.2. The obtained pellet was sealed in a silica glass tube and sintered under vacuum conditions. Samples with a high LiBH.sub.4 content were sintered at 180 C., while LiBH.sub.4 poor samples were sintered at approximately 250 C. After sintering the samples for 1 h, they were ground and then re-pelletized for the subsequent 8 h of sintering. The LiBH.sub.4 powder was added into a PEO polymer matrix to make a layer of PEO/LiBH.sub.4 composite-based anode-protecting layer.
Example 4: Evaporation-Induced Self-Assembly Preparation of NASICON-Type Nanosized Solid Electrolyte Li.SUB.1.4.Al.SUB.0.4.Ti.SUB.1.6.(PO.SUB.4.).SUB.3.(LATP) as an Ion Conductor
(72) Ethanol soluble LiNO.sub.3.H.sub.2O, AlCl.sub.3, TiCl.sub.4, and H.sub.3PO.sub.4 were used as starting materials. The materials were accurately weighed according to the stoichiometric ratio as in Li.sub.1.4 Al.sub.0.4Ti.sub.1.6(PO.sub.4).sub.3. In a procedure, TiCl.sub.4 and AlCl.sub.3 were first dissolved in EtOH and magnetically stirred for 30 min. Then, LiNO.sub.3.H.sub.2O and H.sub.3PO.sub.4 were added to the solution under vigorous stirring for another 2 h. The homogenous sol solution was poured into open Petri dishes and heated at various temperatures (35, 50, and 75 C.) in air, allowing the solvent to evaporate until viscous sol-gel was formed. The sol-gel was further aged at 100 C. for 6 h to become the dry LATP precursor. Such dried gel was subsequently pyrolyzed in air at 300 C. for 3 h, followed by annealing at 800 C. for 2 h to obtain LATP powder.
Example 4: Preparation of Garnet-Type Li.SUB.7-x.La.SUB.3.Zr.SUB.2-x.Ta.SUB.x.O.SUB.12 .(LLZT) as an Ion Conductor in a First Anode-Protecting Layer
(73) LLZT with a Ta content (x) of 0.45 was synthesized using a conventional solid-state reaction process. Stoichiometric amounts of LiOHH.sub.2O (99% with 10% excess was added to account for the evaporation of lithium at high temperatures), La(OH).sub.3 (99.99%), ZrO.sub.2 (98%) and Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 (99.9%), which were then ground and mixed by planetary ball-milling with zirconia balls and ethanol for 3 h in a zirconia pot, and then calcined at 900 C. for 6 h in air using a tungsten carbide crucible. The calcined powders were ground again by planetary ball-milling for 1 h, and then pressed into pellets at 300 MPa by cold isostatic pressing. Finally, the pellets were sintered at 1150 C. for 15 h in air.
Example 5: Preparation of Perovskite-Type Oxynitride Solid Solutions
(74) Precursor material, Li.sub.0.5La.sub.0.5TiO.sub.3, was prepared by a conventional solid-state reaction technique. Reagents of Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 (Alfa 99.9% in purity), La.sub.2O.sub.3(Alfa 99.9% purity, heated overnight at 1000 C. in air atmosphere) and TiO.sub.2 (Sigma Aldrich 99.9% purity) were mixed in a molar ratio of 1.1:1:2. Considering the potential loss of Li during the evaporation, 10% excess was used to obtain the desired composition. The mixture was annealed at 1073 K for 6 hours and subsequently at 1473 K for 12 hours in air atmosphere with several intermittent grindings until single phase Li.sub.0.5La.sub.0.5TiO.sub.3 was obtained.
(75) Polycrystalline oxynitride powder samples were prepared by thermal ammonolysis of synthesized precursor Li.sub.0.5La.sub.0.5TiO.sub.3 with flowing ammonia (500 ml/min) for 1, 5 and 10 hours at 1223 K. In addition to the conventional solid-state reaction technique, polycrystalline oxynitride powder samples were also obtained by thermal ammonolysis of oxide precursor.
Example 6: Sulfonation of Triblock Copolymer Poly(Styrene-Isobutylene-Styrene) or SIBS
(76) Both non-sulfonated and sulfonated elastomers are used to build the second anode-protecting layer in the present invention. The sulfonated versions typically provide a much higher lithium ion conductivity and, hence, enable higher-rate capability or higher power density. The elastomer matrix can contain a lithium ion-conducting additive, an electron-conducting additive, and/or a lithium metal-stabilizing additive.
(77) An example of the sulfonation procedure used in this study for making a sulfonated elastomer is summarized as follows: a 10% (w/v) solution of SIBS (50 g) and a desired amount of graphene oxide sheets (0 to 40.5% by wt.) in methylene chloride (500 ml) was prepared. The solution was stirred and refluxed at approximately 40 C., while a specified amount of acetyl sulfate in methylene chloride was slowly added to begin the sulfonation reaction. Acetyl sulfate in methylene chloride was prepared prior to this reaction by cooling 150 ml of methylene chloride in an ice bath for approximately 10 min. A specified amount of acetic anhydride and sulfuric acid was then added to the chilled methylene chloride under stirring conditions. Sulfuric acid was added approximately 10 min after the addition of acetic anhydride with acetic anhydride in excess of a 1:1 mole ratio. This solution was then allowed to return to room temperature before addition to the reaction vessel.
(78) After approximately 5 h, the reaction was terminated by slowly adding 100 ml of methanol. The reacted polymer solution was then precipitated with deionized water. The precipitate was washed several times with water and methanol, separately, and then dried in a vacuum oven at 50 C. for 24 h. This washing and drying procedure was repeated until the pH of the wash water was neutral. After this process, the final polymer yield was approximately 98% on average. This sulfonation procedure was repeated with different amounts of acetyl sulfate to produce several sulfonated polymers with various levels of sulfonation or ion-exchange capacities (IECs). The mol % sulfonation is defined as: mol %=(moles of sulfonic acid/moles of styrene)100%, and the IEC is defined as the mille-equivalents of sulfonic acid per gram of polymer (mequiv./g).
(79) After sulfonation and washing of each polymer, the S-SIBS samples were dissolved in a mixed solvent of toluene/hexanol (85/15, w/w) with concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 2.5% (w/v). Desired amounts of graphene sheets and a lithium metal-stabilizing additives (e.g. LiNO.sub.3 and lithium trifluoromethanesulfonimide), if not added at an earlier stage, were then added into the solution to form slurry samples. The slurry samples were slot-die coated on a PET plastic substrate to form layers of sulfonated elastomer composite. The lithium metal-stabilizing additives were found to impart stability to lithium metal-electrolyte interfaces.
Example 7: Synthesis of Sulfonated Polybutadiene (PB) by Free Radical Addition of Thiolacetic Acid (TAA) Followed by In Situ Oxidation with Performic Acid
(80) A representative procedure is given as follows. PB (8.0 g) was dissolved in toluene (800 mL) under vigorous stirring for 72 h at room temperature in a 1 L round-bottom flask. Benzophenone (BZP) (0.225 g; 1.23 mmol; BZP/olefin molar ratio=1:120) and TAA (11.9 mL; 0.163 mol, TAA/olefin molar ratio=1.1) and a desired amount of graphene sheets or CNTs (0%-40% by wt.) were introduced into the reactor, and the polymer solution was irradiated for 1 h at room temperature with UV light of 365 nm and power of 100 W.
(81) The resulting thioacetylated polybutadiene (PB-TA)/graphene composite was isolated by pouring 200 mL of the toluene solution in a plenty of methanol and the polymer recovered by filtration, washed with fresh methanol, and dried in vacuum at room temperature (Yield=3.54 g). Formic acid (117 mL; 3.06 mol; HCOOH/olefin molar ratio=25), along with a desired amount of anode active material particles, from 10 to 100 grams) were added to the toluene solution of PB-TA at 50 C. followed by slow addition of 52.6 mL of hydrogen peroxide (35 wt %; 0.61 mol; H.sub.2O.sub.2/olefin molar ratio=5) in 20 min. We would like to caution that the reaction is autocatalytic and strongly exothermic. The resulting slurry was spray-dried to obtain sulfonated polybutadiene (PB-SA) composite layers.
(82) It may be noted that lithium ion-conducting additive may be added at different stages of the procedure: before, during or after BZP is added.
Example 8: Synthesis of Sulfonated SBS
(83) Sulfonated styrene-butadiene-styrene triblock copolymer (SBS) based elastomer was directly synthesized. First, SBS (optionally along with a lithium ion-conducting additive or electron-conducting additive) is first epoxidized by performic acid formed in situ, followed by ring-opening reaction with an aqueous solution of NaHSO.sub.3. In a typical procedure, epoxidation of SBS was carried out via reaction of SBS in cyclohexane solution (SBS concentration=11 g/100 mL) with performic acid formed in situ from HCOOH and 30% aqueous H.sub.2O.sub.2 solution at 70 C. for 4 h, using 1 wt. % poly(ethylene glycol)/SBS as a phase transfer catalyst. The molar ratio of H.sub.2O.sub.2/HCOOH was 1. The product (ESBS) was precipitated and washed several times with ethanol, followed by drying in a vacuum dryer at 60 C.
(84) Subsequently, ESBS was first dissolved in toluene to form a solution with a concentration of 10 g/100 mL, into which was added 5 wt. % TEAB/ESBS as a phase transfer catalyst and 5 wt. % DMA/ESBS as a ring-opening catalyst. Herein, TEAB=tetraethyl ammonium bromide and DMA=N,N-dimethyl aniline. An aqueous solution of NaHSO.sub.3 and Na.sub.2SO.sub.3 (optionally along with graphene sheets or CNTs, if not added earlier) was then added with vigorous stirring at 60 C. for 7 h at a molar ratio of NaHSO.sub.3/epoxy group at 1.8 and a weight ratio of Na.sub.2SO.sub.3/NaHSO.sub.3 at 36%. This reaction allows for opening of the epoxide ring and attaching of the sulfonate group according to the following reaction:
(85) ##STR00001##
(86) The reaction was terminated by adding a small amount of acetone solution containing antioxidant. The mixture was washed with distilled water and then precipitated by ethanol while being cast into thin films, followed by drying in a vacuum dryer at 50 C. It may be noted electron-conducting additive (e.g. graphene sheets or CNTs) and/or lithium ion-conducting additive (e.g. Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 and NaBF.sub.4) may be added during various stages of the aforementioned procedure (e.g. right from the beginning, or prior to the ring opening reaction).
Example 9: Synthesis of Sulfonated SBS by Free Radical Addition of Thiolacetic Acid (TAA) Followed by In Situ Oxidation with Per-Formic Acid
(87) A representative procedure is given as follows. SBS (8.000 g) in toluene (800 mL) was left under vigorous stirring for 72 hours at room temperature and heated later on for 1 h at 65 C. in a 1 L round-bottom flask until the complete dissolution of the polymer. Thus, benzophenone (BZP, 0.173 g; 0.950 mmol; BZP/olefin molar ratio=1:132) and TAA (8.02 mL; 0.114 mol, TAA/olefin molar ratio=1.1) were added, and the polymer solution was irradiated for 4 h at room temperature with UV light of 365 nm and power of 100 W. To isolate a fraction of the thioacetylated sample (S(B-TA)S), 20 mL of the polymer solution was treated with plenty of methanol, and the polymer was recovered by filtration, washed with fresh methanol, and dried in vacuum at room temperature. The toluene solution containing the thioacetylated polymer was equilibrated at 50 C., and 107.4 mL of formic acid (2.84 mol; HCOOH/olefin molar ratio=27.5) and 48.9 mL of hydrogen peroxide (35 wt %; 0.57 mol; H.sub.2O.sub.2/olefin molar ratio=5.5) were added in about 15 min. It may be cautioned that the reaction is autocatalytic and strongly exothermic! The conductive reinforcement material was added before or after this reaction. The resulting slurry was stirred for 1 h, and then most of the solvent was distilled off in vacuum at 35 C. Finally, the slurry containing the sulfonated elastomer, along with desired additives, was added with acetonitrile, cast into films, washed with fresh acetonitrile, and dried in vacuum at 35 C. to obtain layers of sulfonated elastomers.
(88) Other elastomers (e.g. polyisoprene, EPDM, EPR, polyurethane, etc.) were sulfonated in a similar manner. Alternatively, all the rubbers or elastomers can be directly immersed in a solution of sulfuric acid, a mixture of sulfuric acid and acetyl sulfate, or other sulfonating agent discussed above to produce sulfonated elastomers/rubbers. Again, desired additives may be added at various stages of the procedure.
Example 10: Lithium Battery Containing a Sulfonated Elastomer Composite-Protected Lithium Anode and a Cathode Containing V.SUB.2.O.SUB.5 .Particles
(89) Cathode active material layers were prepared from V.sub.2O.sub.5 particles and graphene-embraced V.sub.2O.sub.5 particles, respectively. The V.sub.2O.sub.5 particles were commercially available. Graphene-embraced V.sub.2O.sub.5 particles were prepared in-house. In a typical experiment, vanadium pentoxide gels were obtained by mixing V.sub.2O.sub.5 in a LiCl aqueous solution. The Li.sup.+-exchanged gels obtained by interaction with LiCl solution (the Li:V molar ratio was kept as 1:1) was mixed with a GO suspension and then placed in a Teflon-lined stainless steel 35 ml autoclave, sealed, and heated up to 180 C. for 12 h. After such a hydrothermal treatment, the green solids were collected, thoroughly washed, ultrasonicated for 2 minutes, and dried at 70 C. for 12 h followed by mixing with another 0.1% GO in water, ultrasonicating to break down nanobelt sizes, and then spray-drying at 200 C. to obtain graphene-embraced V.sub.2O.sub.5 composite particulates. Selected amounts of V.sub.2O.sub.5 particles and graphene-embraced V.sub.2O.sub.5 particles, respectively, were then each made into a cathode layer following a well-known slurry coating process.
(90) The sulfonated elastomer films for use as the second anode-protecting layer were SIBS as prepared in Example 6. Several tensile testing specimens were cut from the film and tested with a universal testing machine. The results indicate that this series of sulfonated elastomer films have an elastic deformation from approximately 150% to 465%. The addition of up to 30% by weight of a conductive reinforcement material (CNTs, graphene, CNFs, etc.) and/or an inorganic additive typically reduces this elasticity down to a reversible tensile strain from 6% to 110%.
(91) For electrochemical testing, the working electrodes (cathode layers) were prepared by mixing 88% of graphene-embraced V.sub.2O.sub.5 particles, 5.0 wt. % CNTs, and 7.0 wt. % polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder dissolved in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinoe (NMP) to form a slurry of 5 wt. % total solid content. After coating the slurries on Al foil, the electrodes were dried at 120 C. in vacuum for 2 h to remove the solvent before pressing. Then, the electrodes were cut into a disk (=12 mm) and dried at 100 C. for 24 h in vacuum.
(92) Electrochemical measurements were carried out using CR2032 (3V) coin-type cells with lithium metal as the counter electrode (actually an anode of a Li-transition metal oxide cell), Celgard 2400 membrane as separator, and 1 M LiPF.sub.6 electrolyte solution dissolved in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC) (EC-DEC, 1:1 v/v). The cell assembly was performed in an argon-filled glove-box. The CV measurements were carried out using a CH-6 electrochemical workstation at a scanning rate of 1 mV/s. The electrochemical performance of the cell featuring sulfonated elastomer composite binder and that containing PVDF binder were evaluated by galvanostatic charge/discharge cycling at a current density of 50 mA/g using an Arbin Electrochemical Testing Station.
(93) Summarized in
(94) The sulfonated elastomer-based protective layer appears to be capable of reversibly deforming to a great extent without breakage when the lithium foil decreases in thickness during battery discharge. The two protective layers also prevent the continued reaction between liquid electrolyte and lithium metal at the anode, reducing the problem of continuing loss in lithium and electrolyte. This also enables a significantly more uniform deposition of lithium ions upon returning from the cathode during a battery re-charge step; hence, no lithium dendrite. These were observed by using SEM to examine the surfaces of the electrodes recovered from the battery cells after some numbers of charge-discharge cycles.
Example 11: Sulfonated Elastomer Implemented in the Anode of a Lithium-LiCoO.SUB.2 .Cell (Initially the Cell Anode has an Ultra-Thin Lithium Layer, <1 m Thick)
(95) The sulfonated elastomer as a lithium-protecting layer was based on the sulfonated polybutadiene (PB) prepared according to a procedure used in Example 7. Tensile testing was also conducted on the sulfonated elastomer films (without the conductive reinforcement material). This series of sulfonated elastomers can be elastically stretched up to approximately 135% (having some lithium salt or conductive reinforcement material dispersed therein) or up to 770% (with no additive).
(96)
Example 12: Li Metal Cells Containing Transition Metal Fluoride Nanoparticle-Based Cathode and a Sulfonated Elastomer-Based Anode-Protecting Layer
(97) This sulfonated elastomer layer was based on sulfonated styrene-butadiene-styrene triblock copolymer (SBS). Tensile testing was conducted on some cut pieces of these layers. This series of cross-linked polymers can be elastically stretched up to approximately 820% (without any additive). The addition of additives results in an elasticity of approximately 5% (e.g. with 20% carbon black) to 160% (e.g. with 5% graphene sheets, as a conductive additive).
(98) Commercially available powders of CoF.sub.3, MnF.sub.3, FeF.sub.3, VF.sub.3, VOF.sub.3, TiF.sub.3, and BiF.sub.3 were subjected to high-intensity ball-milling to reduce the particle size down to approximately 0.5-2.3 m. Each type of these metal fluoride particles, along with graphene sheets (as a conductive additive), was then added into an NMP and PVDF binder suspension to form a multiple-component slurry. The slurry was then slurry-coated on Al foil to form cathode layers.
(99) Shown in
(100) The elastomer layer appears to be capable of reversibly deforming without breakage when the anode layer expands and shrinks during charge and discharge. The elastomer layer and the lithium ion-conducting PPO/sulfated-ZrO.sub.2-based layer also prevent continued reaction between the liquid electrolyte and the lithium metal. No dendrite-like features were found with the anode being protected by a sulfonated elastomer composite. This was confirmed by using SEM to examine the surfaces of the electrodes recovered from the battery cells after some numbers of charge-discharge cycles.
Example 13: Li-Organic Cell Containing a Naphthalocyanine/Reduced Graphene Oxide (FePc/RGO) Particulate Cathode and a Protected Li Foil Anode
(101) Particles of combined FePc/graphene sheets were obtained by ball-milling a mixture of FePc and RGO in a milling chamber for 30 minutes. The resulting FePc/RGO mixture particles were potato-like in shape. Two lithium cells were prepared, each containing a Li foil anode, a porous separator, and a cathode layer of FePc/RGO particles; one cell containing two anode-protecting layers and the other no protecting layer.
(102) The cycling behaviors of these 2 lithium cells are shown in
Example 14: Effect of Lithium Ion-Conducting Additive in a Sulfonated Elastomer Composite
(103) A wide variety of lithium ion-conducting additives were added to several different polymer matrix materials to prepare anode protection layers. The lithium ion conductivity vales of a group of sulfonated elastomer matrix composite materials are summarized in Table 1 below. We have discovered that these composite materials are suitable anode-protecting layer materials provided that their lithium ion conductivity at room temperature is no less than 10.sup.6 S/cm. With these materials, lithium ions appear to be capable of readily diffusing through the protective layer having a thickness no greater than 1 m. For thicker polymer films (e.g. 10 m), a lithium ion conductivity at room temperature of these sulfonated elastomer composites no less than 10.sup.4 S/cm would be required.
(104) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Lithium ion conductivity of various sulfonated elastomer composite compositions as a lithium metal-protecting layer. Sample Lithium-conducting % sulfonated elastomer No. additive (1-2 m thick) Li-ion conductivity (S/cm) E-1p Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + (CH.sub.2OCO.sub.2Li).sub.2 70-99% 1.3 10.sup.4 to 3.3 10.sup.3 S/cm B1p LiF + LiOH + Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4 60-90% 4.2 10.sup.5 to 2.6 10.sup.3 S/cm B2p LiF + HCOLi 80-99% 1.2 10.sup.4 to 1.4 10.sup.3 S/cm B3p LiOH 70-99% 8.5 10.sup.4 to 1.1 10.sup.2 S/cm B4p Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 70-99% 4.3 10.sup.3 to 9.5 10.sup.3 S/cm B5p Li.sub.2C.sub.2O.sub.4 70-99% 8.2 10.sup.4 to 1.3 10.sup.2 S/cm B6p Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 + LiOH 70-99% 1.5 10.sup.3 to 1.7 10.sup.2 S/cm C1p LiClO.sub.4 70-99% 4.0 10.sup.4 to 2.2 10.sup.3 S/cm C2p LiPF.sub.6 70-99% 2.1 10.sup.4 to 6.2 10.sup.3 S/cm C3p LiBF.sub.4 70-99% 1.2 10.sup.4 to 1.7 10.sup.3 S/cm C4p LiBOB + LiNO.sub.3 70-99% 1.4 10.sup.4 to 3.2 10.sup.3 S/cm S1p Sulfonated polyaniline 85-99% 3.2 10.sup.5 to 9.5 10.sup.4 S/cm S2p Sulfonated PEEK 85-99% 1.4 10.sup.4 to 1.3 10.sup.3 S/cm S3p Sulfonated PVDF 80-99% 1.7 10.sup.4 to 1.5 10.sup.4 S/cm S4p Polyethylene oxide 80-99% 4.2 10.sup.4 to 3.4 103.sup.4 S/cm.sup.
Example 15: Cycle Stability of Various Rechargeable Lithium Battery Cells
(105) In lithium-ion battery industry, it is a common practice to define the cycle life of a battery as the number of charge-discharge cycles that the battery suffers a 20% decay in capacity based on the initial capacity measured after the required electrochemical formation. Summarized in Table 2 below are the cycle life data of a broad array of batteries featuring an anode with or without an anode-protecting polymer layer.
(106) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Cycle life data of various lithium secondary (rechargeable) batteries. Elastomer layer + Initial Cycle life Li.sub.1.4Al.sub.0.4Ti.sub.1.6(PO.sub.4).sub.3 Type & % of cathode active capacity (No. of Sample ID layer material (mAh/g) cycles) CuCl.sub.2-1e sulfonated elastomer 85% by wt. CuCl.sub.2 particles (80 533 1,544 composite nm) + 7% graphite + 8% binder CuCl.sub.2-2e none 85% by wt. CuCl.sub.2 particles (80 533 115 nm) + 7% graphite + 8% binder BiF.sub.3-1e none 85% by wt. BiFe.sub.3 particles + 7% 275 115 graphene + 8% binder BiF.sub.3-2e Sulfonated elastomer 85% by wt. BiFe.sub.3 particles + 7% 272 1,631 composite + 50% graphene + 8% binder ethylene oxide Li.sub.2MnSiO.sub.4- sulfonated elastomer 85% C-coated Li.sub.2MnSiO.sub.4 + 7% 250 2,525 1e composite CNT + 8% binder Li.sub.2MnSiO.sub.4- none 85% C-coated Li.sub.2MnSiO.sub.4 + 7% 252 543 2e CNT + 8% binder Li.sub.6C.sub.6O.sub.6-1e sulfonated elastomer Li.sub.6C.sub.6O.sub.6-graphene ball-milled 439 1,620 composite + 20% polyanniline Li.sub.6C.sub.6O.sub.6-2e none Li.sub.6C.sub.6O.sub.6-graphene ball-milled 438 116 MoS.sub.2-1e sulfonated elastomer 85% MoS.sub.2 + 8% graphite + 222 1,755 composite binder MoS.sub.2-2e none 85% MoS.sub.2 + 8% graphite + 225 156 binder
(107) In conclusion, the two anode protecting layers are surprisingly effective in alleviating the problems of lithium metal dendrite formation and lithium metal-electrolyte reactions that otherwise lead to rapid capacity decay and potentially internal shorting and explosion of the lithium secondary batteries. The elastomer layer is capable of expanding or shrinking congruently or conformably with the anode active material layer. This capability helps to maintain a good contact between the current collector (or the lithium film itself) and the protective layer(s), enabling uniform re-deposition of lithium ions without interruption.
(108) The anode-protecting layers appear to be capable of performing at least the following three functions: 1) Being highly elastic, the elastomer layer helps to maintain a good contact between a Li metal layer (e.g. lithium metal foil, as the anode active material, protected by a layer of graphene paper) and an electrolyte phase (e.g. an electrolyte/separator assembly or an electrolyte phase) when the Li metal layer decreases in thickness (e.g. due to dissolution of Li in the electrolyte when the battery is discharged) or increases in thickness (e.g. due to re-deposition of lithium metal back to the Cu foil or the lithium metal layer when the battery is recharged). The elastomer can expand and shrink responsive to the shrinkage and expansion of the anode active material layer. Such a conformal or congruent expansion/shrinkage of the elastomer layer helps to eliminate the potential gap between the anode active material layer and the electrolyte, thereby maintaining the lithium ion migration paths required of an operational Li metal battery. 2) The elastomer, infiltrated with a liquid electrolyte (before, during, or after the cell is fabricated) and coupled with its high-elasticity nature (good electrode-electrolyte contact), enables the returning Li.sup.+ ions to uniformly and successfully deposit back to the Li metal surface or current collector surface, reducing the formation of dead lithium particles, which otherwise become inactive. The uniform deposition of Li metal also reduces the tendency to form dangerous Li dendrites. 3) Presumably, the 1.sup.st anode-protecting layer (covering the lithium metal), having a lithium ion-conducting material serving essentially as an artificial solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) layer, helps to maintain the interfacial stability and reduce or eliminate continued breakage and reformation of the SEI layer (which otherwise would continue to consume lithium ions and the electrolyte).