Stable nanocrystalline metal alloy coatings with ultra-low wear
10763000 ยท 2020-09-01
Assignee
Inventors
- Nicolas Argibay (Albuquerque, NM, US)
- Michael E. Chandross (Albuquerque, NM, US)
- David P. Adams (Albuquerque, NM, US)
- Michael T. Dugger (Tijeras, NM, US)
- Blythe G. Clark (Albuquerque, NM, US)
- Brad L. Boyce (Albuquerque, NM, US)
- Ping Lu (Albuquerque, NM, US)
Cpc classification
Y10S977/81
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10T428/12868
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
B32B15/018
PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
Y10T428/26
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
C23C30/00
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
Y10S977/70
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10S977/755
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10T428/12875
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
C23C14/35
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
Y10T428/24967
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10T428/12944
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
C23C28/02
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
Y10S977/72
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10T428/12889
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10T428/265
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
C23C14/16
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
Y10T428/12896
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10T428/12903
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
Y10T428/2495
GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
International classification
C23C30/00
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
C23C28/00
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
C23C28/02
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
C23C14/00
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
C23C14/16
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
H01B13/00
ELECTRICITY
B32B15/01
PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
Abstract
The present invention relates to metal coatings and methods thereof. In certain embodiments, the invention relates to ultra-low wear noble metal alloys, such as for use in electrical contact coatings.
Claims
1. A coating comprising a binary alloy, wherein the binary alloy comprises a plurality of columnar grains, and wherein at least one of the plurality of columnar grains has a grain diameter of less than about 100 nm and an aspect ratio of 1:2 or greater, and wherein the binary alloy comprises a solvent and a solute, and wherein the solute is preferentially segregated at grain boundaries.
2. The coating of claim 1, wherein the at least one of the plurality of columnar grains has a grain length greater than about 100 nm.
3. The coating of claim 1, wherein the aspect ratio is of from about 1:5 to about 1:10.
4. The coating of claim 1, wherein an average grain diameter of the plurality of columnar grains is less than about 100 nm and an average grain length of the plurality of columnar grains in greater than about 100 nm.
5. The coating of claim 1, wherein the coating is a thin film.
6. The coating of claim 5, wherein the thin film has a thickness of from about 10 nm to about 1000 nm.
7. The coating of claim 1, wherein the binary alloy comprises one or more noble metals.
8. The coating of claim 7, wherein the binary alloy comprises one or more selected from the group consisting of Ag, Al, Au, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, Ga, Ge, Hf, In, Ir, K, La, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Ni, Os, Pb, Pd, Pt, Rb, Re, Rh, Ru, Sb, Sc, Sn, Sr, Ta, Tc, Th, Ti, Tl, V, W, Y, Zn, and Zr.
9. The coating of claim 8, wherein the binary alloy comprises Pt and Au.
10. The coating of claim 1, wherein the solvent is selected from the group consisting of Hf, La, Mo, Nb, Ni, Os, Pt, Re, Rh, Ru, Ta, Tc, Ti, V, W, Y, and Zr.
11. The coating of claim 1, wherein the solute is selected from the group consisting of Ag, Al, Au, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, Ga, Ge, In, K, La, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sb, Sc, Sn, Sr, Th, Tl, Y, Zn, and Zr.
12. The coating of claim 11, wherein the solvent comprises Pt and the solute comprises Au.
13. The coating of claim 1, wherein the binary alloy comprises a stable, nanocrystalline structure.
14. The coating of claim 13, wherein the binary alloy comprises AlPb, AlZn, CoCd, CoCu, CoPd, CuAg, CuBi, CuPb, CuY, FeAg, FeAu, FeCu, FeIn, FeMg, HfMg, HfSc, HfTi, IrAg, IrAu, IrCu, IrNi, IrPd, IrRh, LaBa, LaCa, LaCr, LaLi, MnCd, MoAu, MoCr, MoSc, NbBi, NbCu, NbZr, NiAg, NiAu, NiCu, NiPb, NiSn, NiTl, OsAg, OsCu, OsNi, OsPd, OsRh, PdAu, PtAu, PtPd, ReCu, ReNi, RePd, ReRh, RhAg, RhAu, RhCo, RhCu, RhNi, RhPd, RuAg, RuCu, RuNi, RuPd, RuRh, ScAu, ScBa, ScCr, ScCu, ScSr, SrMn, TaBi, TaCu, TaHf, TaIn, TaZr, TcCu, TcNi, TcPd, ThCr, ThLa, ThMo, ThSc, ThTi, ThV, ThY, TiCa, TiK, TiLa, TiMg, TiSc, VCd, VCu, VSc, WAu, WCr, WCu, WSb, WSc, WTh, WY, YBa, YCa, YCr, YSr, YTl, YV, ZrCs, ZrK, ZrMg, ZrSc, ZrTi, or ZrY.
15. The coating of claim 1, wherein the at least one of the plurality of columnar grains has a grain diameter of from about 0.5 nm to about 90 nm.
16. The coating of claim 1, wherein the at least one of the plurality of columnar grains has a grain length of from about 20 nm to about 2000 nm.
17. A noble metal alloy electrical contact coating, comprising a thin film comprising an alloy of platinum and gold, the alloy comprising less than about 50 atom percent gold, and wherein the alloy comprises columnar grains with grain diameters of less than about 100 nm and grain lengths of greater than about 100 nm.
18. The coating of claim 17, wherein grain growth is negligible up to a temperature of about 500 C. after weeks of exposure.
19. The coating of claim 17, wherein the gold is preferentially segregated at grain boundaries.
20. The coating of claim 17, wherein the thin film is deposited on a substrate by physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, sputter deposition, cold spray, electron beam deposition, atomic layer deposition, electroplating, or electroless plating.
21. A noble metal alloy electrical contact coating, comprising a thin film comprising an alloy of platinum and gold, the alloy comprising less than about 50 atom percent gold and wherein the gold is preferentially segregated at grain boundaries.
22. The coating of claim 21, wherein the alloy comprises columnar grains with grain diameters of less than about 100 nm and grain lengths of greater than about 100 nm.
23. The coating of claim 21, wherein grain growth is negligible up to a temperature of about 500 C. after weeks of exposure.
24. The coating of claim 21, wherein the thin film is deposited on a substrate by physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, sputter deposition, cold spray, electron beam deposition, atomic layer deposition, electroplating, or electroless plating.
Description
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
(20) The present invention relates to a metal alloy having a nanocrystalline structure. Without wishing to be limited by mechanism, the presence of columnar crystalline grains may impart unprecedented microstructural stability. At the macroscale, this stability provides beneficial characteristics, including stability at high temperatures (e.g., greater than about 100 C. and up to about 550 C.) and high stresses (e.g., up to about 1 GPa), which in turn provides high wear life.
(21) In particular embodiments, the metal alloy outperforms conventional electrical contact coatings at high temperatures (e.g., hard gold coatings), even after prolonged (days) exposure to temperatures up to 500 C.
(22) Manufacturing and processing of electronic devices can be limited by component materials. For instance, typical electrical contacts for a device can include a metal or an alloy, in which exposure above a critical temperature can degrade performance. Thus, processing and packaging of the device must be below that critical temperature. In one non-limiting embodiment, the alloys herein provide structural stability at elevated temperatures (e.g., greater than about 100 C. and/or up to about 550 C.), such that high temperature processing of device is possible. Furthermore, heat generation of high power device can limit material choices. In another non-limiting embodiment, the alloys herein can enable high power density in devices.
(23) Nanocrystalline Structures
(24) The present invention relates to an alloy having particular structural features. In one embodiment, the alloy is a binary alloy including a base material (e.g., a solvent) and a dopant (e.g., a solute). Exemplary solvents and solutes (e.g., a metal solvent and a metal solute) are described herein. In one non-limiting instance, the alloy includes a structure having segregation of the solute at grain boundaries. In particular embodiments, more than about 50% of the solute is segregated to grain boundaries (e.g., more than about 60%, 70%, 80%, or greater).
(25) In another embodiment, the alloy has a nanocrystalline structure. In a further embodiment, the nanocrystalline structure is characterized by a plurality of crystalline grains. In at least some embodiments, a nanocrystalline structure refers to the size of a grain (a crystal or a crystalline grain) having a dimension that is less than or equal to about 1000 nm (e.g., less than or equal to about 500 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 50 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, 2 nm, or less). For example, the grain size may be between about 1000 nm and about 2 nm (e.g., about 500 nm and about 2 nm, about 200 nm and about 2 nm, about 100 nm and about 2 nm, about 50 nm and about 2 nm, about 30 nm and about 2 nm, about 20 and about 2 nm, about 10 nm and about 2 nm). The size may refer to the largest dimension of the grain or an average dimension determined by measuring that dimension for a plurality of grains. An average may be measured by any suitable techniques. A dimension may refer to the diameter, length, width, and/or height, depending on the geometry of the grain. In some instances, a nanocrystalline material may also refer to a material including an amorphous microstructure or a metastable microstructure. In one non-limiting instance, a metastable nanocrystalline phase can refer to a nanocrystalline structure that is more energetically favorable than the single phase solid solution at that solute content, but less favorable than macroscopic phase separation of the system into two solid solutions.
(26) An alloy herein can be characterized by a grain size. In one instance, the alloy includes grain (e.g., at least one grain or a plurality of grains) having a grain diameter (e.g., an average grain diameter) of less than about 100 nm (e.g., less than about 90 nm, 80 nm, 75 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 25 nm, 20 nm, 15 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, 2 nm, or less). In another non-limiting instance, the alloy includes a grain (e.g., at least one grain or a plurality of grains) having a grain diameter (e.g., an average grain diameter) of from about 0.5 nm to about 150 nm (e.g., from 0.5 nm to 5 nm, 0.5 nm to 10 nm, 0.5 nm to 20 nm, 0.5 nm to 30 nm, 0.5 nm to 40 nm, 0.5 nm to 50 nm, 0.5 nm to 60 nm, 0.5 nm to 70 nm, 0.5 nm to 80 nm, 0.5 nm to 90 nm, 0.5 nm to 100 nm, 0.5 nm to 125 nm, 1 nm to 5 nm, 1 nm to 10 nm, 1 nm to 20 nm, 1 nm to 30 nm, 1 nm to 40 nm, 1 nm to 50 nm, 1 nm to 60 nm, 1 nm to 70 nm, 1 nm to 80 nm, 1 nm to 90 nm, 1 nm to 100 nm, 1 nm to 125 nm, 1 nm to 150 nm, 5 nm to 10 nm, 5 nm to 20 nm, 5 nm to 30 nm, 5 nm to 40 nm, 5 nm to 50 nm, 5 nm to 60 nm, 5 nm to 70 nm, 5 nm to 80 nm, 5 nm to 90 nm, 5 nm to 100 nm, 5 nm to 125 nm, 5 nm to 150 nm, 10 nm to 20 nm, 10 nm to 30 nm, 10 nm to 40 nm, 10 nm to 50 nm, 10 nm to 60 nm, 10 nm to 70 nm, 10 nm to 80 nm, 10 nm to 90 nm, 10 nm to 100 nm, 10 nm to 125 nm, 10 nm to 150 nm, 15 nm to 20 nm, 15 nm to 30 nm, 15 nm to 40 nm, 15 nm to 50 nm, 15 nm to 60 nm, 15 nm to 70 nm, 15 nm to 80 nm, 15 nm to 90 nm, 15 nm to 100 nm, 15 nm to 125 nm, 15 nm to 150 nm, 20 nm to 30 nm, 20 nm to 40 nm, 20 nm to 50 nm, 20 nm to 60 nm, 20 nm to 70 nm, 20 nm to 80 nm, 20 nm to 90 nm, 20 nm to 100 nm, 20 nm to 125 nm, 20 nm to 150 nm, 30 nm to 40 nm, 30 nm to 50 nm, 30 nm to 60 nm, 30 nm to 70 nm, 30 nm to 80 nm, 30 nm to 90 nm, 30 nm to 100 nm, 30 nm to 125 nm, 30 nm to 150 nm, 40 nm to 50 nm, 40 nm to 60 nm, 40 nm to 70 nm, 40 nm to 80 nm, 40 nm to 90 nm, 40 nm to 100 nm, 40 nm to 125 nm, 40 nm to 150 nm, 50 nm to 60 nm, 50 nm to 70 nm, 50 nm to 80 nm, 50 nm to 90 nm, 50 nm to 100 nm, 50 nm to 125 nm, 50 nm to 150 nm, 60 nm to 70 nm, 60 nm to 80 nm, 60 nm to 90 nm, 60 nm to 100 nm, 60 nm to 125 nm, 60 nm to 150 nm, 70 nm to 80 nm, 70 nm to 90 nm, 70 nm to 100 nm, 70 nm to 125 nm, 70 nm to 150 nm, 80 nm to 90 nm, 80 nm to 100 nm, 80 nm to 125 nm, 80 nm to 150 nm, 90 nm to 100 nm, 90 nm to 125 nm, 90 nm to 150 nm, 100 nm to 125 nm, and 100 nm to 150 nm).
(27) In one non-limiting instance, the alloy includes grain (e.g., at least one grain or a plurality of grains) having a grain length (e.g., an average grain length) of greater than about 100 nm (e.g., greater than about 200 nm, 500 nm, 750 nm, 1000 nm). In another non-limiting instance, the alloy includes a grain (e.g., at least one grain or a plurality of grains) having a grain length (e.g., an average grain length) of from about 20 nm to about 2000 nm (e.g., from 20 nm to 50 nm, 20 nm to 75 nm, 20 nm to 100 nm, 20 nm to 200 nm, 20 nm to 300 nm, 20 nm to 400 nm, 20 nm to 500 nm, 20 nm to 750 nm, 20 nm to 1000 nm, 20 nm to 1500 nm, 50 nm to 75 nm, 50 nm to 100 nm, 50 nm to 200 nm, 50 nm to 300 nm, 50 nm to 400 nm, 50 nm to 500 nm, 50 nm to 750 nm, 50 nm to 1000 nm, 50 nm to 1500 nm, 50 nm to 2000 nm, 75 nm to 75 nm, 75 nm to 100 nm, 75 nm to 200 nm, 75 nm to 300 nm, 75 nm to 400 nm, 75 nm to 500 nm, 75 nm to 750 nm, 75 nm to 1000 nm, 75 nm to 1500 nm, 75 nm to 2000 nm, 100 nm to 75 nm, 100 nm to 100 nm, 100 nm to 200 nm, 100 nm to 300 nm, 100 nm to 400 nm, 100 nm to 500 nm, 100 nm to 750 nm, 100 nm to 1000 nm, 100 nm to 1500 nm, 100 nm to 2000 nm, 250 nm to 75 nm, 250 nm to 100 nm, 250 nm to 200 nm, 250 nm to 300 nm, 250 nm to 400 nm, 250 nm to 500 nm, 250 nm to 750 nm, 250 nm to 1000 nm, 250 nm to 1500 nm, 250 nm to 2000 nm, 500 nm to 75 nm, 500 nm to 100 nm, 500 nm to 200 nm, 500 nm to 300 nm, 500 nm to 400 nm, 500 nm to 500 nm, 500 nm to 750 nm, 500 nm to 1000 nm, 500 nm to 1500 nm, 500 nm to 2000 nm, 750 nm to 75 nm, 750 nm to 100 nm, 750 nm to 200 nm, 750 nm to 300 nm, 750 nm to 400 nm, 750 nm to 500 nm, 750 nm to 750 nm, 750 nm to 1000 nm, 750 nm to 1500 nm, 750 nm to 2000 nm, 1000 nm to 1500 nm, and 1000 nm to 2000 nm).
(28) The grain can have any useful shape (e.g., a columnar shape). The shape can be characterized in any useful manner. In one non-limiting instance, the grain has an aspect ratio defined by a ratio of a first dimension (e.g., a grain diameter, including an average grain diameter) to a second dimension (e.g., a grain length, including an average grain length). The aspect ratio can be determined in any useful manner. In one instance, an aspect ratio is determined for each grain and then each ratio can be used to formulate an average. In another instance, an aspect ratio is determined by employing an average first dimension and an average second dimension. In one non-limiting embodiment, the aspect ratio is a ratio of a grain diameter:grain length. Exemplary aspect ratio includes 1:2 or greater (e.g., 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6, 1:7, 1:8, 1:9, 1:10, 1:15, 1:20, or greater). Yet other exemplary aspect ratios include that of from about 1:2 to about 1:100 (e.g., from 1:2 to 1:5, 1:2 to 1:10, 1:2 to 1:25, 1:2 to 1:50, 1:2 to 1:75, 1:2 to 1:100, 1:5 to 1:10, 1:5 to 1:25, 1:5 to 1:50, 1:5 to 1:75, 1:5 to 1:100, 1:10 to 1:25, 1:10 to 1:50, 1:10 to 1:75, and 1:10 to 1:100).
(29) In yet another non-limiting embodiment, an average grain diameter of the plurality of columnar grains is less than about 100 nm (or any range described herein), and/or an average grain length of the plurality of columnar grains in greater than about 100 nm (or any range described herein).
(30) In some embodiments, stability of the grain is characterized by minimal grain growth (e.g., at a temperature of from about 300 C. after weeks of exposure). Minimal grain growth can be determined in any useful manner (e.g., a growth less than about 30% of one or more grain dimensions, such as a growth of less than about 20% of one or more grain dimensions). Without wishing to be limited by mechanism, in some instances, the presence of columnar grains may impart resistance to stress-induced grain growth, which in turn may promote ultra-low wear behavior.
(31) Alloys
(32) The present invention relates to an alloy (e.g., a binary alloy) characterized by a base material (e.g., a solvent) and a dopant (e.g., a solute). Exemplary solvents include a metal, such as silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), gold (Au), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), hafnium (Hf), iridium (Ir), lanthanum (La), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), niobium (Nb), nickel (Ni), osmium (Os), palladium (Pd), platinum (Pt), rhenium (Re), rhodium (Rh), ruthenium (Ru), scandium (Sc), strontium (Sr), tantalum (Ta), technetium (Tc), thorium (Th), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), tungsten (W), yttrium (Y), and zirconium (Zr). Exemplary solutes include a metal, such as silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), gold (Au), barium (Ba), beryllium (Be), bismuth (Bi), calcium (Ca), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), cesium (Cs), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), gallium (Ga), germanium (Ge), hafnium (Hf), indium (In), potassium (K), lanthanum (La), lithium (Li), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), sodium (Na), niobium (Nb), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), palladium (Pd), rubidium (Rb), rhodium (Rh), antimony (Sb), scandium (Sc), tin (Sn), strontium (Sr), tantalum (Ta), thorium (Th), titanium (Ti), thallium (Tl), vanadium (V), tungsten (W), yttrium (Y), zinc (Zn), and zirconium (Zr).
(33) In particular embodiments, the alloy includes one solvent (e.g., any herein) and one solute (e.g., any herein), in which the solvent and the solute are different. The solute can be present in any useful amount. In one non-limiting instance, the solute is present at an amount of about 1 atomic percent (at. %) or greater and/or of from about 1 at. % to about 50 at. % (e.g., from 1 at. % to 10 at. %, 1 at. % to 10 at. %, 1 at. % to 15 at. %, 1 at. % to 20 at. %, 1 at. % to 25 at. %, 1 at. % to 30 at. %, 1 at. % to 35 at. %, 1 at. % to 40 at. %, 1 at. % to 45 at. %, 2 at. % to 10 at. %, 2 at. % to 15 at. %, 2 at. % to 20 at. %, 2 at. % to 25 at. %, 2 at. % to 30 at. %, 2 at. % to 35 at. %, 2 at. % to 40 at. %, 2 at. % to 45 at. %, 2 at. % to 50 at. %, 5 at. % to 10 at. %, 5 at. % to 15 at. %, 5 at. % to 20 at. %, 5 at. % to 25 at. %, 5 at. % to 30 at. %, 5 at. % to 35 at. %, 5 at. % to 40 at. %, 5 at. % to 45 at. %, 5 at. % to 50 at. %, 10 at. % to 15 at. %, 10 at. % to 20 at. %, 10 at. % to 25 at. %, 10 at. % to 30 at. %, 10 at. % to 35 at. %, 10 at. % to 40 at. %, 10 at. % to 45 at. %, 10 at. % to 50 at. %, 15 at. % to 20 at. %, 15 at. % to 25 at. %, 15 at. % to 30 at. %, 15 at. % to 35 at. %, 15 at. % to 40 at. %, 15 at. % to 45 at. %, 15 at. % to 50 at. %, 20 at. % to 25 at. %, 20 at. % to 30 at. %, 20 at. % to 35 at. %, 20 at. % to 40 at. %, 20 at. % to 45 at. %, 20 at. % to 50 at. %, 25 at. % to 30 at. %, 25 at. % to 35 at. %, 25 at. % to 40 at. %, 25 at. % to 45 at. %, 25 at. % to 50 at. %, 30 at. % to 35 at. %, 30 at. % to 40 at. %, 30 at. % to 45 at. %, 30 at. % to 50 at. %, 35 at. % to 40 at. %, 35 at. % to 45 at. %, 35 at. % to 50 at. %, 40 at. % to 45 at. %, 40 at. % to 50 at. %, and 45 at. % to 50 at. %). In another non-limiting instance, the solute is present at of from about 1 vol. % to about 60 vol. % (e.g., from 1 vol. % to 10 vol. %, 1 vol. % to 20 vol. %, 1 vol. % to 30 vol. %, 1 vol. % to 40 vol. %, 1 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 2 vol. % to 10 vol. %, 2 vol. % to 20 vol. %, 2 vol. % to 30 vol. %, 2 vol. % to 40 vol. %, 2 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 2 vol. % to 60 vol. %, 5 vol. % to 10 vol. %, 5 vol. % to 20 vol. %, 5 vol. % to 30 vol. %, 5 vol. % to 40 vol. %, 5 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 5 vol. % to 60 vol. %, 10 vol. % to 20 vol. %, 10 vol. % to 30 vol. %, 10 vol. % to 40 vol. %, 10 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 10 vol. % to 60 vol. %, 15 vol. % to 20 vol. %, 15 vol. % to 30 vol. %, 15 vol. % to 40 vol. %, 15 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 15 vol. % to 60 vol. %, 20 vol. % to 30 vol. %, 20 vol. % to 40 vol. %, 20 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 20 vol. % to 60 vol. %, 25 vol. % to 40 vol. %, 25 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 25 vol. % to 60 vol. %, 30 vol. % to 40 vol. %, 30 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 30 vol. % to 60 vol. %, 35 vol. % to 40 vol. %, 35 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 35 vol. % to 60 vol. %, 40 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 40 vol. % to 60 vol. %, 45 vol. % to 50 vol. %, 45 vol. % to 60 vol. %, and 50 vol. % to 60 vol. %).
(34) In particular embodiments, the alloy includes Pt and Au. In certain embodiments, the alloy displays high aspect ratio grain structures having grain diameters <100 nm and with >50% of the Au segregated to grain boundaries. In other embodiments, the alloy possesses nanocrystalline structures of high thermodynamic stability, which in turn provides materials having unprecedented thermo-mechanical stability and other beneficial physical characteristics.
(35) Exemplary characteristics include low specific wear rates (e.g., less than about 110.sup.8 mm.sup.3/N-m), low friction coefficients (e.g., of from about 0.2 to about 0.3), low resistivity (e.g., in the range of about 10.sup.8 .Math.m), and/or high endurance limit (e.g., numerous cycling even at high stress).
(36) In particular embodiment, the alloy is a binary alloy. Exemplary binary alloys include AgLa, AgSc, AgY, BaPd, BaPt, BeTi, BiPd, CaPt, CdPd, CoAl, CoAs, CoGa, CoGe, CoHf, CoNb, CoSc, CoTa, CoTi, CoY, CoZr, CrPt, CuSc, FeAl, FeAs, FeHf, FeZr, HfBi, HfCo, HfNi, HfOs, HfRe, HfTl, IrGe, LaAg, LaIr, LaRh, LaZn, MnGa, MnPd, MnSb, NbCo, NbNi, NbRe, NbSb, NiGa, NiGe, NiHf, NiLa, NiNb, NiTa, NiTh, NiY, OsAs, OsV, OsY, PtBi, PtMn, ReAs, ReHf, ReNb, ReTa, ReTi, RhSb, RhSn, RhZn, RuGa, RuLa, RuV, RuY, ScAg, ScNi, ScOs, ScRu, ScTc, SnPd, SrPd, SrPt, TaGa, TaNi, TaRe, TaSb, TcLa, TcTh, TcY, ThIr, ThRh, TiBe, TiBi, TiCo, TiNi, TiPb, TiSn, TiZn, VRu, VSb, VTc, WAs, WSi, YAg, YIr, YRh, YZn, ZnHf, ZnLa, ZnSc, ZnY, ZrBe, ZrCo, ZrNi, and ZrRe.
(37) Further exemplary binary alloys (e.g., having nanocrystalline metastability) include FeSc, HfAg, IrCd, IrCr, IrIn, IrMg, IrMn, IrSb, IrZn, LaAu, MoAl, MoGe, MoPd, NbGa, NbSn, NbZn, NiIn, NiMg, NiZn, OsGa, OsGe, OsP, OsZn, PdMn, PtK, PtNa, PtTl, ReAl, ReGa, ReGe, ReSc, RhBi, RhCd, RhIn, RhMg, RhMn, RhTl, RuGe, RuMg, RuZn, ScCu, TaAl, TaFe, TaSn, TaZn, TcGe, TcV, TcZn, TiCd, TiIn, VGa, WAl, WGe, WHf, WIr, WPt, WZr, ZrAg, and ZrCu.
(38) Yet other exemplary alloys include AlPb, AlZn, CoCd, CoCu, CoPd, CuAg, CuBi, CuPb, CuY, FeAg, FeAu, FeCu, FeIn, FeMg, HfMg, HfSc, HfTi, IrAg, IrAu, IrCu, IrNi, IrPd, IrRh, LaBa, LaCa, LaCr, LaLi, MnCd, MoAu, MoCr, MoSc, NbBi, NbCu, NbZr, NiAg, NiAu, NiCu, NiPb, NiSn, NiTl, OsAg, OsCu, OsNi, OsPd, OsRh, PdAu, PtAu, PtPd, ReCu, ReNi, RePd, ReRh, RhAg, RhAu, RhCo, RhCu, RhNi, RhPd, RuAg, RuCu, RuNi, RuPd, RuRh, ScAu, ScBa, ScCr, ScCu, ScSr, SrMn, TaBi, TaCu, TaHf, TaIn, TaZr, TcCu, TcNi, TcPd, ThCr, ThLa, ThMo, ThSc, ThTi, ThV, ThY, TiCa, TiK, TiLa, TiMg, TiSc, VCd, VCu, VSc, WAu, WCr, WCu, WSb, WSc, WTh, WY, YBa, YCa, YCr, YSr, YTl, YV, ZrCs, ZrK, ZrMg, ZrSc, ZrTi, and ZrY.
(39) In particular embodiments, the alloy includes one or more of the following: Hf, La, Mo, Nb, Ni, Os, Pt, Re, Rh, Ru, Ta, Tc, Ti, V, W, Y, and Zr (e.g., as a solvent). In other embodiments, the alloy includes one or more of the following: Ag, Al, Au, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, Ga, Ge, In, K, La, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sb, Sc, Sn, Sr, Th, Tl, Y, Zn, and Zr (e.g., as a solute).
(40) Methods and Uses Thereof
(41) The alloy and coating herein can be formed and used in any useful manner. In some embodiments, the alloy can be used as a coating (e.g., a contact coating). These coatings can be deposited using various physical vapor deposition routes, including sputtering (e.g., magnetron sputtering), atomic layer deposition, pulsed laser deposition, and electron beam deposition; chemical vapor deposition routes; electrodeposition routes, including electroplating; plating routes, including electroless plating; thermal spraying routes, including cold spray; and other deformation-based techniques, such as equal channel angular pressing, high-pressure torsion, rapid forging, and surface mechanical attrition treatment. The coating may be further treated (e.g., annealed and/or processed).
(42) Other methods include forming a thin film (e.g., by depositing an alloy on a substrate, such as in any deposition routes described herein) and optionally annealing the film or alloy (e.g., at a temperature greater than about 300 C.). In some embodiments, the methods can be optimized to achieve a particular microstructure (e.g., a plurality of columnar grains).
(43) Methods herein can also include forming a device or a component thereof. In one non-limiting embodiment, the method includes forming an electrical contact (e.g., by depositing an alloy on a substrate and optionally annealing the alloy at a temperature greater than about 300 C.). Further steps can be included to process a surface of the contact, e.g., by exposing the film to a current source or to a heat source, thereby removing one or more insulating species from a surface of the film. If the electrical contact is formed from an alloy that preserves its nanocrystallinity and/or microstructure at high currents and/or high temperature, then the exposure step provides a simplified way to clean an electrical contact surface from debris without negatively impacting the wear parameters of the contact.
(44) The alloys herein can be employed in any useful form (e.g., a thin film) and in any useful device (e.g., a device component, such as an electrical contact, including sliding electrical contacts). In particular embodiments, the alloys herein provide enhanced wear characteristics even as a thin film. Thus, function can be retained even at reduced thickness of the coating.
(45) Reduced thickness coating can have any useful thickness (e.g., greater than about 100 nm and/or less than about 5 m, as well as any range described herein).
EXAMPLES
Example 1: Achieving Ultra-Low Wear with Nanocrystalline Metals
(46) Precious metal electrical contacts are essential to the operation of a wide range of devices, from switches in cell phones to slip rings in wind turbines and spacecraft. One important characteristic of these components is wear resistance. More than a century of scientific research on the tribological behavior of materials, and specifically metals, has led to the discovery of intrinsic connections between atomic-scale mechanisms of deformation and their friction and wear behavior at the macro-scale. Concurrently, the development of new thermodynamic routes to achieve stable nanocrystallinity in metals created a unique opportunity to improve the efficiency and reliability of electrical contact technology. Herein, we show that alloys of Pt and Au, predicted to have nanocrystalline structures with high thermodynamic stability, also achieve unprecedented mechanical stability. We show that these alloys have wear rates similar to state-of-the-art non-conductive materials such as diamond-like carbon, and 100 lower rates than any reported nanocrystalline alloy, while exhibiting friction coefficients (0.2-0.3) similar to polytetrafluoroethylene nanocomposites. This work both demonstrates the technological impact potential of nanostructured metals with highly stable grain structures, and also highlights the challenges ahead in the study of grain size stability in nanocrystalline materials.
(47) Nanocrystalline metals have been shown to have desirable mechanical properties (see, e.g., Kumar K S et al., Mechanical behavior of nanocrystalline metals and alloys, Acta Mater. 2003; 51(19):5743-74; and Meyers M A, Mechanical properties of nanocrystalline materials, Prog. Mater. Sci. 2006; 51(4): 427-556), including high strength, low friction, and high wear resistance (see, e.g., Schuh C A, Hall-Petch breakdown manifested in abrasive wear resistance of nanocrystalline nickel, Scripta Mater. 2002; 46(10):735-40; Sawyer W G et al., Mechanistic studies in friction and wear of bulk materials, Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2014; 44:395-427; and Argibay N et al., Linking microstructural evolution and macro-scale friction behavior in metals, J. Mater. Sci. 2017; 52(5):2780-99), though inherently high grain boundary curvature creates a strong driving force for grain growth and severely limits their usefulness in engineering applications.
(48) Recently developed theoretical models suggest new routes for achieving stable nanocrystallinity through alloying (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Stability of binary nanocrystalline alloys against grain growth and phase separation, Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; Chookajorn T et al., Design of stable nanocrystalline alloys, Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4; Weertman J R, Retaining the nano in nanocrystalline alloys, Science 2012; 337(6097):921-2; and Koch C C et al., Stabilization of nanocrystalline grain sizes by solute additions, J. Mater. Sci. 2008; 43(23):7264-72). Unlike traditional metallurgical approaches for stabilizing grain structures by retarding grain growth kinetics (see, e.g., Driver J H, Stability of nanostructured metals and alloys, Scripta Mater. 2004; 51(8):819-23; Worner C H et al., Grain growth stagnation by inclusions or pores, JOM 1992; 44(9):16-20; and Hillert M, Inhibition of grain growth by second-phase particles, Acta Metall. 1988; 36(12):3177-81), these models rely on driving interfacial free energy effectively to zero via grain boundary solute segregation (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; Chookajorn T et al., Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4; Weissmller J, Alloy effects in nanostructures, Nanostructured Mater. 1993; 3(1-6):261-72; and Kirchheim R, Grain coarsening inhibited by solute segregation, Acta Mater. 2002; 50(2):413-9). Herein, we present evidence of remarkable thermo-mechanical nanocrystalline stability for an exemplary noble metal alloy system (Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10), and the impact that mitigating grain growth can have on the wear and friction of nanocrystalline metals.
(49) If stresses at asperity contacts do not regularly exceed the flow stress of the sliding metals, as can occur with nanocrystalline metals, wear becomes primarily a fatigue-dominated process (see, e.g., Suh N P, An overview of the delamination theory of wear, Wear 1977; 44(1):1-16). Fatigue wear depends on the formation of cracks through repeated cycling of contact stress, leading to the formation of wear particles via cohesive failure. This often occurs at such slow rates that this regime is categorized as the delamination wear regime. Persistent nanocrystallinity is directly related to low friction and wear in metals through a feedback loop that drives microstructural evolution (see, e.g., Argibay N et al., J. Mater. Sci. 2017; 52(5):2780-99).
(50) Alloying is a classic approach to stabilizing grain structures in metals (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; Chookajorn T et al., Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4; Weertman J R, Science 2012; 337(6097):921-2; Weissmller J, Nanostructured Mater. 1993; 3(1-6):261-72; Kirchheim R, Acta Mater. 2002; 50(2):413-9; and Kirchheim R, Reducing grain boundary, dislocation line and vacancy formation energies by solute segregation: I. Theoretical background, Acta Mater. 2007; 55(15):5129-38). Solute drag can retard the motion of grain boundaries (see, e.g., Cahn J W, The impurity-drag effect in grain boundary motion, Acta Metall. 1962; 10(9):789-98; and Hillert M et al., A treatment of the solute drag on moving grain boundaries and phase interfaces in binary alloys, Acta Metall. 1976; 24(8):731-43) and the formation of second phase precipitates can lead to Zener pinning of boundaries (see, e.g., Worner C H et al., JOM 1992; 44(9):16-20; and Hillert M, Acta Metall. 1988; 36(12):3177-81).
(51) Recently developed thermodynamics models suggest new routes for achieving stable nanocrystallinity through alloying (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; Chookajorn T et al., Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4; Weertman J R, Science 2012; 337(6097):921-2; and Koch C C et al., J. Mater. Sci. 2008; 43(23):7264-72). In accordance with the Gibbs adsorption equation, the preferential segregation of solute to grain boundaries (GBs) when the chemical potential is increased at a fixed temperature and pressure leads to a reduction of the boundary energy, and thus the driving force for grain growth. If the energy advantage from segregation is strong enough, substantial reductions or possible elimination of the thermodynamic driving force for grain growth can be achieved. This will lead to either a reduction of grain growth kinetics or the thermodynamic stabilization of the nanocrystalline grain structure. This effect will be greatest in alloys with strong boundary segregation conditions that render segregated grain boundaries energetically preferable to solid solutions or second phases.
(52) PtAu alloys were identified by Murdoch and Schuh (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Estimation of grain boundary segregation enthalpy and its role in stable nanocrystalline alloy design, J. Mater. Res. 2013; 28(16):2154-63) as one of several potentially thermodynamically stable alloys (see, e.g., Chookajorn T et al., Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4). This system has a positive enthalpy of mixing which leads to a substantial miscibility gap in the phase diagram. Experimentally, these alloys have the advantage that the constituent materials are available in high purity, and their shared nobility obviates the added complexity of oxide formation on the analysis of grain boundary stability. In previous studies on non-noble nanocrystalline systems, oxygen uptake has been noted as a key confounding factor (see, e.g., Clark B G et al., Thermal stability comparison of nanocrystalline Fe-based binary alloy pairs, JOM 2016; 68(6):1625-33; and Gianola D S et al., Grain-size stabilization by impurities and effect on stress-coupled grain growth in nanocrystalline Al thin films, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2008; 483-484:637-40). Also, a relatively small elastic mismatch of 4% between Pt and Au minimizes the role of lattice strain on segregation behavior.
(53) Results of thermal grain growth experiments on magnetron sputtered PtAu (10 at. % Au) are presented in
(54) In
(55) In
(56) Equilibrium atomistic (non-lattice) Monte Carlo (MC) simulations were employed to predict the segregation of Au in a PtAu alloy. These simulations model the interatomic interactions by an embedded atom method (EAM) potential that predicts a bulk phase diagram in good agreement with experiment. A Metropolis MC algorithm is used to sample off-lattice thermal equilibrium configurations (see, e.g., Seki A et al., Monte Carlo simulations of segregation at [001] twist boundaries in a Pt(Au) alloy-I. Results, Acta Metall. Mater. 1991; 39(12):3167-77; and Foiles S M, Calculation of grain-boundary segregation in NiCu alloys, Phys. Rev. B 1989; 40:11502-6). Note that since the procedures allow interchanges between distant atoms, this method does not reflect the kinetic pathways that the physical system will take to reach equilibrium. However, the results are representative of equilibrium compositional arrangements. Consistent with the bulk phase diagram, there are only dilute levels of Au in the grain interiors (see Example 2 herein, and exemplary columnar microstructure in
(57)
(58) The most notable consistency between the experimental microstructures and computational segregation calculations is that the distribution of Au is not uniform along the grain boundaries but rather occurs in clusters (
(59) The avoidance of oxides in these noble alloys offers a uniquely simplified view of grain stabilization by solute segregation, as compared to any prior study of which we are aware. However, this study also highlights some important caveats. For example, differences in the degree of heterogeneity and bulk concentrations of Au were found between the thin and thick film experimentally, and the thick film more closely corresponds to MC simulations of bulk material with periodic boundary conditions. Thus, artifacts found in thin film annealing experiments associated with free surfaces and thin film-related geometrical features, such as preferential segregation to the surface or grain boundary grooves, are currently not captured in the MC simulations. The present simulations are meant to explore thermal equilibrium only, and so do not reflect the kinetic pathways in the physical system, nor the destabilizing impact of preferential free surface segregation. We note, however, that while free surfaces and grooves do allow for a higher degree of heterogeneity in the thin film samples (see Example 2), surfaces will in fact destabilize the structure by allowing depletion of pinning sites in interior boundaries. The fact that we find such notable stability in these samples indicates that this effect is likely small.
(60) Additionally, models based on the assumption of uniform boundary properties predict alloy combinations that should possess intrinsically stable nanocrystalline grain structures. Attempts to demonstrate this experimentally have shown only enhanced, not perfect, stability (see, e.g., Clark B G et al., JOM 2016; 68(6): 1625-33). The simplification of homogeneous boundary properties has proven useful in pointing to the possibility of thermodynamic stabilization of grain structures via grain boundary segregation, as well as in the screening of potential alloy systems of interest. Clearly, to improve predictive fidelity, future models could incorporate segregation heterogeneity across boundary types and at triple junctions.
(61) A second implication of heterogeneous segregation is the possibility that it may contribute to abnormal grain growth (see, e.g. Darling K A et al., Grain size stabilization of nanocrystalline copper at high temperatures by alloying with tantalum, J. Alloys Compd. 2013; 573:142-50; Korznikov A V et al., Thermal stability of nanocrystalline Ni, Acta Physica Polonica A 2002; 102(2):265-71; and Wang N et al., Isokinetic analysis of nanocrystalline nickel electrodeposits upon annealing, Acta Mater. 1997; 45(4):1655-69), since differently-segregated boundaries may have different mobilities (either under temperature or stress). This could open a pathway toward crack formation (see, e.g., Boyce B L et al., Anomalous fatigue behavior and fatigue-induced grain growth in nanocrystalline nickel alloys, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2011; 42(7):1793-804) and delamination wear (see, e.g., Suh N P, Wear 1977; 44(1):1-16) in cyclically stressed materials.
(62) Recent simulations and experiments (see, e.g., Holm E A et al., On abnormal subgrain growth and the origin of recrystallization nuclei, Acta Mater. 2003; 51(9):2701-16; and Jung S H et al., Mechanism of abnormal grain growth in ultrafine-grained nickel, Acta Mater. 2013; 61(15):5685-93) have indicated that heterogeneous boundary properties can facilitate abnormal grain growth, which has indeed been observed in many nanocrystalline alloys (see, e.g., Jung S H et al., Acta Mater. 2013; 61(15):5685-93; and Sansoz F et al., Grain growth behavior at absolute zero during nanocrystalline metal indentation, Appl. Phys. Lett. 2006; 89:111901 (3 pp.)). However, we performed cyclic fatigue tests using 5 m thick freestanding columnar grained PtAu dogbones in tension (
(63) A comparison of uniaxial tension experiments and simulations using columnar grained structures is shown in
(64) The implications of nanocrystalline mechanical stability are most clearly evident in the friction and wear behavior of these films, demonstrated here by sliding a 3.2 mm diameter sapphire sphere against a 2 m thick PtAu film on a 303 stainless steel substrate in laboratory air (<20% relative humidity, 20 C.). A normal force of 1 N was applied to the contact, corresponding to a Hertzian maximum stress of 1.1 GPa, approximately equal to the endurance limit from fatigue testing of films with similar columnar grain structure. Using a stroke length of 1 mm in bi-directional sliding at 1 mm/s, we find that friction coefficients are in the range i=0.2 to 0.3 for 10.sup.5 sliding passes (510.sup.4 bi-directional cycles). To demonstrate the combined thermo-mechanical stability of PtAu, we annealed a specimen in ultra-high vacuum for 1 day at 500 C., and again measured friction and wear over an equivalent number of cycles; the cycle average friction coefficient data for both is plotted in
(65) Specific wear rates and wear rate uncertainty were based on a volumetric material loss method (see, e.g., Schmitz T L et al., Wear-rate uncertainty analysis, Trans. ASME J. Tribol. 2004; 126(4):802-8), where a scanning white light interferometer (Bruker Contour GT) was used to measure the entirety of each wear track. An example average cross-section of a wear track after 100 k passes is shown in
(66) While many composites require environmental control to achieve the lowest reported wear rates, such as ultra-high vacuum for MoS.sub.2 and diamond-like carbon, the notably low wear rates of noble metal PtAu films were obtained in laboratory air. Additionally, these coatings in the as-deposited condition exhibited a relatively low electrical resistivity of 30 n.Math.m (1.8 higher than that of coarse grained pure Cu). The hardness of the films was measured via nanoindentation at dozens of locations before and after annealing. The as-deposited average hardness was 7.10.4 GPa. On a separate specimen annealed in vacuum for 1 day at 500 C., it was 6.50.5 GPa. The annealed value is marginally different, within one standard deviation of the as-deposited value, again indicating negligible softening with prolonged exposure to relatively high temperature. We see negligible, if any, evolution of the near-surface microstructure in the wear track (
(67) These results suggest important and interesting directions for future research. For models, it is natural to extend mesoscale models of grain boundary segregation to incorporate heterogeneous boundary properties in order to elucidate their influence on long-time microstructure evolution. Such extensions will require reasonable estimates of the variability of segregation tendencies between boundaries, in addition to the influence of solute drag and alloy segregation on boundary mobility. Molecular dynamics simulations sampling a variety of boundaries can provide insights into these needed parameters. Experimentally, an investigation is underway to explore evidence of destabilization of the PtAu nanocrystalline structure in thin films at even higher temperatures. Preliminary work with thin films in TEM (with single grain film thickness, 18 nm) revealed the formation of Au precipitates at temperatures exceeding 700 C., where destabilization appears to be associated with the proximity of all grain boundary segregated solute to a free surface.
(68) Technologically, demonstration of a noble metal alloy with 100 reductions in wear rate having nanocrystalline stability up to 500 C. has far reaching implications, particularly in an electrical contact industry driven by increasing demand for greater efficiency in the use, storage and transmission of energy. A noteworthy example of an application where these particular coatings may have high immediate impact potential is in the developing field of nano- and micro-electromechanical devices. The proliferation of gigahertz nano/micro switches remains fundamentally limited by stress and temperature driven grain growth, oxidation and the formation of insulating organic films. An intrinsically stable or significantly stabilized nanocrystalline noble metal alloy could address these obstacles. This is one practical example of why the impact of stress on nanocrystalline stability has been identified as a subject of great importance for further experimental and theoretical investigation (see, e.g., Weertman J R, Science 2012; 337(6097):921-2).
Example 2: Experimental Methods and Additional Characterization Data
(69) DC Magnetron Sputter Deposition of PtAu Films:
(70) PtAu (Pt-10 at. % Au) thin films were deposited by direct current (DC) magnetron sputtering using a cryopumped vacuum system with a base pressure of 210.sup.7 Torr. A single, high purity PtAu target (Refining Systems) was used for all depositions. This target was pre-sputtered for 5 min. prior to the start of each deposition to avoid incorporation of adventitious carbon or other impurities in the deposited films. Ultra-high purity Ar (99.999%) was used for all sputter processes, and substrates did not exceed 50 C. during deposition. A quartz crystal monitor was used to determine film thickness with Angstrom-level precision. Thickness calibrations conducted prior to depositions utilized a calibrated DEKTAK 3 (Veeco; Woodbury, N.Y.) surface profilometer and cross-section TEM. The 18 nm thin film and the 2 m thick film were deposited on polycrystalline NaCl and oxidized Si(100) substrates, respectively. The thick films deposited on a 150 mm diameter Si wafer showed an in-plane compressive residual stress of 650 MPa, determined from wafer curvature.
(71) Film composition was verified by Wavelength Dispersive Spectroscopy (also referred to as Electron Microprobe). A JEOL model JXA-8530F Microprobe operating at 7.0 keV incident energy (20 nA, 2 m beam diameter) was used to determine the composition of a 1 m thick PtAu witness film. The average of 50 spaced measurements demonstrated a film composition of Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10. Uncertainty in the measurement was +0.5 at. % with 95% confidence.
(72) Tribological Testing:
(73) A custom linear reciprocating tribometer was used for friction and wear measurements, similar in design to the instrument described by Erickson G M et al., Paleo-tribology: development of wear measurement techniques and a three-dimensional model revealing how grinding dentitions selfwear to enable functionality, Surf Topogr. Metrol. Prop. 2016; 4:024001 (12 pp.). This instrument relies on two pairs of leaf-springs to generate linear elastic deformation in two independent axes with negligible rotation in response to the friction and normal contact forces experienced by the spherical probe (3.2 mm diameter sapphire ball lens) as it was slid back and forth on a PtAu coated substrate. A piezo positioner maintained the desired contact load within an error of 1%, and a precision stepper motor linear stage (PLS-85 by Physik Instrumente) generated the sliding motion. The instrument was placed inside a glove box with controlled humidity and ambient temperature, backfilled with laboratory air. The relative humidity (RH) was maintained in the range 10-20%, and the ambient temperature at 201 C. Specific wear rates and wear rate uncertainty were based on a volumetric material loss method (see, e.g., Schmitz T L et al., Wear-rate uncertainty analysis, Trans. ASME J. Tribol. 2004; 126(4):802-8), where a scanning white light interferometer (Bruker Contour GT) was used to measure the entirety of each wear track.
(74) TEM Annealing Experiments:
(75) An FEI Titan G2 80-200 scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) with a Cs probe corrector and ChemiSTEM technology (X-FEG and SuperX EDS with four windowless silicon drift detectors) operated at 200 kV was used. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) spectral imaging was acquired as a series of frames where the same region was scanned multiple times (see, e.g., Lu P et al., Atomic-scale chemical imaging and quantification of metallic alloy structures by energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, Sci. Rep. 2014; 4:3945 (5 pp.)). An electron probe of size less than 0.13 nm, convergence angle of 18.1 mrad, and current of 75 pA was used for data acquisition.
(76) Scanning TEM high-angle annular dark-field (STEM-HAADF) images were recorded under similar optical conditions using an annular detector with a collection range of 60-160 mrad. Au L lines and Pt L lines were used for constructing the EDS maps of Au and Pt, respectively. Since the Au L lines overlap with the Pt L lines significantly, the EDS spectra was deconvoluted pixel-by-pixel using pure spectra of Au and Pt as reference spectra before map construction. Atomic composition was calculated using Cliff and Lorimer method (see, e.g., Cliff G et al., The quantitative analysis of thin specimens, J. Microscop. 1975; 103(2):203-7).
(77)
(78) For the 18 nm thin film, a TEM specimen was prepared by dissolving the NaCl substrate in water, rinsing the film in water and methanol (more than 24 hours) and laying the removed film on a Mo TEM grid. The annealing of the thin film was carried out using a Gatan 628 TEM in-situ heating holder in vacuum (pressure <10.sup.6 Torr). For the thick film, the sample annealing was carried out in a tube furnace in air. The plan-view TEM samples for the thick film and the cross-sectional TEM sample for the thin film were prepared by focused ion beam (FIB) methods. The cross-sectional TEM sample for the thin film involved additional steps before FIB sectioning, including coating the film surfaces with a carbon film, and adhering the film stack onto the Si substrate.
(79)
(80) XRD Annealing Experiments Showed Remarkable Stability of Thick PtAu Films Up to 700 C.:
(81) High temperature XRD experiments were performed using a Scintag PAD X diffractometer (Thermo Electron Inc.; Waltham, Mass.). This diffractometer was equipped with a sealed-tube source (Cu K, =0.15406 nm), an incident-beam mirror optic, a Peltier-cooled Ge solid-state detector, and a Buehler hot-stage with Pt/Rh heating strip and surround heater. Scintag instrument power settings were 40 kV and 30 mA, and fixed slits were employed. Temperature calibration was performed using thermal expansion behavior of know materials (e.g. alumina) and calibrated to +5 C. Samples were heated in a static air environment using a 20 C./min ramp rate to the desired analysis temperature. Diffraction patterns were collected over a scan range of 20-80 2 at a step-size of 0.04 2 employing various count times. The grain size throughout each anneal was determined using the Scherrer Equation.
(82) Grain growth data presented in
(83) Fatigue Strength and Endurance Limit of PtAu:
(84) For fatigue and tensile testing, 5 m-thick pure Pt and 5 m-thick Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 films were deposited on oxidized Si(100) substrates and laser machined to shape (see, e.g.,
(85) Fatigue Tests with Freestanding PtAu Tensile Specimens:
(86) Monotonic tension and tension-tension fatigue tests were performed using a custom-built piezo-actuated tester, as shown in
(87) The monotonic tension tests were performed using an actuator position rate of 2.4 m/s, which produced a strain rate 10.sup.3/s. The strain was approximated by normalizing the actuator displacement by the original gage length. For the reported tensile curves, the tensile data were corrected for machine compliance by assuming the measured moduli to be equal to the theoretical moduli. The machine compliance (i.e., reciprocal machine stiffness) was approximated using the following equation:
(88)
where E is the elastic modulus and 1/E.sub.machine is the machine compliance. E.sub.specimen was assumed equal to the theoretical elastic moduli of the materials (168 GPa for Pt and 158 GPa for PtAu). It should be noted that this method was used due to difficulty in measuring the specimen strain directly, given the small specimen sizes, and only serves to better approximate the 0.2% offset yield strengths. The ultimate tensile strengths, however, are not affected by this transformation.
(89) Tension-tension fatigue tests were performed in force control (sine loading) using an R-ratio (.sub.min/.sub.max) of 0.3 and a frequency of 30 Hz. Due to time constraints, specimens were removed and a new test started if fatigue failure did not occur in <1M cycles. A runout arrow was included in figures to note the specimens that did not fail. No failure was found up to 310.sup.6 cycles at maximum stresses above 1 GPa for multiple specimens. An endurance limit of about 1 GPa and an ultimate tensile strength of 1.6 GPa were found.
(90) Electrical Resistivity:
(91) The electrical resistivity of PtAu was measured using the approximately 5 m thick tensile specimens (
(92) Nanoindentation Hardness:
(93) Nanoindentation hardness was determined using a Hysitron Performech Triboindenter with a Berkovitch tip using the Oliver-Pharr method (see, e.g., Oliver W C et al., An improved technique for determining hardness and elastic modulus using load and displacement sensing indentation experiments, J. Mater. Res. 1992; 7(6):1564-83). Prior to indentation of the PtAu film, calibration of the indenter and the Berkovitch area function were performed according to standard Hysitron procedures.
(94) The PtAu films used for nanoindentation hardness measurements were magnetron sputtered under identical conditions as those used for freestanding thin and thick films described herein. However, to ensure adequate stiffness and flatness during nanoindentation, these films were sputtered directly onto 25.4 mm diameter, 6.35 mm thick, polished 303 stainless steel (SS) wafers. Prior to indentation, the SS wafer/PtAu coatings were mounted and leveled on glass slides using CrystalBond 509 to ensure a flat surface for indentation. The PtAu coating thickness in all cases was 2.0 m. High-vacuum annealing was performed on one sample set at 500 C. for 24 hours with a vacuum pressure of 510.sup.6 Torr using a custom-built vacuum annealing furnace comprising a 1700 C. maximum temperature Lindberg Model 54434 furnace.
(95) Nanoindentation was performed on the as-deposited and annealed samples using 77 indent arrays with each indent separated by 3 m at two randomly selected locations on each sample. The loading was performed with a 5 second ramp time, 5 second hold time, and 5 second unload time. The maximum indent force was varied from 4000 N to 1100 N across the indent arrays to assess any force/depth dependent behavior.
(96) Average hardness in the depth range of 60-145 nm were 7.10.4 GPa for the as-deposited material and 6.50.5 GPa after the 24 hour anneal at 500 C. The hardness results are shown in
Example 3: Molecular Dynamics and Monte Carlo Simulations
(97) The equilibrium configuration of the alloy systems was generated using equilibrium off-lattice Monte Carlo (MC) simulations as described in detail elsewhere (see, e.g., Foiles S M, Phys. Rev. B 1989; 40:11502-6). The algorithm employs two types of atomic-level changes. First, random atomic displacements are performed to incorporate local structural relaxation and thermal vibrations. Second, the atomic species associated with two randomly selected atoms are swapped, which provides for efficient sampling of the potential compositional arrangements. The molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are performed using the LAMMPS code (see, e.g., Plimpton S J, Fast parallel algorithms for short-range molecular dynamics, J. Comput. Phys. 1995; 117(1):1-19). The resultant grain size is determined through cluster labelling that identifies and counts the number of grains in the sample and the resulting average grain size is converted into a squared grain diameter.
(98) A newly developed embedded atom method (EAM) potential is employed for the MC and MD simulations (see, e.g., O'Brien C J et al., Grain boundary phase transformations in PtAu and relevance to thermal stabilization of bulk nanocrystalline metals, J. Mater. Sci. 2018; 53(4):2911-27). Due to the lack of measured properties for the PtAu alloy, we relied on Density Functional Theory (DFT) to provide forces and energies for ordered and disordered configurations with which the potentials will be parameterized.
(99) In some examples, two databases were generated, one for parameterization and one for validation. DFT calculations were carried out using the VASP package (see, e.g., Kresse G et al., Efficient iterative schemes for ab initio total-energy calculations using a plane-wave basis set, Phys. Rev. B 1996; 54(16):11169-86) with the PBE exchange correlation functional (see, e.g., Perdew J P et al., Generalized gradient approximation made simple, Phys. Rev. Lett. 1996; 77(18):3865-8) and PAW pseudopotentials (see, e.g., Kresse G et al., From ultrasoft pseudopotentials to the projector augmented-wave method, Phys. Rev. B 1999; 59(3): 1758-75).
(100) The databases included of a wide variety of configurations that represent a range of conditions at which the potential might be applied. Since the fit must be applicable to grain boundaries that contain disordered states at the boundary, it was necessary to fit the potentials for disordered solids in addition to crystalline phases. Single element potentials were fit to a small range of lattice constants about equilibrium for the FCC, BCC, HCP, and diamond lattice structures along with a liquid state at 2000K and FCC with random displacements. The fitting database for the alloy potential consists of PtAu liquid at 2000K, a random PtAu FCC alloy with random displacements, and a range of lattice constants for the ordered compounds L12, B1, and L2O.
(101) The validation database for the single element potentials include comparisons to independent data for the elemental liquid at 2000K and the FCC structure with random displacements. Specific geometries of 3(111)<110>(coherent twin) boundary, self-interstitial, vacancy, and (111), (100), and (110) surfaces. The validation database for the alloy potential includes independent data for the PtAu liquid and random PtAu FCC alloy.
(102) The thermodynamic analysis of the proposed stabilization generally employs a description in which all boundaries have the same segregation behavior. Lattice-based Monte Carlo methods (see, e.g., Chookajorn T et al., Thermodynamics of stable nanocrystalline alloys: a Monte Carlo analysis, Phys. Rev. B 2014; 89(6): 064102 (10 pp.)) and diffuse interface phase-field models (see, e.g., Abdeljawad F et al., Stabilization of nanocrystalline alloys via grain boundary segregation: a diffuse interface model, Acta Mater. 2015; 101:159-71) of the coupled segregation and grain growth have been employed to show the influence of the thermodynamic factors in slowing or halting grain growth. Since these models do not resolve the atomic level structure of the boundaries, all grain boundaries are treated as having the same thermodynamic and kinetic properties. While the simplification that all grain boundaries can be treated equally provides a useful interpretation of the role of grain boundary segregation on nanocrystalline stabilization, it is well known that the detailed atomic structure and resulting boundary properties such as energy (see, e.g., Olmsted D L et al., Survey of computed grain boundary properties in face-centered cubic metals: I. Grain boundary energy, Acta Mater. 2009; 57(13):3694-703), mobility (see, e.g., Olmsted D L et al., Survey of computed grain boundary properties in face-centered cubic metals: II. Grain boundary mobility, Acta Mater. 2009; 57(13):3704-13) and segregation behavior (see, e.g., Seki A et al., Acta Metall. Mater. 1991; 39(12):3167-77) depend on the macroscopic degrees of freedom associated with grain boundary character (see, e.g., Olmsted D L et al., Acta Mater. 2009; 57(13):3704-13; and Ratanaphan S et al., Grain boundary energies in body-centered cubic metals, Acta Mater. 2015; 88:346-54). Here, we show that atomistically accurate simulations possess significant atomic-scale heterogeneity in segregation behavior as well. Further, even for boundaries that do contain Au clusters, the clusters often only cover a portion of the boundary, indicating that clustering can exist within a given boundary. These results show a much richer segregation behavior than results from the assumption of uniform boundary properties.
Example 4: Tribological Behavior of Stable Nanocrystalline PtAu Films
(103) Recent work suggests that thermally stable nanocrystallinity in metals is achievable in several binary alloys by modifying grain boundary energies via solute segregation. The remarkable thermal stability of these alloys has been demonstrated in recent reports, with many alloys exhibiting negligible grain growth during prolonged exposure to near-melting temperatures. We show that PtAu, a proposed stable alloy consisting of two noble metals, exhibits extraordinary resistance to wear. Ultra-low wear rates, less than a monolayer of material removed per sliding pass, were measured for PtAu thin films at a maximum Hertz contact stress of up to 1.1 GPa. To our understanding, this is the first instance of an all-metallic material exhibiting a specific wear rate on the order of 10.sup.9 mm.sup.3/N-m, comparable to diamond-like carbon and sapphire. Remarkably, the wear rate of sapphire and silicon nitride probes used in wear experiments were either higher or comparable to that of the PtAu alloy, despite the substantially higher hardness of the ceramic probe materials. High-resolution microscopy showed negligible surface microstructural evolution in the wear tracks after 100 k sliding passes. Mitigation of fatigue-driven delamination enabled a transition to wear by atomic attrition, a regime previously limited to highly wear resistant materials such as diamond-like carbon.
(104) Materials exhibiting ultra-low wear rates are generally defined as having a rate of attrition on the order of a monolayer per sliding pass (see, e.g., Bhaskaran H et al., Ultralow nanoscale wear through atom-by-atom attrition in silicon-containing diamond-like carbon, Nat. Nanotechnol. 2010; 5:181-5), translating to a specific or volumetric wear rate less than 10.sup.8 mm.sup.3/N-m. Very few materials exhibit this behavior, including diamond-like carbon (DLC) (see, e.g., Erdemir A et al., Tribology of diamond-like carbon films: recent progress and future prospects, J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 2006; 39(18):R311-R327; and Liu Y et al., A study of the wear mechanism of diamond-like films, Surf Coatings Technol. 1996; 82:48-56), graphite (see, e.g., Berman D et al., Few layer graphene to reduce wear and friction on sliding steel surfaces, Carbon 2013; 54:454-9; Berman D et al., Macroscale superlubricity enabled by graphene nanoscroll formation, Science 2015; 348(6239):1118-22; and Liu Y et al., An investigation of the relationship between graphitization and frictional behavior of DLC coatings, Surf Coatings Technol. 1996; 86-87(2):564-8), metal dichalcogenides like MoS.sub.2 and WS.sub.2 (see, e.g., Chhowalla M et al., Thin films of fullerene-like MoS.sub.2 nanoparticles with ultra-low friction and wear, Nature 2000; 407:164-7; Lancaster J K, The influence of substrate hardness on the formation and endurance of molybdenum disulphide films, Wear 1967; 10:103-17; Scharf T W et al., Solid lubricants: a review, J. Mater. Sci. 2013; 48(2):511-31; and Hamilton M A et al., A possible link between macroscopic wear and temperature dependent friction behaviors of MoS.sub.2 coatings, Tribol. Lett. 2008; 32(2):91-8), metal nitrides and carbides widely used in bearings and coatings such as Si.sub.3N.sub.4 and WC, and even semiconductors like GaN (see, e.g., Zeng G et al., Ultralow wear of gallium nitride, Appl. Phys. Lett. 2016; 109:051602 (5 pp.)). More recently, ultra-low wear has been achieved in polymer nanocomposites such as PTFE-alumina (see, e.g., Sawyer W G et al., Mechanistic studies in friction and wear of bulk materials, Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2014; 44:395-427; and Krick B A et al., Ultralow wear fluoropolymer composites: nanoscale functionality from microscale fillers, Tribol. Int'l 2016; 95:245-55).
(105) As a material class, metals have remained a notable exception to this list (see, e.g., Sawyer W G et al., Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2014; 44:395-427; and Slade P G (ed.), Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications, (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1999)). Some of these materials, like graphite and metal dichalcogenides, depend on the formation of highly-ordered low shear strength lamellar surface films to achieve low friction and high wear resistance (see, e.g., Scharf T W et al., J. Mater. Sci. 2013; 48(2):511-31; and Dienwiebel M et al., Superlubricity of graphite, Phys. Rev. Lett. 2004; 92:126101 (4 pp.)) and can only accomplish this in specific environments (see, e.g., Lancaster J K, A review of the influence of environmental humidity and water on friction, lubrication and wear, Tribol. Int'l 1990; 23(6):371-89). For metals, surface microstructure evolutionspecifically refinementhas been linked to improved friction and wear resistance (see, e.g., Argibay N et al., Linking microstructural evolution and macro-scale friction behavior in metals, J. Mater. Sci. 2017; 52(5):2780-99; Chandross M et al., Shear-induced softening of nanocrystalline metal interfaces at cryogenic temperatures, Scripta Mater. 2018; 143:54-8; Greiner C et al., Sequence of stages in the microstructure evolution in copper under mild reciprocating tribological loading, ACS Appl. Mater. Interf. 2016; 8(24):15809-19; and Chen X et al., Lowering coefficient of friction in Cu alloys with stable gradient nanostructures, Science Adv. 2016; 2(12):e1601942 (8 pp.)), implying that alloys with grain structures that can resist thermal and mechanically driven grain growth should exhibit lower friction and higher wear resistance than conventional alloys. The potential practical impacts of ultra-low wear alloys are significant, perhaps most notably in electrical contacts, where bare metal contacts remain an intrinsic requirement for maintaining electrical conductivity across sliding and rolling interfaces (see, e.g., Brown L et al., Testing and evaluation of metal fiber brush operation on slip rings and commutators, IEEE Trans. Components Packaging Technols. 2008; 31(2):485-94; and Antler M, Sliding wear of metallic contacts, IEEE Trans. Components Hybrids Manuf. Technol. 1981; CHMT-4:15-29).
(106) Achieving ultra-low wear rates with metals requires the mitigation of deformation resulting from cyclic applied contact stresses, that can lead to evolution of the microstructure, defect nucleation, and eventual emission of wear particles. Hall-Petch strengthening via reduction in grain size is a primary mechanism to achieve higher hardness in metals (see, e.g. Pande C S et al., Nanomechanics of Hall-Petch relationship in nanocrystalline materials, Prog. Mater. Sci. 2009; 54(6):689-706), which has historically been linked to increased wear resistance for a wide range of materials (see, e.g., Leyland A et al., On the significance of the H/E ratio in wear control:a nanocomposite coating approach to optimised tribological behaviour, Wear 2000; 246(1-2): 1-11).
(107) When applied surface stresses do not regularly exceed the flow stress of metals in sliding contactas can be the case with nanocrystalline metals, even accounting for surface roughnesswear becomes primarily a fatigue-dominated process (see, e.g., Suh N P, An overview of the delamination theory of wear, Wear 1977; 44(1):1-16; and Argibay N et al., Copper-beryllium metal fiber brushes in high current density sliding electrical contacts, Wear 2010; 268(11-12): 1230-6). Fatigue wear depends on the formation of cracks through repeated cycling of contact stresses, leading to the formation of wear particles via cohesive failure. This regime is typically categorized as the delamination wear regime. While most coarse-grained metals undergo dislocation-mediated plasticity, cell formation, and grain refinement under cyclic loading, nanocrystalline metals with unstable grain boundaries can undergo grain growth that facilitates cracking (see, e.g. Boyce B L et al., Anomalous fatigue behavior and fatigue-induced grain growth in nanocrystalline nickel alloys, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2011; 42(7):1793-804). In part, one motivation was to demonstrate that improving the thermo-mechanical stability of nanocrystalline alloys can mitigate stress-driven microstructure evolution at elevated contact stresses, and ultimately suppress delamination wear.
(108) Alloying is a classic approach to stabilizing grain structures in metals (see, e.g., Kirchheim R, Reducing grain boundary, dislocation line and vacancy formation energies by solute segregation: I. Theoretical background, Acta Mater. 2007; 55(15):5129-38; Murdoch H A et al., Stability of binary nanocrystalline alloys against grain growth and phase separation, Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; Chookajorn T et al., Design of stable nanocrystalline alloys, Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4; Weertman J R, Retaining the nano in nanocrystalline alloys, Science 2012; 337(6097):921-2; Weissmller J, Alloy effects in nanostructures, Nanostructured Mater. 1993; 3(1-6):261-72; and Kirchheim R, Grain coarsening inhibited by solute segregation, Acta Mater. 2002; 50(2):413-9) via solute drag to retard motion of grain boundaries (GBs) (see, e.g., Cahn J W, The impurity-drag effect in grain boundary motion, Acta Metall. 1962; 10(9):789-98; Hillert M et al., A treatment of the solute drag on moving grain boundaries and phase interfaces in binary alloys, Acta Metall. 1976; 24(8):731-43; and Hyun S et al., Mechanical behavior of Pt and PtRu solid solution alloy thin films, Acta Mater. 2004; 52(14):4199-211), or Zener pinning through formation of second phase precipitates (see, e.g., Argibay N et al., On the thermal stability of physical vapor deposited oxide-hardened nanocrystalline gold thin films, J. Appl. Phys. 2015; 117: 145302 (13 pp.); Worner C H et al., Grain growth stagnation by inclusions or pores, JOM 1992; 44(9):16-20; and Hillert M, Inhibition of grain growth by second-phase particles, Acta Metall. 1988; 36(12):3177-81).
(109) In contrast to these methods of kinetically limiting grain growth, recent models suggest new thermodynamic routes for achieving stable nanocrystallinity through alloying (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; Chookajorn T et al., Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4; Weertman J R, Science 2012; 337(6097):921-2; Clark B G et al., Thermal stability comparison of nanocrystalline Fe-based binary alloy pairs, JOM 2016; 68(6):1625-33; Koch C C et al., Stabilization of nanocrystalline grain sizes by solute additions, J. Mater. Sci. 2008; 43(23):7264-72; and Murdoch H A et al., Estimation of grain boundary segregation enthalpy and its role in stable nanocrystalline alloy design, J. Mater. Res. 2013; 28(16):2154-63). In accordance with the Gibbs adsorption equation, the preferential segregation of solute to GBs (when the chemical potential is increased at a fixed temperature and pressure) leads to a reduction of the boundary energy, and thus the driving force for grain growth. If the energy advantage from segregation is strong enough, substantial reduction or even elimination of the thermodynamic driving force for grain growth can be achieved. This can lead to either a slowing of the grain growth kinetics or the thermodynamic stabilization of the nanocrystalline grain structure. The effect can be greatest in alloys with strong boundary segregation, causing segregated grain boundaries to be energetically preferable to solid solutions or second phases.
(110) Platinum and gold alloys were proposed (see, e.g., Gianola D S et al., Grain-size stabilization by impurities and effect on stress-coupled grain growth in nanocrystalline Al thin films, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2008; 483-484:637-40) as one of several binary metal alloys theoretically exhibiting the thermodynamic features needed for stable nanocrystallinity (see, e.g., Chookajorn T et al., Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4). These alloys have the advantage that the constituent materials are available in high purity, and their shared nobility obviates the added complexity of oxide formation on the analysis of grain boundary stability. In addition to the benefits for electrical contact applications where oxidation is problematic, previous studies on non-noble nanocrystalline systems have shown oxygen uptake as a key confounding factor (see, e.g., Clark B G et al., JOM 2016; 68(6):1625-33; and Gianola D S et al., Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2008; 483-484:637) in the interpretation of stability. The role of lattice strain on segregation behavior in this alloy is also minimal, with a relatively small elastic mismatch of 4% between Pt and Au.
(111) Here we present evidence that an exemplary solid solution alloy of Pt and Au (Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10, hereafter denoted PtAu in this Example to highlight the solution-state of Au in Pt), predicted to have unusually high nanocrystalline thermal stability (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; Chookajorn T et al., Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4; and Murdoch H A et al., J. Mater. Res. 2013; 28(16):2154-63), exhibits ultra-low wear rates. This suggests that the primary wear mechanism found with traditional nanocrystalline alloys having specific wear rates as low as 10.sup.6 mm.sup.3/N-m, i.e. fatigue-driven delamination wear (see, e.g., Sawyer W G et al., Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2014; 44:395-427; Slade P G (ed.), Electrical Contacts: Principles and Applications, (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1999); Suh N P, Wear 1977; 44(1):1-16; Argibay N et al., Low wear metal sliding electrical contacts at high current density, Wear 2012; 274-275:229-37; Prasad S V et al., EBSD studies on wear-induced subsurface regions in LIGA nickel, Scripta Mater. 2003; 48(3):255-60; Padilla H A et al., Frictional performance and near-surface evolution of nanocrystalline NiFe as governed by contact stress and sliding velocity, Wear 2013; 297(1-2):860-71; and Rupert T J et al., Sliding wear of nanocrystalline NiW: structural evolution and the apparent breakdown of Archard scaling, Acta Mater. 2010; 58(12):4137-48), can be effectively inhibited or greatly suppressed in metals. As such, the studied PtAu alloys exhibit wear rates comparable to the most wear resistant materials in nature.
(112) We deposited films of PtAu by magnetron-deposition of a mixed Pt and Au target (see herein, including Example 2). Representative scanning TEM high-angle annular dark-field (STEM-HAADF) image for a PtAu film in cross section, and STEM energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (STEM-EDS) plan view composition map and line scan are shown in
(113) Abdeljawad et al. (Abdeljawad F et al., Grain boundary segregation in immiscible nanocrystalline alloys, Acta Mater. 2017; 126:528-39) utilized a diffuse interface modeling framework to examine GB segregation in PtAu, and generally in immiscible nanocrystalline alloys. Their work, in part, provides additional insights about the combined effects of GB solute segregation and bulk phase separation, and the relative role of each on the microstructural evolution of nanocrystalline alloys.
(114) While the thermal stability of these alloys has been demonstrated, their stability under mechanical stress has not been previously investigated. We show in the following that our PtAu nanocrystalline films are remarkably resistant to growth under cyclic applied shear stress. Nanocrystalline mechanical stability is most clearly evident in the friction and wear behavior of these films, exhibiting wear rates of 310.sup.9110.sup.9 mm.sup.3/N-m and friction coefficients of i=0.2-0.3; these results are discussed in more detail below. Notably, the PtAu films even outperformed the harder sapphire and Si.sub.3N.sub.4 counterfaces. In all wear experiments, 3.2 mm diameter spheres were loaded in reciprocating contact in laboratory air (10-20% relative humidity, 20 C.) against a 2 m thick PtAu film deposited on a 440PH stainless steel substrate using a stroke length of 1 mm, in bi-directional sliding at 1 mm/s, for 10.sup.5 sliding passes (510.sup.4 bi-directional cycles). A constant normal force of 1 N was applied to the contacts, corresponding to Hertzian maximum stresses of 1.1 GPa for both sapphire and Si.sub.3N.sub.4 spheres.
(115) To demonstrate the combined thermo-mechanical stability of PtAu, a specimen was annealed in ultra-high vacuum for 1 day at 500 C., followed by friction and wear experiments over the same number of cycles. The cycle average friction coefficient data for the annealed film as compared to the as-deposited film are plotted in
(116) The specific wear rates were identical for both annealed and as-deposited PtAu wear tracks, with a value of K=310.sup.9+/110.sup.9 mm.sup.3/N-m, low enough to identify atomic attrition as the likely dominant wear mechanism (see, e.g., Bhaskaran H et al., Nat. Nanotechnol. 2010; 5:181-5). Specific wear rates and wear rate uncertainty were based on a volumetric material loss method (see, e.g., Schmitz T L et al., Wear-rate uncertainty analysis, Trans. ASME J. Tribol. 2004; 126(4):802-8), where a scanning white light interferometer (Bruker Contour GT) was used to measure the entirety of each wear track. The average cross-sectional area of the wear track (A), wear track length (L), total sliding passes (N), and contact force (Fn) were used to calculate the equivalent volumetric specific wear rate K using the following expression:
(117)
An established method is described in greater detail by Erickson G M et al., Paleo-tribology: development of wear measurement techniques and a three-dimensional model revealing how grinding dentitions selfwear to enable functionality, Surf Topogr. Metrol. Prop. 2016; 4:024001 (12 pp.).
(118) A comparison of the friction and wear performance of PtAu with respect to state-of-the-art tribological materials is presented in
(119) In studies assessing wear of materials, harder countersurfaces are generally used so that wear is predominantly due to the material or coating of interest. Interestingly, for these PtAu thin films, we found that the specific wear rates (i.e. aggregate volume lost) was lower than that of the much harder sapphire sphere (
(120) Similar experiments against Si.sub.3N.sub.4 spheres are shown in
(121) The maximum Hertzian contact stresses of about 1.1 GPa in friction experiments are approximately equal to, or just below, the fatigue endurance limit of these PtAu films, and well below the measured nanoindentation hardness of 7.10.4 GPa (see, e.g., Example 2). Briefly, the endurance limit was found using 5 m free-standing films having microstructures equivalent to those of the films used in the friction experiments. Nanoindentation hardness was measured on the same films used in friction experiments, in the as-deposited and annealed states. We hypothesize that because the sapphire balls were relatively smooth, contact stresses at asperities remained below the fatigue endurance limit of PtAu. As such, crack nucleation/propagation, stress-driven microstructure evolution, and grain growth were inhibited, suppressing fatigue-driven wear. Without wishing to be limited by mechanism, we hypothesize that the higher measured wear rate of Si.sub.3N.sub.4 was due to higher fatigue-wear of the ceramic ball, leading to the observed transfer of material and overall volume gain inside the PtAu wear track (
(122) We note that an ultra-low wear rate is not necessarily concomitant with a low friction coefficient (see, e.g., Erdemir A et al., J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 2006; 39(18):R311-R327), as wear is a property of the bulk while friction coefficient is a property of the surface. In instances of ultra-low wear, friction coefficients are often largely dependent on the presence of adsorbates on the film surface, which can significantly affect the shear strength of the sliding interface. While an increase in contact shear strength due to a thin film of adventitious carbon adsorbates can certainly enhance wear rate by amplifying stress, any such adsorbates did not in this case compromise the ultra-low wear of the load-bearing PtAu film, which is a further testament to the impressive wear resistance of this alloy.
(123) In conclusion, ultra-low wear rates on the order of 10.sup.9 mm.sup.3/N-m were measured for highly stable nanocrystalline PtAu thin films in lab air. These results suggest important and interesting directions for future research. Technologically, the demonstration of a noble metal alloy with an extremely low wear rate and extraordinary thermo-mechanical stability has far reaching implications, particularly in an electrical contact industry driven by increasing demand for greater efficiency in the use, storage and transmission of energy. An additional benefit for electrical contacts is the electrical resistivity of these coatings (measured to be approximately 30 n-m; see, e.g., Example 2 herein), that was only 1.8 higher than that of coarse grained pure Cu. One noteworthy example of an application where these coatings may have high immediate impact potential is in the developing field of nano- and micro-electromechanical devices. The proliferation of gigahertz nano/micro switches remains fundamentally limited by stress and temperature driven grain growth, oxidation and the formation of insulating organic films. A highly stable nanocrystalline noble metal alloy could address persistent roadblocks to widespread adoption of this technology.
Example 5: Thermal Stability and Grain Boundary Segregation in Nanocrystalline PtAu Alloys
(124) Grain boundary (GB) segregation inhibits grain growth in nanocrystalline (NC) metals and has been proposed as a new route to achieve stable NC structures. In this study, we demonstrate remarkable thermal stability in a noble metal alloy system (PtAu) achieved due to the GB solute segregation. This effect is shown experimentally by comparing thermal stability of Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 alloy and pure Pt films processed under identical conditions and is further verified by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The preferential Au segregation to GBs in the alloy Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 film is revealed by aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy using energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. The result also indicates the segregation is heterogeneous, i.e., variation between GBs as well as non-uniformity within the same GB, consistent with predictions from MD simulations. This study validates the mechanism of GB segregation and provides further understanding of the impact of thermodynamics and kinetics for NC stabilization.
(125) Nanocrystalline (NC) metals have been shown to have desirable mechanical properties including high strength, hardness and wear resistance (see, e.g., Kumar K S et al., Mechanical behavior of nanocrystalline metals and alloys, Acta Mater. 2003; 51(19):5743-74; and Meyers M A, Mechanical properties of nanocrystalline materials, Prog. Mater. Sci. 2006; 51(4): 427-556). NC metal grain structures, however, are inherently unstable due to strong driving forces for grain growth, associated with high grain boundary (GB) area and boundary curvature. The ability to reduce grain growth and retain nanocrystallinity for an extended period under a practical service condition is one of the key challenges to the large scale commercial application of such systems, and has recently become an area of intense research (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Stability of binary nanocrystalline alloys against grain growth and phase separation, Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; Chookajorn T et al., Design of stable nanocrystalline alloys, Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4; Weertman J R, Retaining the nano in nanocrystalline alloys, Science 2012; 337(6097):921-2; Koch C C et al., Stabilization of nanocrystalline grain sizes by solute additions, J. Mater. Sci. 2008; 43(23):7264-72; and Driver J H, Stability of nanostructured metals and alloys, Scripta Mater. 2004; 51(8):819-23).
(126) A classic approach to stabilizing grain structures in conventional microstructured metals is through alloying (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; Chookajorn T et al., Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4; Weertman J R, Science 2012; 337(6097):921-2; Weissmller J, Alloy effects in nanostructures, Nanostructured Mater. 1993; 3(1-6):261-72; Kirchheim R, Grain coarsening inhibited by solute segregation, Acta Mater. 2002; 50(2):413-9; and Kirchheim R, Reducing grain boundary, dislocation line and vacancy formation energies by solute segregation: I. Theoretical background, Acta Mater. 2007; 55(15):5129-38). Solute drag can retard the motion of GBs (see, e.g., Cahn J W, The impurity-drag effect in grain boundary motion, Acta Metall. 1962; 10(9):789-98; and Hillert M et al., A treatment of the solute drag on moving grain boundaries and phase interfaces in binary alloys, Acta Metall. 1976; 24(8):731-43) and the formation of second phase precipitates can lead to Zener pinning of boundaries (see, e.g., Wrner C H et al., Grain growth stagnation by inclusions or pores, JOM 1992; 44(9):16-20; and Hillert M, Inhibition of grain growth by second-phase particles, Acta Metall. 1988; 36(12):3177-81).
(127) Recently, GB solution segregation has been proposed as a new route for stabilizing nanocrystallinity (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; and Chookajorn T et al., Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4). Unlike traditional metallurgical approaches for stabilizing grain structures by retarding grain growth kinetics (see, e.g., Driver J H, Scripta Mater. 2004; 51(8):819-23; Wrner C H et al., JOM 1992; 44(9):16-20; and Hillert M, Acta Metall. 1988; 36(12):3177-81), the new approach via GB solute segregation primarily relies on reducing interfacial free energy by creating local, quasi-equilibrium conditions near the GBs (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Acta Mater. 2013; 61(6):2121-32; Chookajorn T et al., Science 2012; 337(6097):951-4; Weissmller J, Nanostructured Mater. 1993; 3(1-6):261-72; and Kirchheim R, Acta Mater. 2002; 50(2):413-9). In accordance with the Gibbs adsorption equation, the preferential segregation of solute to GBs when the chemical potential is increased at a fixed temperature and pressure leads to reduction in the boundary energy, and thus the driving force for grain growth. If the energetic advantage from segregation is strong enough, substantial reductions or possible elimination of the thermodynamic driving force for grain growth can be achieved. This leads to either a reduction of grain growth kinetics or the thermodynamic stabilization of the nanocrystalline grain structure. This effect is expected to be the strongest in alloys with a miscibility gap that strongly favors boundary segregation, which can lead to substantial reductions in GB energy.
(128) Although recent experiments have indicated increased NC thermal stability through GB solute segregation in several non-noble NC alloy systems, practical complexities associated with the non-noble metal systems such as presence of oxides and other impurities have greatly confounded experimental demonstrations (see, e.g., Clark B G et al., Thermal stability comparison of nanocrystalline Fe-based binary alloy pairs, JOM 2016; 68(6):1625-3; and Gianola D S et al., Grain-size stabilization by impurities and effect on stress-coupled grain growth in nanocrystalline Al thin films, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2008; 483-484:637-40). In this study, we present both experimental and molecular dynamics (MD) evidence showing remarkable NC stability for a noble metal alloy system (e.g., PtAu) owing to solute segregation.
(129) The PtAu alloy system is chosen because of a substantial miscibility gap in its phase diagram which makes it a good candidate for a thermodynamically stabilized alloy (see, e.g., Murdoch H A et al., Estimation of grain boundary segregation enthalpy and its role in stable nanocrystalline alloy design, J. Mater. Res. 2013; 28(16):2154-63), and its nobility that avoids the complexity of oxide formation. Additionally, a relatively small elastic modulus mismatch of 4% between Pt and Au minimizes the role of strain on segregation behavior. Furthermore, this system is amenable to description by semi-empirical interatomic potentials in MD simulations.
(130) Here, we describe the thermal stability for both thin films (18 nm) and thick films (2 m) experimentally, and demonstrate thermal stability due to solution segregation by comparing thermal stability of the Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 and pure Pt films. Aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) using energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) is used to reveal the Au segregation in GBs. The experimental results are supported and informed by MD simulations.
(131) Results of grain growth experiments on Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 alloy film and pure Pt thin films (18 nm) are presented in
(132) Significantly different grain growth behaviors are observed upon annealing at 500 C. (
(133) The rampant growth in pure Pt film, on the other hand, continues even after days of annealing (
(134) It is important to point out the presence of 1-5 nm diameter voids in the annealed films (both pure Pt and Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 film), given that these voids may influence grain growth rates through Zener pinning of boundaries (see, e.g., Worner C H et al., JOM 1992; 44(9): 16-20; and Hillert M, Acta Metall. 1988; 36(12):3177-81).
(135) The solution segregation in the Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 film is studied utilizing STEM-EDS.
(136) Additionally, segregation appears to be heterogenous, meaning that it is strongly dependent on the GB type (e.g., low- vs. high-energy GBs) and that the composition is non-uniform along the boundary for same GB. The heterogeneity can be most clearly seen from the 3D plot in
(137) The NC thermal stability was also found in Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 thick film (2 m) deposited on Si substrate. No visible changes in grain size were found between as-deposited and one annealed at 500 C. for up to 2 hrs. It is important to point out that the thick films had a columnar structure with large grain aspect ratios, a typical feature of magnetron sputter-deposited metal films. This microstructure alone may cause stagnation of normal grain growth in columnar films (see, e.g., Thompson C V, Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 1990; 20:245-68). Nevertheless, preferential Au segregation to GBs has also been observed in the thick film, and the Au segregation may have provided additional stability for the film.
(138)
(139)
(140) The qualitative similarities between the experimental and simulation results provide strong support to the assertion that the GB segregation is a key to the thermal stability observed in Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 alloy, and that the GB segregation is highly heterogeneous both within a given boundary type and between boundaries of different types. The heterogeneity with the boundary type (e.g., high- vs. low-energy GBs) is not a surprise given that reduction of the thermodynamic driving force by solution segregation is highly dependent on the GB structure. The energy reduction by solution segregation to a high-energy GB, for example, is expected to be substantially more than that of a low-energy GB, e.g., twins. Through the heterogeneous GB segregation, the thermodynamic driving force for the grain growth, especially that of high energy GBs, is significantly reduced or eliminated. This makes the GBs more thermodynamically homogeneous, preventing the abnormal grain growth that is typically associated with movement of the high-energy GBs due to the heterogeneous boundary properties (see, e.g., Jung S H et al., Mechanism of abnormal grain growth in ultrafine-grained nickel, Acta Mater. 2013; 61(15):5685-93; and Sansoz F et al., Grain growth behavior at absolute zero during nanocrystalline metal indentation, Appl. Phys. Lett. 2006; 89:111901 (3 pp.)). The overall effect may have produced the NC thermal stability in the alloy film as observed.
(141) The heterogeneity associated within the same boundary is also of interest. Experimentally, the voids along GBs are often found to be associated with the locations with higher Au concentration. The MD simulation, on the other hand, depicts the formation of Au clusters along the GB. Without wishing to be limited by mechanism, in the presence of voids along the GB, Au atoms of the clusters might prefer the sites of the voids where Au atoms occupy the internal surface of the voids for additional energy reduction. In one non-limiting instance, this effect could be duplicated by including vacancies in the MD simulations.
(142) The use of noble alloys in this study to avoid oxides offers a simplified view of grain stabilization by solute segregation as compared to any prior study of which we are aware. On the other hand, presence of the voids may also contribute to thermal stability through Zener pinning but the overall effect appears to be relatively small since a high density of voids is present in both Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 and pure Pt films. It is also important to point out that they might be the artifacts associated with using a thin film for annealing experiments. Free surfaces and thin film-related geometrical features, such as preferential surface segregation and grain boundary grooves may impact experimental results that are not captured in MD simulations. The free surfaces and grooves allow for greater heterogeneity in the thin film samples and will, in fact, destabilize the structure by allowing depletion of pinning sites in boundaries. The fact that we find such notable stability in these samples, and the agreement found between the experiments and simulations indicate that this effect is also likely small at the annealing conditions used in this study.
(143) By comparing grain growth behavior of the Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 and pure Pt film and investigating the Au segregation in the Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 film, we have demonstrated the effect on the NC stability in Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 film owning to Au segregation to the GBs. The results from the experimental observations have been confirmed by MD simulations. Segregation of Au to GBs was found to be highly heterogeneous, including variation between the GBs as well as non-uniformity within the same GB. The heterogeneous solution segregation provides overall GB energy saving particularly from that of high-energy GBs, and thus reduction of the driving force for grain growth. This effect leads to inhibition of abnormal grain growth and a more stable NC structure in the alloy system. This study verifies the mechanism of solution segregation for stabling NC structure, and provides a strong foundation for utilizing the solution segregation mechanism for future NC metal and alloy design.
Example 6: Experimental Details for Thermal Stability Studies
(144) Direct current (DC) magnetron sputtering was used to deposit pure Pt and Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 films utilizing high purity (>99.99%) targets. The system has a cryo-pumped vacuum system with a base pressure of better than 210.sup.7 Torr. The targets were pre-sputtered for 5 min prior to the start of each deposition to avoid incorporation of adventitious carbon in the deposited films. Ultra-high purity Ar (99.995%) was used for all sputter processes, and substrate temperature was controlled to be less than 50 C. during the deposition. Quartz crystal monitors were used to monitor film thickness with Angstrom-level precision. Thickness calibration was conducted prior to depositions utilized a calibrated DEKTAK 3 (Veeco; Woodbury, N.Y.) surface profilometer, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).
(145) Both pure Pt and Pt.sub.0.90Au.sub.0.10 thin films (18 nm) as well as thick films (2 m) were used for thermal stability studies. The 18 nm thin film and 2 m thick film were deposited on polycrystalline NaCl and Si substrates, respectively. The annealing of the thin film was carried out using a Gatan 628 TEM in-situ heating holder in vacuum (pressure <10.sup.6 Torr). The thin film TEM specimens were prepared by dissolving the NaCl substrate in water, rinsing the film in water and methanol (more than 48 hours) and laying the film on a Mo TEM grid. For the thick film, the sample annealing was carried out in a tube furnace in air, and after the annealing, the TEM samples were made by focused ion beam (FIB).
(146) An FEI Titan G2 80-200 STEM with a Cs probe corrector and ChemiSTEM technology (X-FEG and SuperX EDS with four windowless silicon drift detectors) operated at 200 kV was used. The film microstructure was studied by STEM using high-angle annular dark-field (HAADF) detector. The GB segregation was studied by STEM-EDS. EDS spectral imaging was acquired as a series of frames where the same region was scanned multiple times.
(147) A typical acquisition of EDS spectral imaging took about 4 hrs. Au L lines and Pt L lines were used for constructing the EDS maps of Au and Pt, respectively. Since the Au L lines overlap with the Pt L lines significantly, the EDS spectra were deconvoluted pixel-by-pixel using pure spectra of Au and Pt as references before map construction. Au atomic concentration was calculated using Cliff and Lorimer method (see, e.g., Cliff G et al., The quantitative analysis of thin specimens, J. Microscop. 1975; 103(2):203-7). Unless otherwise specified in Example 5, MC and MD simulations were conducted as described herein in Example 3.
OTHER EMBODIMENTS
(148) All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are incorporated herein by reference to the same extent as if each independent publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.
(149) While the invention has been described in connection with specific embodiments thereof, it will be understood that it is capable of further modifications and this application is intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, the principles of the invention and including such departures from the present disclosure that come within known or customary practice within the art to which the invention pertains and may be applied to the essential features hereinbefore set forth, and follows in the scope of the claims.
(150) Other embodiments are within the claims.