Photothermal interferometry apparatus and method

Abstract

A photothermal interferometry apparatus and method for detecting a molecule in a sample, in particular for detecting a trace gas species, comprising: a Fabry-Perot interferometer with a first mirror, a second mirror and a first cavity for containing the sample extending between the first and the second mirror, a probe laser for passing a probe laser beam through the first cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer, an excitation laser for passing an excitation laser beam through the first cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer for exciting the molecule in the sample, and a photodetector unit for detecting the transmitted probe laser beam passed through the first cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer.

Claims

1. A photothermal interferometry apparatus for detecting a molecule in a sample, comprising: a Fabry-Perot interferometer with a first mirror, a second mirror and a first cavity for containing the sample extending between the first and the second mirror, a probe laser arrangement with at least one probe laser for providing a first probe laser beam and a second probe laser beam, an excitation laser for passing an excitation laser beam through the first cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer for exciting the molecule in the sample, the Fabry-Perot interferometer comprising a third mirror, a fourth mirror and a second cavity for containing the sample extending between the third and the fourth mirror, the first and the second cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer being arranged such that the first probe laser beam intersects with the excitation laser beam in the first cavity and the second probe laser beam does not intersect with the excitation laser beam in the second cavity, and a photodetector unit comprising a first photo detector for detecting the transmitted first probe laser beam and a second photo detector for detecting the transmitted second probe laser beam.

2. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the probe laser arrangement comprises a beam splitter for splitting a probe laser beam from the probe laser into the first and second probe laser beam.

3. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 2, further comprising a subtractor for subtracting a second transmission signal corresponding to the transmitted second probe laser beam from a first transmission signal corresponding to the first transmitted probe laser beam.

4. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 2, wherein the first and the third mirror are formed by a first and a second section of a first mirror element, the second and the fourth mirror are formed by a first and a second section of a second mirror element such that the first and the second cavity extend continuously between the first and second mirror element.

5. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a modulator for modulating the wavelength of the excitation laser beam, the photodetector unit being arranged for detecting a modulation of the transmitted probe laser beam passed through the first cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer.

6. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the photodetector unit communicates with a control unit arranged for determining a harmonic of the modulation of the probe laser beam passed through the first cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer.

7. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 6, wherein the control unit comprises a lock-in amplifier, and wherein the harmonic is a second harmonic.

8. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a first tuner for tuning the probe laser beam over a first given wavelength range.

9. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a second tuner for tuning the excitation laser beam over a second given wavelength range.

10. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the Fabry-Perot interferometer comprises a sample cell for containing the sample, the first and the second mirror being fixed on a first and second side of the sample cell.

11. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 10, wherein the sample cell of the Fabry-Perot interferometer comprises a sample inlet and a sample outlet.

12. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 11, further comprising a vacuum device connected to the sample outlet of the Fabry-Perot interferometer.

13. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a reference cell containing the sample, the reference cell being arranged in the path of the excitation laser beam such that the excitation laser beam is passed through the sample in the reference cell, and a photo diode for detecting the excitation laser beam passed through the reference cell.

14. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the excitation laser is a diode laser, or a continuous wave quantum cascade laser, or a continuous wave distributed feedback quantum cascade laser, or an external cavity quantum cascade laser, or an interband cascade laser, and/or wherein the probe laser is a diode laser, or a single mode diode laser, or a continuous wave distributed feedback diode laser or an external cavity quantum cascade laser.

15. A method for detecting a trace gas species in a sample using photothermal spectroscopy, comprising the steps of: providing a first and a second probe laser beam, directing the first probe laser beam through the sample in a first cavity of a Fabry-Perot interferometer, directing the second probe laser beam through the sample in a second cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer, providing an excitation laser beam for heating the sample in the first cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer, directing the excitation laser beam through the sample in the first cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer, detecting the transmitted first probe laser beam, and detecting the transmitted second probe laser beam.

16. The method of claim 15, further comprising the step of subtracting a second transmission signal corresponding to the transmitted second probe laser beam from a first transmission signal corresponding to the transmitted first probe laser beam.

17. The method of claim 15, further comprising the steps of detecting a thermal wave in the sample with the transmitted first probe laser beam and detecting an acoustic wave in the sample with the transmitted second probe laser beam.

18. The method of claim 15, further comprising the steps ofmodulating the excitation laser beam wavelength, directing the modulated excitation laser beam through the sample in the first cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer, detecting a harmonic of a modulation of the transmitted first probe laser beam passed through the first cavity of the Fabry-Perot interferometer.

19. The method of claim 15, further comprising the step oftuning the probe laser beam in accordance with a predetermined value of a transmission function of the Fabry-Perot interferometer.

20. The photothermal interferometry apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the apparatus is for detecting a trace gas species.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

(1) The invention is further explained with respect to an exemplary embodiment thereof. In the drawings,

(2) FIG. 1 shows a photothermal interferometry apparatus comprising a FPI, a probe laser and an excitation laser;

(3) FIG. 2 shows a photothermal interferometry apparatus according to another embodiment of the invention;

(4) FIG. 3 shows a gas cell for use in a photothermal interferometry apparatus according to FIG. 1 or 2;

(5) FIG. 4 shows the transmission function of the probe laser beam passed through a sample gas in the FPI;

(6) FIG. 5 shows the 2f WM FP-PTI spectra of SO.sub.2 obtained with the apparatus of FIG. 1 when the excitation laser frequency was tuned over the absorption line centered at 1379.78 cm.sup.1; and

(7) FIG. 6 shows the linear dependence of measured SO.sub.2 signal amplitudes versus sample gas concentration.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(8) FIG. 1 depicts a photothermal interferometry apparatus 1 for determining the concentration of a molecule in a sample.

(9) As can be seen from FIG. 1, the apparatus 1 for detecting refractive index changes employs an excitation laser 2 for sample heating and a probe laser 3 for monitoring changes resulting from heating. The change in the refractive index causes a phase shift of light passing through the heated sample which can be measured with high sensitivity using a Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) 4. The FPI 4 comprises a first mirror 5, a second mirror 6 and a first cavity 7 for containing a sample. The first cavity 7 extends between the first 5 and the second mirror 6. The first 5 and the second mirror 6 are arranged in parallel. Within the two parallel partially reflecting mirrors 5, 6 a probe laser beam 8 undergoes multiple reflections.

(10) The apparatus 1 further comprises a photodetector unit 9 for detecting the transmitted probe laser beam 8 passed through the first cavity 7 of the Fabry-Perot interferometer 4. The photodetector unit 9 is connected to an electronic control unit 10 (shown with dotted lines in FIG. 1). Refractive index changes can be detected by measuring the transmitted probe laser beam intensity through the FPI 4, which is dependent on the phase shift of the probe laser beam 8. The control unit 10 will be explained in greater detail below.

(11) In the shown embodiment, the photothermal interferometry apparatus 1 further comprises a modulator 11 for modulating the wavelength of an excitation laser beam 2a emitted by excitation laser 2. The photodetector 9 is arranged for detecting a modulation of the probe laser beam 8 as passed through the first cavity 7 of the Fabry-Perot interferometer 4. For this purpose, the control unit 10 comprises a lock-in amplifier 12 receiving an AC (alternating current) component of the transmission signal generated by the photodetector unit 9 from the transmitted probe laser beam 8. The lock-in amplifier 12 communicates with a data acquisition unit 13, which also receives the DC (direct current) component of the transmission signal from the photodetector unit 9. The data acquisition unit 13 is connected to a computer 14 having a user interface. In this way, the control unit 10 is arranged for determining a second harmonic of the modulation of the probe laser beam 8 passed through the first cavity 7 of the Fabry-Perot interferometer 4.

(12) As can be seen from FIG. 1, the control unit 10 further comprises an excitation laser driver 15 driving current and temperature of the excitation laser 2 and a probe laser driver 16 driving current and temperature of the probe laser 3. The data acquisition unit 13 communicates both with the excitation laser driver 15 and the probe laser driver 16.

(13) As can be seen from FIG. 1, photothermal interferometry apparatus 1 comprises a first tuner 17 for tuning the probe laser beam 8 over a first given wavelength range. Also, a second tuner 18 is arranged for tuning the excitation laser beam 2a over a second given wavelength range. For this purpose, the excitation laser 2 may be a continuous wave quantum cascade laser or interband cascade laser. On the other hand, the probe laser 3 may be a fiber coupled single-mode tunable continuous wave diode laser.

(14) As can be seen from FIG. 1 (and in greater detail from FIG. 3), the Fabry-Perot interferometer 4 comprises a sample cell 19 for containing the sample. The first 5 and the second mirror 6 are fixed on a first side 20 and a second side 21 of the sample cell 19, respectively, the first side 20 and second side 21 being arranged opposite one another. In this way, the first 5 and second mirror 6 are arranged in a constant distance from each other. Furthermore, sample cell 19 comprises an entry window 22 on a third side 23 and an exit window 24 on a fourth side 25 of the sample cell 19. The third 23 and fourth side 25 are arranged opposite one another. In the shown embodiment, the sample cell 19 is essentially box-shaped.

(15) The sample cell 19 of the Fabry-Perot interferometer 4 further comprises a sample inlet 26 for introducing the sample, preferably a trace gas, into the first cavity 7 and a sample outlet 27 for removing the sample from the first cavity 7 of the FPI 4. In the shown embodiment, a vacuum device 28 is connected to the sample outlet 27 of the Fabry-Perot interferometer 4.

(16) The photothermal interferometry apparatus 1 may also comprise a reference cell 29 containing the sample. The reference cell 29 is arranged, when seen in direction of propagation of the excitation laser beam 2a, behind the first cavity 7 of the Fabry-Perot interferometer 4. The excitation laser beam 2a is passed through the reference cell 29 after passing through the first cavity 7 of the Fabry-Perot interferometer 4. The apparatus 1 comprises a photo diode 30 for detecting the excitation laser beam 2a after it emerges from the reference cell 29. The photo diode 30 generates an output signal that is communicated to a further lock-in amplifier 31 demodulating an odd harmonic, preferable the third harmonic of the transmitted excitation laser beam. The further lock-in amplifier 31 is connected to the data acquisition unit 13.

(17) The shown apparatus 1 provides for a robust and compact sensor arrangement without the use of moveable parts using a fixed spaced FPI 4.

(18) FIG. 2 shows a variant of the photothermal interferometry apparatus 1 of FIG. 1. In this embodiment, a beam splitter 37 is arranged for splitting the probe laser beam 8 into a first probe laser beam 8a and a second probe laser beam 8b. The second probe laser beam 8b is deflected by 90 with mirror 38 such that first 8a and second probe laser beam 8b run in parallel before hitting sample cell 19. The Fabry-Perot interferometer 4 comprises a third mirror 39, a fourth mirror 40 and a second cavity 41 for containing the same sample as in first cavity 7. The second cavity 41 extends between the third 39 and the fourth mirror 40. In the shown example, the first 5 and the third mirror 39 are formed by a first and a second section of a first mirror element 42, while the second 6 and the fourth mirror 40 are formed by a third and a fourth section of a second mirror element 43 such that the first 7 and the second cavity 41 extend continuously between the first 42 and second mirror element 43. In this way, the first 7 and second cavity 41 are formed in the same sample cell 19.

(19) However, in another embodiment (not shown), the second cavity 41 is separate from the first cavity 7. For this purpose, a second sample cell (not shown) may comprise third mirror 39, fourth mirror 40 and second cavity 41.

(20) The set-up of FIG. 2 is arranged for a method including the steps of

(21) detecting a thermal wave in the sample with the transmitted first probe laser beam (8a) and

(22) detecting an acoustic wave in the sample with the transmitted second probe laser beam (8b).

(23) In the shown embodiment, the first 7 and the second cavity 41 of the Fabry-Perot interferometer 4 are arranged such that the first probe laser beam 8a intersects with the excitation laser beam 2a in the first cavity 7 and the second probe laser beam 8b does not intersect with the excitation laser beam 2a in the second cavity 41.

(24) The photodetector unit 9 comprises a first 44 and a second photo detector 45 for detecting the transmitted first probe laser beam 8a and the transmitted second probe laser beam 8b, respectively. A subtractor 46 is arranged for subtracting a second transmission signal corresponding to the transmitted second probe laser beam 8b from a first transmission signal corresponding to the first transmitted probe laser beam 8a. The subtractor 46 may additionally serve as an amplifier. The differential transmission signal is communicated to lock-in amplifier 12.

(25) In the shown embodiment, the first probe laser beam 8a and the second probe laser beam 8b run essentially perpendicularly to the excitation laser beam 2a in the first cavity.

(26) FIG. 4 illustrates the operation principle of the photothermal interferometry apparatus 1. The transmitting function of the optical cavity 6 is given by the transmitted probe laser beam intensity IT in relation to the intensity I.sub.0 of the probe laser beam over the wavelength .sub.0 of the probe laser 3. As can be seen from FIG. 4, the transmission function of the optical cavity 6 for a sample is shifted when the sample is heated, due to a change of the refractive index. A phase shift is observed by probe laser 3 with fixed frequency and observed as a change of transmitted intensity through the FPI 4. Maximal sensitivity of transmission to variations in the phase delay is given in the vicinity of the inflection point of the periodic transmission function, which may be near 75% transmission of the FPI 4. At this point the slope of the function is maximum and roughly linear over a narrow range. The slope of the transmission function and thus the detectable signal is directly proportional to the finesse of the cavity, i.e. the higher the mirror reflectivity, the higher the sensitivity. This is, however, only true to the extent that the source of limiting noise is not similarly enhanced. Limiting noise sources may be introduced by phase and intensity noise of the probe laser source, as well as mechanical and acoustical noise inducing a cavity misalignment and refractive index changes by pressure changes of the media inside the FPI.

(27) In FIG. 4, line 31 shows the transmission function at thermal equilibrium of the sample. The frequency of probe laser 3 is fixed near the inflection point of the transmission function. After photo-induced heating of the sample by excitation laser 2 the refractive index of the sample gas decreases, which is accompanied by a shift 32 of the transmission function (line 33). The shift is monitored by a change 34 of transmitted probe laser intensity.

(28) In the photothermal interferometry apparatus 1 the distance between first 5 and second mirror 6 may be below 2 mm, preferably below 1.5 mm, for example 1 mm. This enables construction of an ultra-low volume sample cell 19 with a total volume of <0.7 cm.sup.3 which can operate in a wide range of pressures and temperatures. Moreover, the presented setup may allow for further miniaturization of the apparatus 1 down to micro-electro-optical-system integration on a chip. Sample heating is performed by excitation laser 2, refractive index changes are monitored by probe laser 3 in transverse direction. Implementation of WM with modulator 11 may be achieved by modulating the injection current of the excitation laser 2. Sensitivity is accomplished by the small spacing of the first 5 and second mirror 6 together with the usage of a quantum cascade laser (QCL) as excitation laser 2 with which strong fundamental absorption of sample molecules in the mid-infrared (mid-IR) region can be targeted along with high laser power. Selectivity may be improved by employing WM and second harmonic detection preferably at reduced sample pressure. Furthermore, the modulation (detection) frequency may be selectable, due to the absence of any resonance. Detection of refractive index changes may be carried out with a probe laser 3 emitting in the vicinity of 1600 nm. This near infrared region offers matured technology where cheap optical components are available. However, it is understood that a great variety of probe laser wavelengths 3 could be used.

(29) The FPI 4 used as transducer for monitoring induced refractive index changes may comprise two dielectric coated fused silica mirrors with a reflectivity of R=0.85, a diameter of 12.7 mm and a radius of curvature of 0.5 m. For example, a Finesse of 19.3 may be achieved. Refractive index changes inside the FPI 4 may be monitored by the use of a fiber coupled single-mode tunable continuous wave (CW) distributed feedback (DFB) diode laser housed in a butterfly-type 14 pin package (probe laser 3). The laser diode emitted at a wavelength around 1600 nm with a minimum fiber output power of 20 mW. The pigtail fiber output may be collimated with a fixed focus aspheric lens collimator at the connectorized FC/PC connector. Tuning of the probe laser 3 with first tuner 17 may be performed either by temperature or by injection current. The probe laser output may be coupled by a CaF.sub.2 plano-convex lens (f=150 mm) into the FPI, whereas the transmitted laser intensity may be detected by a gallium indium arsenide (GaInAs) positive intrinsic negative junction (PIN) photodiode of photo detector unit 9 employing a custom made ultra-low noise transimpedance amplifier.

(30) Heating of the sample gas inside the FPI 4 may be performed by the use of a collimated CW-DFB quantum cascade laser (QCL) emitting at 7.25 m (excitation laser 2). Here as well, frequency tuning with second tuner 18 may be performed by QCL temperature and injection current, respectively. The corresponding tuning coefficients of the QCL were c.sub.T=0.10057 cm.sup.1 K.sup.1 and c.sub.I=0.00582 cm.sup.1 mA.sup.1. The QCL output beam was focused by a plano-convex CaF.sub.2 lens (f=40 mm) in between the two mirrors 5, 6 forming the FPI 4, intersecting the standing wave of the probe laser beam 8 in transverse direction.

(31) The two dielectric coated mirrors 5, 6 may be fixed to a compact aluminum sample cell 19 with a spacing of d=1 mm to each other. Transmission of the QCL beam through the sample cell 19 onto a beam dump may be enabled by CaF.sub.2 windows (entry window 22, exit window 24), also fixed to the cell. Sample gas exchange may be performed by a gas inlet 26 and gas outlet 27.

(32) In a practical example of the sample cell 19, the outer dimensions of the sample cell 19 were 401525 mm, whereas the sample gas volume inside was approximately 0.7 cm.sup.3. If necessary, this value can be easily reduced towards much smaller values down to a few mm.sup.3 by usage of mirrors 5, 6 with smaller diameter, as well as a through hole with lower diameter for QCL beam propagation and closer mirror spacing.

(33) The sensor platform may be based on PT sample excitation via WM and second harmonic (2f) detection of the transmitted probe laser beam 8 intensity through the FPI 4, which may be performed by demodulation of the alternating current (AC) of the photodetector (PD) signal of photo detector unit 9 at 2f using a lock-in amplifier (LIA) 12. The direct current (DC) PD component may be used to maintain the emission frequency of the probe laser 3 at the inflection point of the transmission function of the FPI 4, which is the maximum of its first derivative.

(34) In order to implement the WM technique the emission wavelength of the QCL laser (excitation laser 2) may be modulated with the frequency f.sub.mod by adding a sinusoidal modulation to the DC current input. Spectral data of the sample gas may be acquired by slowly tuning (mHz) the excitation laser frequency over the desired spectral range (1380 cm.sup.1 to 1379.6 cm.sup.1) by tuning the DC injection current component with a sawtooth function. A modulation of the transmitted probe laser intensity was induced when the density of the sample in between the optical cavity is altered by absorption of the excitation laser beam 2a. The detected photodiode LIA data may be digitized by a 24 bit data acquisition card for further data processing, which may be carried out by transferring the digitized data to computer 14.

(35) The pressure and flow of the sample gas inside the FP-PTI cell (sample cell 19) may be controlled and maintained by using a metering valve, a mini diaphragm vacuum pump, a pressure sensor and a pressure controller forming the pressure adjustment unit (vacuum device 28).

(36) The functional principle of the apparatus 1 may be tested using a modulation frequency of f.sub.mod=500 Hz, a LIA time constant set to =1 second and a tuning frequency of 10 mHz. The pressure and flow of the sample gas may be kept constant at p=200 mbar and v=110 ml min.sup.1.

EXAMPLE

(37) In an example, sulfur dioxide (SO.sub.2) was chosen as target molecule due to strong absorption in the spectral region of the used QCL (excitation laser 2).

(38) Spectral scans for different SO.sub.2 concentration levels were performed by tuning the QCL (excitation laser 2) frequency via the injection current. For the selected SO.sub.2 absorption line centered at 1379.78 cm.sup.1 the measured optical power emitted by the QCL (excitation laser 2) was 173 mW (T=288.65 K, I=416 mA). The QCL beam (excitation laser beam 2a) was focused between the gap formed by the two cavity mirrors 5, 6 with high transmission efficiency (>99.9%). Taking absorption of the plano-convex lens and optical window of the sample cell into account (8% and 6%, respectively) an optical power of 150 mW was directed through the two mirrors.

(39) FIG. 5 shows 2f WM FP-PTI spectra of SO.sub.2 at reduced pressure of p=200 mbar when the QCL frequency was tuned over the absorption line centered at 1379.78 cm.sup.1. Line 35 relates to 10000 ppmv SO.sub.2, line 36 relates to 100 ppmv SO.sub.2 and horizontal line 37 relates to pure N.sub.2.

(40) The evaluation of the FP-PTI sensors sensitivity and linearity as a function of the SO.sub.2 concentration was investigated by recording spectra within the concentration range from 0 to 1000 ppmv. Measured results for two different SO.sub.2 concentrations in N.sub.2 together with the sensor noise when the cell was flowed only by pure N.sub.2 are illustrated in FIG. 5. The dependence of all measured signal amplitudes versus SO.sub.2 concentrations yielded excellent linearity with a calculated R-square value of 0.9998 shown in FIG. 6.

(41) Based on the measured signal amplitude of 1000 ppmv SO.sub.2 and the standard deviation of the noise level of pure N.sub.2 a signal-to-noise ratio of 935 was calculated, which yields a 1 minimum detection limit (MDL) of 1.07 ppmv for a 1 sec acquisition time. The corresponding normalized noise equivalent absorption (NNEA) coefficient using a the minimum detectable absorption coefficient of .sub.min=3.310.sup.6 for 1 cm, an optical excitation power of 150 mW and a detector bandwidth of 78 mHz=(=1 s, 24 dB/oct low-pass filter) was recalculated to be 1.7810.sup.6 cm.sup.1 W Hz.sup.1/2.

(42) This example illustrates the advantages of the shown apparatus 1 with respect to selectivity, sensitivity and ultra-small absorption volumes. The setup demonstrates a robust and compact sensor arrangement without the use of any moveable part which can operate in a wide temperature and pressure range. The sensor is based on PT sample excitation and monitoring of the induced refractive index changes using a fixed spaced low-finesse (F=19.3) FPI with a mirror distance of 1 mm. WM and second harmonic detection was implemented using a CW-DFB-QCL as excitation source and a CW-DFB diode laser as probe source tuned to the inflection point of one transmission function of the FPI. The 2f WMS technique significantly increases simultaneously sensitivity and selectivity of the measurement where noise reduction is achieved by shifting detection to higher frequencies and by narrow band-pass detection. Selectivity is gained from the background free properties of the 2f WMS technique and operation at reduced pressure. The lasers were employed in transverse direction, due to the simple alignability, as well as to avoid heating of the FPI mirrors, which can cause the optical pathlength of the cavity to change. The functional principle of the sensor arrangement was shown for SO.sub.2 sample gas in N.sub.2 targeting the line centered at 1379.78 cm.sup.1. The MDL for SO.sub.2 quantification was calculated to be 1.07 ppmv with a corresponding NNEA of 1.7810.sup.6 cm.sup.1 W Hz.sup.1/2. Improvements in terms of sensitivity can be easily achieved by using a higher finesse FPI, which is simply enabled by mirrors with higher reflectivity. An increase in sensitivity, however, can only be achieved to the point to where the probe laser noise is not increased proportionally. The utilized probe laser 3 had a linewidth of approximately 2 MHz. Therefore, limiting noise arising from probe laser phase noise can greatly be improved by employing lasers with narrower linewidth, i.e. external cavity diode lasers, or actively stabilized sources with a bandwidth a few Hz or below. Improvements of noise introduced by misalignment of the FPI originating from mechanical vibrations or acoustic waves could be achieved by an efficient shielding surrounding the interferometer. Due to the fact that the PTS signal is directly proportional to the excitation laser power and inversely proportional to the excitation volume, this technique will greatly benefit from higher excitation power as well as further sensor miniaturization. Moreover, improvements in photodetector and preamplifier noise can be improved. Due to the lack of any resonance the modulation (detection) frequency can be freely selected. The WM technique enables the optionally use of an excitation reference channel, consisting of a reference cell and a photodetector signal demodulated at 3f. By this means the frequency of the excitation laser can be locked to the center of the selected absorption line. This static mode of WM operation can be used to increase sample quantification rate, as in the case of indirect absorption spectroscopy methods typical lock-in time constants of 100 to a few 100 ms are used. Therefore, spectral scans may take a few seconds to minutes, in contrast to single point quantification. By the frequency lock of the excitation laser long-term measurements with minimized drift can be realized. Thereby, optimum average time can be found for further sensitivity increase.