GRAPHENE-SUPPORTED METAL AND/OR METAL OXIDE NANOPARTICLE COMPOSITES, METHOD FOR MAKING SAME AND USES THEREOF

Abstract

The present invention relates to a nanographene-supported metal and/or metal oxide nanoparticle composite, and method for preparing same, and uses thereof. Specifically, the present invention relates to the uses of nanographene-supported metal and/or metal oxide nanoparticle composite as catalytic material, in electrocatalysis, as catalyst for gas-phase chemical reactions, as slurry catalyst for liquid-phase chemical reactions, for water purification and waste water treatment, in the treatment of cancerous tumors, and/or in Magnetic Resonance Imagery. The present invention finds applications in the industrial technical field, in particular in the material, chemical and pharmaceutical technical fields.

Claims

1. A method for preparing nanographene-supported metal and/or metal oxide nanoparticle composites, comprising the following steps: a) dissolving a nanographite intercalation compound in an aprotic organic solvent (A) or a mixture (A) of aprotic organic solvents under anhydrous inert atmosphere, in the absence of sonication; thereby leading to an organic nanographenide solution; b) reacting the organic nanographenide solution obtained in step a) with a suitable amount of at least one metal salt and/or at least one metal complex or a mixture of at least two metal salts and/or metal complexes under anhydrous inert atmosphere; thereby leading to a suspension of nanographene-supported metal nanoparticles; and c) optionally oxidizing the metal nanoparticles present on the nanographene support; wherein the process is free of reducing agent other than the nanographenide formed in step a).

2. A method according to claim 1, wherein the nanographite intercalation compound is prepared by (i) reduction of nanographite by an alkali metal M.sub.0 in vapour phase; (ii) electrochemical reduction of nanographite; or (iii) reduction of nanographite by an alkali metal salt of formula M.sub.0.sup.+B.sup., wherein M.sub.0.sup.+ represents an alkali metal cation wherein the alkali metal is selected from lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium or cesium; and B.sup. represents an anion of an organic radical; wherein the nanographite has a lateral size between 1 and 900 nm.

3. A method according to claim 1, wherein the oxidizing step c) is carried out by exposing the suspension obtained in step b) to air and/or water and/or another oxidation agent.

4. A method according to claim 1, wherein the aprotic organic solvent (A) is selected from ethers comprising tetrahydrofuran (THF), methyl-THF (Me-THF), dimethoxyethane (DME), methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), diethyl ether, or CycloPentylMethylEther (CPME); dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO); N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP); dimethylformamide (DMF); N-methylformamide (NMF); sulfolane; acetonitrile; nitromethane; ethylacetate; 2-butanone; or dimethylacetamide (DMA); and mixture (A) is selected from mixtures of two or more of these.

5. A method according to claim 1, wherein a single aprotic organic solvent is used in step a), comprising an ether DMA or DMF.

6. A method according to claim 1, wherein, in the suspension of nanographene-supported metal nanoparticles obtained in step b), the metal nanoparticles are metal alloy nanoparticles.

7. A method according to claim 6, wherein the metal alloy is selected from FePt, FeRh, CoPt or CoRh alloy.

8. A method according to claim 1, wherein, in the at least one metal salt and/or at least one metal complex or a mixture of at least two metal salts and/or metal complexes of step b), the metal is selected from lanthanides, actinides, transition metals, and/or post-transition metals; comprising Fe, Ni, Pt, Rh, Mn, Cu and/or Co.

9. A method according to claim 1, wherein the at least one metal salt and/or at least one metal complex or a mixture of at least two metal salts and/or metal complexes used in step a) is selected from: (i) Fe, Ni, Co, Cu, and/or Mn salts of Cl, Br, I, OTF, BF.sub.4, PF.sub.6, acetate-, acetylacetonate- or [(bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide)]; or (ii) a mixture of: at least one Fe and/or Co salt of Cl, Br, I, OTF, BF.sub.4, PF.sub.6, acetate-, acetylacetonate- or [(bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide)]; and at least one Pt and/or Rh salt of Cl, Br, I, OTF, BF.sub.4, PF.sub.6, acetate-, acetylacetonate- or [(bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)amide)], for example PtCl.sub.2 or RhCl.sub.3.

10. A method according to claim 1, wherein the metal and/or metal oxide nanoparticles formed on the nanographene support, have an average size from 0.5 to 20 nm.

11. Nanographene-supported metal and/or metal oxide nanoparticle composite obtained by a method according to claim 1.

12. Nanographene-supported Fe, Ni and/or Co oxide nanoparticle composite comprising iron oxide, nickel oxide and/or cobalt oxide nanoparticles grafted on nanographene; wherein the nanographene support is mostly (if not only) single-layered nanographene and has a lateral size between 1 and 900 nm; and wherein the composite exhibits ferromagnetic properties.

13. Nanographene-supported Fe/Pt, Fe/Rh, Co/Pt and/or Co/Rh metal alloy nanoparticle composite comprising Fe/Pt, Fe/Rh, Co/Pt and/or Co/Rh metal alloy or metal alloy oxide nanoparticles grafted on nanographene; wherein the nanographene support is mostly (if not only) single-layered nanographene and has a lateral size between 1 and 900 nm; and wherein the composite exhibits magnetic properties.

14. Composite according to claim 11, wherein the metal oxide or metal alloy nanoparticles present on the nanographene support have an average size from 0.5 to 20 nm.

15. Composite according to claim 11, wherein one or more biocompatible groups are anchored on the carbon framework of the composite's nanographene support, or on the metal or metal oxide itself, either covalently or non-covalently.

16. A composite according to claim 11, wherein the composite is configured: as catalytic material; as electrode material for use in electrocatalysis, for example for applications in fuel cell and energy storage technology; as electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) or oxygen evolution reaction (OER); as bifunctional electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER); as catalyst for gas-phase chemical reactions comprising hydrogenation of CO in the Fischer-Tropsch process; as slurry catalyst for liquid-phase chemical reactions comprising liquid phase oxidation processes (including oxidations of aldehydes to carboxylic acids, benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde, vanillyl alcohol to vanillin) or liquid phase reduction reactions; and/or for water purification and waste water treatment; for example for removing toxic metals comprising arsenic, from ground water; and/or as slurry catalyst for liquid-phase chemical reactions, wherein the metal oxide is a Fe, Ni or Co oxide or a mixture of at least two of them, and the catalyst composite is separated from the reaction mixture by application of an electromagnetic field.

17. Composite according to claim 15 for configured for treatment of cancerous tumors by hyperthermia, and/or as contrast agent in Magnetic Resonance Imagery.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0102] FIG. 1 is a schematic representation for the synthesis of the composite material Fe(np)/nC containing iron oxide nanoparticles with defined sizes attached to the carbon lattice. A) intercalation of the nanographite starting material (nC) with potassium metal yielding KC.sub.8, B) dissolution of the KC.sub.8 in absolute Tetrahydrofuran (THF) by the aid of stirring and centrifuging the sample afterwards to obtain the nanographenide solution, C) reaction of nanographenide solutions with dissolved (Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2), in absolute THF, followed by aqueous work up and isolation of Fe(np)/nC.

[0103] FIG. 2 are photographs of a) High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) images of smaller aggregates formed in the composite material Fe(np)/nC b) higher magnification on the composite material, revealing the atomic planes of the particles indicated by arrows. c) scanning tunneling microscope (STM) images of the composite material deposited on MoS.sub.2. Fe nanoparticles are indicated by arrows.

[0104] FIG. 3 is a graphic representing the XPS survey scan in the region between 50-780 eV of the composite material Fe(np)/nC in comparison to the nanographite (nC), peaks for iron, oxygen and carbon are found as indicated. The Y-axis represents the counts (a.u.) and the X-axis the binding energy in electron Volt (eV).

[0105] FIG. 4 are graphics representing the electrochemical characterization of Fe(np)/nC electrodes. The Y-axis represents J/mAcm.sup.2 and the X-axis E-iR/V. a) Comparison of ORR onset potentials for bare GC electrode, the pristine nanographites (nC) and the Fe(np)/nC catalyst. CVs at 10 mV/s in KOH 0.1 M, rotation speed 1600 rpm. The Fe(np)/nC line corresponds to the Fe(np)/nC catalysts in absence of oxygen. b) RDE experiments at different rotation speeds (from top to bottom: 400, 900, 1600, 2500 and 3600 rpm) for Fe(np)/nC. Catalyst loading: 140 g/cm.sup.2. Inset: respective Koutecky-Levich analysis (current of the positive-going CV scans taken at +0.55 VRHE as a function of the rotation speed) that highlights the high number (four) of transferred electrons.

[0106] FIG. 5 are graphics representing a) Comparison of OER performances for different Fe(np)/nC electrodes of different loading: 70, 140 and 350 g/cm.sup.2. CVs at 10 mV/s in O.sub.2-saturated ultrapure 0.1 M KOH, without stirring the solution. b) Potentiostatic electrolysis at E=1.63 VRHE (=0.4 V) for a representative Fe(np)/nC electrode having a catalyst loading of 140 g/cm.sup.2. Inset: quantification of electroactive Fe species by coulometry of the FeO peak for a Fe(np)/nC electrode before and after electrolysis. The Y-axis represents J/mAcm.sup.2 and the X-axis time in seconds.

[0107] FIG. 6 are graphics representing a) Tafel plots for a Fe(np)/nC catalyst (140 g/cm.sup.2) obtained from CVs at 10 mV/s. Solid lines refer to ORR experiments, dashed line to OER experiments. The Y-axis represents Overpotential/V and the X-axis J/mAcm.sup.2. b) Comparison of the combined overpotential for ORR and OER for Fe(np)/nCs and recently reported bifunctional catalysts for oxygen electrocatalysis. OER are referred to a current density of 10 mA/cm.sup.2, while ORR @1 mA/cm.sup.2.

[0108] FIG. 7 are respectively AFM image (a) and graphics (b, c, d), b is cross section along the white line of AFM image, the Y-axis represents the height (nm) and the X-axis lateral dimension (nm), c) statistical analysis of the lateral size, the Y-axis represents the frequency (a.u) and the X-axis lateral size (nm), d) data of the height distribution, Y-axis represents the frequency (a.u) and X-axis height (nm).

[0109] FIG. 8 a) and b) are bright field TEM image and corresponding STEM/EDX element mapping of the iron K edge of a bigger aggregate.

[0110] FIG. 9 are TEM images of the three different composite materials, a) Fe(np)/nC(Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2), b) Fe(np)/nC(FeCl.sub.3), c) Fe(np)/nC(FeCl.sub.2). The composite materials aggregate and exhibit ensamble up to the m length scale, mainly composed by round-shaped objects randomly distributed.

[0111] FIG. 10 are HR-TEM images of Fe(np)/nC(Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2), scale bar of 2 nm. The focus was varied in this series, a) focused on iron nanoparticle b) 10 nm of a) c) +10 nm of a).d) HR-TEM images of Fe(np)/nC(Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2) with a scale bar of 2 nm on another aggregate focused on the nano particle. e) +1 nm defocused to d), f) +2 nm defocused to d). The orientation of the carbon lattice is constant over the series of pictures whereas the crystal structure of the grafted iron nanoparticles becomes visible in a) and vanishes again when out of focus (panel b,c).

[0112] FIG. 11 are respectively AFM image of Fe(np)/nC deposits on freshly cleaved mica surface (a) and graphics (b, c, d), b is a cross section of the topography image taken along the white line are plotted in inserted figure, the Y-axis represents the height (nm) and the X-axis lateral dimension (m), c) statistical analysis of the lateral size, the Y-axis represents the frequency (a.u) and the X-axis lateral size (nm), d) data of the height distribution, the Y-axis represents the frequency (a.u) and the X-axis height (nm).

[0113] FIG. 12 are graphics representing a) XPS survey scan in the region between 50-780 eV of three composite materials Fe(np)/nC (Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2), Fe(np)/nC (FeCl.sub.3) and Fe(np)/nC (FeCl.sub.2) in comparison to the nanographite (nC) indicate O, Fe and C peaks in the figure.

[0114] The Y-axis represents the counts (a.u) and the X-axis the binding energy (eV). b) high resolution XPS measurement in the iron region (700-740 eV) for three composite samples Fe(np)/nC (Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2), Fe(np)/nC (FeCl.sub.3) and Fe(np)/nC (FeCl.sub.2), which exhibit comparable features without regard of the iron salts used during the synthesis. The Y-axis represents the counts (a.u) and the X-axis the binding energy (eV).

[0115] FIG. 13 is a graphic of XRD measurements of three different composite materials FeNP/nC (FeNP/nC(Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2), FeNP/nC (FeCl.sub.3) in and FeNP/nC (FeCl.sub.2)) and the nC in comparison to reference spectra of Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 and FeOOH. The Y-axis represents the counts (a.u) and the X-axis 2 (degree).

[0116] FIG. 14 is a graphic representing a comparison of ORR performances for bare GC substrate, the starting nC material and three Fe(np)/nC electrodes with different catalyst loading (70,140 and 350 g/cm.sup.2). CVs at 10 mV/s in O.sub.2-saturated ultrapure (99.99%) 0.1 M KOH. Rotation speed: 1600 rpm. The Y-axis represents the current density and the X-axis the electrochemical potential.

[0117] FIG. 15 represents different Koutecky-Levich plots for Fe(np)/nC electrodes with a catalyst loading of a) 70 g/cm.sup.2, b) 140 g/cm.sup.2 and c) 350 g/cm.sup.2. The analysis reveals comparable values for the number of transferred electrons with the exception of the lowest loading, where exposure of the underlying GC to the solution likely occurs.

[0118] FIG. 16 represents the electrochemical measurements normalized for the amount of electroactive iron. CVs in a) the ORR and b) the OER regions normalized for the amount of electroactive Fe species as determined by CV. Scan rate: 10 mV/s, ultrapure KOH 0.1 M. The Y-axis represents the normalized current/a.u. and the X-axis the electrochemical potential.

[0119] FIG. 17 represents TEM images of the composite material using (a,b) nanographite, and (c,d) large flake size natural graphite, respectively, as starting material for intercalation. The respective particles are about one order of magnitude smaller in the former case.

[0120] FIG. 18 represents a) survey XPS measurements on the different M(nP)/nC composite materials in comparison to the starting carbon materials. The individual composite materials are composed only by the respective metal, carbon and oxygen, which is visible by the respective peaks related to the M.sub.2P, M.sub.3P, M.sub.3S, O.sub.1S, and C.sub.1S b) zoom in between 580-1060 eV.

[0121] FIG. 19 represents a) XPS high-resolution measurements in the oxygen region between 525-545 eV. The pure carbon starting material (nC) exhibits a minor O.sub.1S peak at 533.1 eV whereas the different M(nP)/nC exhibits either 1 O.sub.1S peak at about 531.6 eV (Co,Ni) or 2 O.sub.1S peaks (Fe, Cu, Mn) at about 530.1 eV and 530.6 eV that can be deconvoluted. These can be related to the mixture of metal oxide and hydroxides. b) high resolution XPS measurements in the carbon region between 280-295 eV. The carbon C.sub.1S peak can be found for the starting material nC as well as for the different M(nP)/nC at 284.6 eV, typically observed in graphitic carbons with a majority of sp.sup.2 carbons. The line shape is comparable and no sign of any increase in the sp.sup.3 carbon ratio is visible.

[0122] FIG. 20 represents XPS high-resolution measurements and spectral fits of the different M(nP)/nC composite materials have been compared to literature data [8,9]. a) high-resolution measurement in the Fe2P region. The iron is predominantly in the oxidation state III and composed by a mixture of iron(III) oxide and hydroxide. b) measurement of the nickel compound and spectral fit of the data between 850-890 eV. 4 peaks can be convoluted, and the respective peak positions (854.5 eV, 858.7 eV, 862.1 eV, 865.4 eV) are related to nickel in the oxidation state II. From the peak position of the Ni.sub.2P region but also from the O.sub.1S the hydroxide is the dominant species in the composite material. c) Manganese compound and spectral fit of the data between 637-660 eV. 2 peaks can be deconvoluted at 641.2 eV and 643.0 eV. The oxidation state of the manganese is in majority Mn(III) with traces of Mn(IV). The line shape of the mentioned peaks resembles not a pure manganese oxide but rather a mixture of Mn(III) oxide and Mn(III) hydroxide, which is corroborated by the measurements in the oxygen region (FIG. 20 a) see above). d) high resolution measurement of the copper component in the region between 928-966 eV. 2 distinct peaks can be deconvoluted that have positions at 932.2 and 934.7 eV respectively, that can be related to the presence of Cu(I) oxide in the former case and Cu(II) hydroxide in the latter one. e) high resolution measurements in the Co.sub.2P region between 777-810 eV. The respective trace has been fitted with 2 peaks at 787.8 and 781.8 eV. The oxidation state is presumably a mixture between cobalt(III) and cobalt(II) corresponding to a mixture of different oxide and hydroxides due to the rather broad and ill-defined line shape of the respective peaks.

[0123] FIG. 21 represents lower magnification bright field HR-TEM image of an aggregate of the a) Ni(nP)/nC b) Mn(nP)/nC composite samples demonstrating the overall morphology of the sample. Scale bar is 20 nm. The carbon sheets are randomly aggregated and forming larger carbon stacks. Black areas can be identified that are well distributed on the carbon flakes. Higher magnification HR-TEM image of the c) Ni(nP)/nC the d) Mn(nP)/nC composite materials, which exhibit atomic resolution. Scale bar is 5 nm. Here, the atomics planes of the carbon sheets are clearly visible. Furthermore, there are atomics planes present that are related to metal oxide/hydroxide species, which are indicated by arrows. The sizes of the nickel oxide particles are in the range between 1-4 nm and 4-10 nm for the manganese nanoparticles.

[0124] FIG. 22 represents lower magnification bright field HR-TEM image of an aggregate of the a) Cu(nP)/nC b) Co(nP)/nC composite samples demonstrating the overall morphology of the sample. Scale bar is 20 nm. The carbon sheets are randomly aggregated and forming larger carbon stacks. Black areas can be identified that are well distributed on the carbon flakes. Higher magnification HR-TEM image of the c) Cu(nP)/nC the d) Co(nP)/nC composite material, which exhibit atomic resolution. Here, the atomics planes of the carbon sheets are clearly visible. Furthermore, there are atomics planes present that are related to metal oxide/hydroxide species, which are indicated by arrows. The sizes of the copper oxide nanoparticles are in the range between 1-4 nm and 3-5 nm for the cobalt nanoparticles

[0125] FIG. 23 represents powder X-ray diffraction measurement on the graphitic nano carbon (top trace) and the different M(nP)/nC composites (all 5 lower traces) between 5 and 46. The starting carbon exhibits a peak at 25.9 that origins from the (002) peak of turbostratic graphite. This peak is also present in all composite materials, however with a broader linewidth and reduced in intensity. This is related to the exfoliation of the carbon sheets and their restacking during/in course of the synthesis. Furthermore, there are very broad peaks visible in each composite material, which are caused by crystalline phases of the metal oxide nanoparticles within the composite material.

[0126] FIG. 24 represents HR-TEM bright field images from typical aggregates, scale bar 100 nm, are depicted in the top, corresponding HR-STEM/EDX element mapping of the carbon edge are presented in the middle, as well as HR-STEM/EDX mappings on the different metal edges from the composite materials M(nP)/nC. a) Ni(nP)/nC, b) Mn(nP)/nC, c) Cu(nP)/nC, d) Co(nP)/nC.

[0127] FIG. 25 represents TEM analysis of the different composite materials top: s-Fe(nP)/nC, middle: m-Fe(nP)/nC, bottom, l-Fe(nP)/nC. Scale bar 500 nm on the left side and 100 nm on the right side. The presence of both, nanoparticles and carbon layers can be seen for samples with larger carbon size distribution (middle and bottom). Here, also cylindrical objects can be seen that we identify as rolled up graphene layers occurring just in the case of mono, bi and tri-layers and the presence of nanoparticles. In the case of the graphitic nano carbon, the nanoparticle size can studied just by means on HR-TEM and is in the range of 5 nm.

EQUIVALENTS

[0128] The representative examples that follow are intended to help illustrate the invention, and are not intended to, nor should they be construed to, limit the scope of the invention. Indeed, various modifications of the invention and many further embodiments thereof, in addition to those shown and described herein, will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the full contents of this document, including the examples which follow and the references to the scientific and patent literature cited herein. It should further be appreciated that the contents of those cited references are incorporated herein by reference to help illustrate the state of the art.

[0129] The following examples contain important additional information, exemplification and guidance that can be adapted to the practice of this invention in its various embodiments and the equivalents thereof.

EXEMPLIFICATION

[0130] The method of this invention and its applications can be understood further by the examples that illustrate some of the embodiments by which the inventive method may be reduced to practice. It will be appreciated, however, that these examples do not limit the invention. Variations of the invention, now known or further developed, are considered to fall within the scope of the present invention as described herein and as hereinafter claimed.

[0131] The present invention will now be exemplified using certain metal and/or metal oxide materials but it will be understood this is not meant to limit the invention to those specific materials.

EXAMPLES

Example 1: Preparation of Nanographene-Supported Metal and/or Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Composites

a) Purification of the Nanographite Starting Material

[0132] The starting nanographite has been produced using microwave plasma technology and its characteristics have been previously reported (Ferdinand Hof, Katerina Kampioti, Kai Huang, Christle Jaillet, Alain Derr, Philippe Poulin, Hisham Yusof, Thomas White, Krzysztof Koziol, Catharina Paukner, Alain Pnicaud, Conductive inks of graphitic nanoparticles from a sustainable carbon feedstock, Carbon 111 (2017), 142-149).

[0133] Purification of the raw nanographite was achieved by controlled heat treatment in a Nabertherm oven under air atmosphere. The solid raw nanographite was heated at a rate of 5 C./min until 500 C., and after a 6 h plateau cooled down to 30 C. at 5 C./min and finally collected.

b) Synthesis of Nanographite Intercalation Compound.

[0134] 120 mg (10.0 mmol) of purified nanographite, and 48.8 mg (1.25 mmol) cleaned potassium (stoichiometry KC8) have been placed together in a vial inside an argon filled glove box and heated for 5 hours at 180 C. on a heating plate under occasional stirring. Afterwards, the vial has been allowed to cool down to room temperature and the intercalated nanographite has been collected. The resulting salt has been directly used to prepare the following nanographenide solutions and also for the characterization of the compound (see example 2).

c) Dissolution of Nanographite Intercalation Compound (KC8) and Isolation of the Nanographenide Solution.

[0135] 150 mg of KC.sub.8 have been mixed with 150 mL of absolute Tetrahydrofuran (THF) under inert conditions, i.e. under argon atmosphere <1 PPM oxygen/water in a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask and the mixture was stirred for 1 day, i.e. 24 hours, by the aid of a glass coated magnetic stirring bar. The resulting mixture was then centrifuged at 4500 rpm for 30 min under inert conditions and the faint yellowish upper solution was retained (nanographenide solution). The concentration of the nanographenide solution has been determined by dry extracts as 0.20 mg/mL0.02 mg/mL. The nanographenide solution has been directly used for analysis and for nanoparticles synthesis.

d) Synthesis of the Composite Compounds.

[0136] 100 mL of nanographenide solution obtained in a) was placed in a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask inside an argon filled glove box. Afterwards, 11.2 mg (74 mol, 0.5 eq.) of recrystallized iron tetrafluoroborate salt dissolved in 10 mL of absolute THF was added dropwise to the nanographenide solutions. Other Fe salts have also been used (see Table 1 below) yielding very similar products.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Synthesis details regarding the preparation of Fe(np)/nC composite materials Weight of Volume of solvated nanograph- inter- Amount of Weight of enide calation Amount of added iron added iron solution compound electrons metal salt metal salt (mL) (mg) (mol) (mol) (mg) Fe(np)/nC 100 20 148 74 11.2 (Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2) Fe(np)/nC 100 20 148 50 8.3 (FeCl.sub.3) Fe(np)/nC 100 20 148 74 9.3 (FeCl.sub.2)

[0137] After a brief period (5-15 min), aggregation and precipitation occurred. Subsequently, the dispersion was stirred for 24 hours and then removed from the glove box. The flask was exposed to ambient conditions and 100 mL of deionized water were added to the dispersion. The sample was isolated and purified by repeated centrifugation and re-dispersing steps (4 times, 1 h at 10 000 rpm). The final composite materials Fe(np)/nC was finally isolated by freeze drying.

[0138] In summary, the composite material Fe(np)/nC has been prepared by (i) synthesis of the intercalation compound from nanographite (nC), (ii) isolation of the nanographenide solution after stirring and centrifugation of KC.sub.8 in THF, (iii) reaction of the nanographenide solution with (Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2) salt (FIG. 1, A, B and respectively). All reactions, with exception of the final work up, have been carried out in a glove box under argon atmosphere. During the last purification steps, the prepared metallic iron nanoparticles get oxidized, forming the final composite materials Fe(np)/nC under study. Beside the (Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2) salts, FeCl.sub.3 and FeCl.sub.2 salts have also been exploited in the synthesis. The respective products behave very similarly.

e) Characterization of the Nanographene-Supported Metal and/or Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Composites

[0139] Raman analysis of the nanographite starting material (nC) shows typical D, G, D and 2D graphitic Raman bands. It is noteworthy that the D-band in this specific nC originates quasi exclusively from edge contribution. In sharp contrast, the intercalated nC with stoichiometry KC.sub.8 exhibits a spectral profile with complete absence of these bands. Instead, the typical profile of graphitic KC.sub.8 GIC with a broad featureless signal around 1500 is observed.

[0140] Nanographenide solutions were obtained upon stirring. Size analysis of the nanographenide solution by atomic force microscopy (AFM) reveals that the sample has a homogeneous size distribution, with a lateral size of about 15-30 nm and a height of 0.5-1.5 nm.

[0141] In the composite material Fe(np)/nC prepared by using Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2 as metal salt, the presence of both, iron and carbon in the obtained composite material Fe(np)/nC was confirmed by TGA measurements under air. Comparative TGA measurement of the starting nanographite (nC) reveals that complete combustion of the carbon lattice occurs at about 650-750 C. under air and no remaining mass is observable. In stark contrast, the TGA profile of the Fe(np)/nC exhibits a remaining mass of about 24%. Table 2 below discloses the iron content of different composite materials after TGA measurement.

TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Determination of the iron content in the samples after TGA measurement under air between 30-750 C. Total amount of Decomposition sample Remaining Amount of Fe temperature measured mass Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 content Sample ( C.) (mg) (mg) (mol) (at %) nC 650 4.31 0.0 0.0 0.0 Fe(np)/nC 400 5.65 1.33 8.3 2.3 (Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2) Fe(np)/nC 415 4.27 0.97 6.0 2.2 (FeCl.sub.3) Fe(np)/nC 415 5.04 1.36 8.5 2.7 (FeCl.sub.2)

[0142] As shown in Table 2 above showing the Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measurements under air between 30-750 C. of three different composite materials Fe(np)/nC (Fe(BF4)2), Fe(np)/nC (FeCl3) and Fe(np)/nC (FeCl2) versus the nC, the combustion of the carbon lattice occurs between 400-415 C. Decomposition of the carbon lattice was observed for the starting nC at about 650 C., whereas the decomposition of the carbon lattice for the three composite materials was between 400-450 C., the main decomposition temperature has been determined between 426-438 C. A comparison with the starting nC highlights a shift of more than 200 C. towards lower degradation temperature, exemplifying the catalytic activity of the Fe nanoparticles on the carbon combustion.

[0143] The composite materials were further studied by means of high resolution electron transmission microscopy (HR-TEM), scanning tunnel microscopy (STM) and by scanning TEM in combination with energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) analysis. Representative images the composite materials are shown in FIG. 2a, 2b and FIGS. 8-10, respectively. In the respective images the size and shape of the carbon lattice, as well as the crystalline domains of the iron oxide species, are seen. Aggregates of the composite materials are predominantly present as clearly shown on FIG. 9. Those exhibit a broad distribution of different sizes, ranging from about 50 nm, up to several m, and have a round-shaped appearance. HR-TEM images of the smaller aggregates reveal that this appearance corresponds to graphene flakes randomly oriented (FIG. 2b). The presence of small crystalline domains randomly distributed on the carbon lattice was seen only in a higher magnification. These nanoparticles are located both in between the carbon flakes and on top of the carbon lattice and have sizes of 2-5 nm. (FIG. 10). The bright field image and corresponding EELS measurement of the sample show the presence of the iron particles as well as the carbon flakes. It is apparent that the iron nanoparticles are found only on the carbon framework, both by electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) and STEM/EDX analysis.

[0144] FIG. 2c is a representative STM image showing individual nanographene flakes. In this image, the surface (MoS2) with aggregates of 50 nm and nanoparticles, exhibiting a different conductivity pattern, can clearly be seen. The measured objects appear not to be lying flat on the surface but to be crumpled, when comparing these STM images to known prepared from aqueous dispersions. The presence of the nanocomposite was further confirmed by AFM (FIG. 11).

[0145] In addition, a chemical analysis of the nanographene-supported metal and/or metal oxide nanoparticle composites was carried out. The presence of the iron and its quantification in the composite materials was further corroborated by XPS measurements. The obtained results are illustrated on FIG. 3. In the survey scans (FIG. 3) only carbon and a minor content of oxygen was observed for the starting nC and for the composite the elements carbon, iron and oxygen were detectable. In the composite sample several peaks can be found in the high resolution spectra in the iron region between 700-740 eV (FIG. 12). By fitting the respective data, the amount of iron in the samples and the chemical nature of the iron species were determined. Based on such XPS measurements, values between 2.5 at % and 3 at % iron were calculated and are presented in Table 3 below.

TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Calculation of the carbon, oxygen and iron content generated by fitting the respective XPS data FeNP@NC FeNP@NC FeNP@NC Position (Fe(BF.sub.4).sub.2) (FeCl.sub.3) (FeCl.sub.3) Peak (ev) At % At % At % C.sub.1s 284.56 81.65 80.6 83.1 O.sub.1s 530.11 5.65 7.02 5.23 O.sub.1s 531.01 3.03 3.29 6.95 O.sub.1s 531.76 4.70 3.26 0.58 Fe.sub.2p3/2 710.90 2.61 2.98 2.49

[0146] The respective fits show major peaks at about 711 eV and 714 eV, which can be assigned to iron(III) oxide and iron(III) hydroxide species. Further information about the chemical nature of the oxygen was retrieved from measurements in the region between 520-540 eV. In the pristine starting material, a peak at about 532 eV corresponding to CO binding motifs was detected, whereas in the three composite materials, two to three new peaks were present between 530.0 eV and 531.5 eV.

[0147] By means of detailed XRD studies illustrated with FIG. 13, the presence and the chemical structure of the iron oxide species in the composite material was further investigated. In the spectra of the starting nC, peaks at 25.6 and 42.3 correspond to the ordered graphitic carbon lattice, whereas for the composite materials several new peaks were found. These peaks can be found about 33, 36, 49 and 53 and are very broad.

[0148] Statistical Raman histograms for the composite materials Fe(np)/nCs were elaborated, which demonstrated an increase in the A(D/G). Analysis of the respective average gamma G vs A(D/G) showed that the mean value is shifted towards higher A(D/G) values. This clearly demonstrates that the composite materials Fe(np)/nCs have a much lower content of functionalization with oxygen or hydrogen species at the carbon basal plane.

[0149] In the nanographenide solution after centrifugation, reduced carbon sheets are present exhibiting 1-4 layers of nanographene and sizes of about 15-25 nm (FIG. 7). By addition of different iron salts to the nanographenide solution, an electron transfer from the nanographene sheet was triggered, leading to the formation of iron nanoparticles and potassium salts. The potassium tetrafluoroborate salt is easily removed by aqueous work up, providing composite materials composed solely of carbon, iron and oxygen.

[0150] XPS measurements corroborate the observation that the final Fe(np)/nC material is composed only by the elements iron, carbon and oxygen (FIG. 3). The presence of predominantly iron(III) in the samples is confirmed by peaks (about 711 eV and about 714 eV) and 2-3 peaks for oxygen as well as hydroxide bound to iron(III) (530-531 eV), which are not present in the pristine material, being in a good agreement to the XRD data. From the respective fits in the iron region, the amount of iron in the samples has been estimated to have values in the range of 2.5 to 3.0 at %. These values are furthermore validated and corroborated by means of TGA measurements under air (see Table 2) and by EELS measurement. The combustion temperature is shifted to lower temperatures for about 650-750 C. for the pristine material to about 400 C. in the composite material. The observed effect is related to the intrinsic catalytic behavior of the attached nanoparticles that triggers the decomposition of the carbon lattice at lower temperature. HR-TEM measurements reveal that the iron particles have a size about 2-5 nm (FIGS. 2, 9, 10) and are well distributed only on the carbon flakes (see also EELS and STEM/EDX results, FIG. 8). The nanoparticles are distributed randomly on the carbon framework and do not exhibit any obvious ordering.

[0151] This example demonstrated the successful intercalation of nanographite, its dissolution in absolute THF and the exploitation of the derived nanographenide solution as efficient reducing agent for the preparation of composite materials consisting of nanographene sheets decorated with metal and/or metal oxide, for example iron oxide, nanoparticles (Fe(np)/nC).

[0152] This example clearly demonstrates that an example of process according to the invention allows to obtain a nanographene-supported metal and/or metal oxide nanoparticle composites. In addition, this example clearly demonstrates that the reaction is controllable, reliable and can be applied to a broad variety of different metal precursors, allowing the synthesis of varied electrocatalytic active composite materials.

Example 2: Determination of the Electrochemical Activity/Properties of Nanographene-Supported Metal and/or Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Composites

[0153] The electrochemical properties of Fe(np)/nC obtained in Example 1 have been evaluated in a three-electrode electrochemical cell using a glassy carbon (GC) rotating disk electrode (RDE, Tacussel, France) as support for the deposition of different catalyst inks, a Standard Calomel reference electrode (SCE) and a Pt mesh auxiliary electrode. The electrochemistry work stations used for the entire characterization was a SP-300 bipotentiostat (Biologic Instruments), having an additional current booster and a built-in Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) analyser. The Fe(np)/nC powder was dispersed in THF (0.5 mg/mL) and dropcasted (5 L) onto the RDE substrate, adjusting the deposited volume so as to prepare electrodes with different catalyst loading (70, 140 and 350 g/cm.sup.2). The bi-functional electroactivity of the Fe(np)/nC composite material for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) was evaluated separately by independent experiments in O.sub.2-saturated 0.1 M ultrapure KOH (99.99%, Sigma-Aldrich).

[0154] The activity of Fe(np)/nC for ORR and OER has been addressed by comparing the catalyst composite material with the pristine nanographite material without the presence of Fe(np) and also with the supporting GC RDE electrode by itself (FIGS. 4 and 5).

Oxygen Reduction Reaction:

[0155] As evidenced in FIG. 4a, a comparison of the CVs for the three systems reveals the catalytic effect provided by the Fe(np)s. The onset potential of ORR for Fe(np)/nC is at +0.8 VRHE, about 200 mV above that on a bare GC electrode and 150 mV above that with un-functionalized pristine NC material. For sake of comparison, the background CV obtained degassing the solution with argon does not show any faradaic process in the investigated potential window. A more detailed investigation of ORR revealed a dependence of the onset potential and, more importantly, of the limiting current on the catalyst loading. With the aim to reduce as much as possible the amount of catalysts on the electrodes, three different set of Fe(np)/nC electrodes at loadings of 70, 140 and 350 g/cm.sup.2 have been prepared. The 140 g/cm.sup.2 loading gives nearly as efficient limiting current density (J=3.6 mA/cm.sup.2) as the 350 g/cm.sup.2 loading (J=4 mA/cm.sup.2) but with a much better yield in term of electroactive Fe content (44% against 20%, see FIG. 14 and Table 4).

[0156] Table 4 below presents the results of comparison between electrodes with different catalyst loading and the electrochemical data thereof obtained.

TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 Comparison between electrodes with different catalyst loading and the electrochemical data thereof obtained. Maximum Volume Loading Loading Charge Charge of of of of of (Electroactive Fe(np)/nC Fe(np)/nC Fe Fe.sup.0/II Fe.sup.0/II iron/Total deposited (g/cm.sup.2) .sup.a (g/cm.sup.2) .sup.b (mC) .sup.c (mC) .sup.d iron) 10 L 70 8 0.57 1.87 30% 20 L 140 16 1.65 3.74 44% 50 L 350 40 1.84 9.3 20% .sup.a catalyst loading calculated considering a concentration of the catalyst in the ink of 0.5 mg/mL, .sup.b Fe loading calculated from the mean value of iron content in Fe(np)/nC of 2.6 at. % as evaluated by XPS measurements, .sup.c as determined by CV, .sup.d The maximum charge of Fe.sup.0/II oxidation is calculated again from the mean value of iron content in Fe(np)/nC (2.6 at. %) as evaluated by XPS measurements.

[0157] In order to understand the mechanism involved, the limiting current of ORR was then measured at different rotation speeds (FIG. 4b) and the number of electrons (n) involved in the reaction is obtained from the slope of the so-called Koutecky-Levich (K-L) plots (.sub.iRDE VS. .sup.1, where is the angular velocity, inset to FIG. 4b).

[00001]$\begin{array}{cc}n=\frac{1}{0.62.Math..Math.b.Math..Math.{\mathrm{FAC}}_0.Math.D^{2.Math.\text{/}.Math.3}.Math.v^{-1.Math.\text{/}.Math.6}}& \mathrm{Eq}..Math.1\end{array}$

where F is the Faraday constant, C.sub.0 is the oxygen concentration in 0.1 M KOH (8.410.sup.7 mol cm.sup.3), A is the electrode surface area (0.071 cm.sup.21, D is the diffusion coefficient for 02 in 0.1 KOH at RT (210.sup.5 cm.sup.2 s.sup.1) and the kinematic viscosity (0.008977 cm.sup.2 s.sup.1).

[0158] All the Fe(np)/nC electrodes displayed very similar results in terms of exchanged electrons (n 4, measured at +0.55 VRHE), without a marked dependence on the catalyst loading (FIG. 15). The high electron transfer numbers suggest high H.sub.2O yields, indicating the selective production of water rather than H.sub.2O.sub.2. Furthermore, the good reversibility observed for all scans on FIG. 4b shows stability of the electrocatalysts vs polarization during the timescale of the experiment.

Oxygen Evolution Reaction:

[0159] Furthermore, the uncommon activity of Fe(np)@NC in the context of oxygen electrocatalysis resides in its ability to also catalyze water oxidation (i.e. OER). As clearly evidenced in FIG. 5a, no activity at all is observed for both the pristine nanographite (nC) and the GC substrate whereas Fe(np)/nC electrodes exhibit amazing catalytic activity for OER with onset overpotential at ca 1.55 VRHE.

[0160] The stability of Fe(np)/nC over time was demonstrated by potentiostatic electrolysis at OER=0.4 V (FIG. 5b). An hour long chronoamperometry for a representative electrode having a catalyst loading of 140 g/cm.sup.2 shows how after an initial increase of current the current signal remains very stable and constant throughout the duration of the experiment.

Fe Activity:

[0161] When comparing the activity of Fe(np)/nC to that of the metal-free starting nC, the catalytic role of the composite material, i.e. the role of the Fe(np)s, was observed. That in fact the Fe NPs being the active sites for both ORR and OER can be argued when considering the charge related to the reduction/oxidation of Fe(II)/Fe(O) species, i.e. the amount of electroactive iron. The charge associated with the typical redox processes of iron (Fell/0 reduction and Fe0/II oxidation) increases as the loading of Fe(np)/nC catalyst increases.

[0162] Further analysis of the same redox processes highlights also the stability of the investigated Fe(np)/nCs catalysts toward the potential dissolution of the Fe NPs under anodic polarization (inset of FIG. 5b). A comparison of the CVs before and after one hour potentiostatic experiments at +1.63 VRHE reveals that the amount of electroactive Fe species (QFe) is constant, with no evidences of degradation of the catalyst in the investigated timeframe (QFe=1.5 and 1.51 mC before and after electrolysis, respectively).

[0163] When the activity for both OER and ORR was normalized for the amount of electroactive Fe, the electrochemical responses of differently loaded Fe(np)/nC electrodes converge basically to the same behaviour (see FIG. 16).

[0164] The good accessibility of the iron nanoparticles surface for electrocatalytic reactions is particularly appreciated when comparing the charge of iron reduction/oxidation to the overall loading of iron on the studied electrodes, i.e. the fraction of iron that is electrochemically active. Considering a mean iron content of 2.6 at %, the fraction of iron that is accessible by the solution and available for electrochemical reactions is in the order of 20-40% depending on the catalyst loading (Table 4). These are very high values (10-20% are common values for commercial Pt/C 20% wt. catalysts) and reveal the optimal homogeneity and iron nanoparticles distribution in Fe(np)/nCs.

[0165] The interesting catalytic behavior of these specific composite materials observed during the TGA measurements together with the high fraction of electrochemically active iron, prompted us to carefully evaluate their characteristics in terms of the OER and ORR with an electrochemical setup. From the electrochemical characterization, the composite Fe(np)/nCs is revealed to be an efficient catalyst for the ORR in alkaline solution.

[0166] The overpotential (q) of 540 mV required to reach a current density of 1 mA/cm.sup.2 is very similar to that of other Fe-based electrocatalysts, that however are less active than MnOx, the most promising earth-abundant ORR catalyst. The selectivity of Fe(np)/nCs towards the reduction of oxygen gas to water (to hydroxide ions due to the pH) at all catalyst loading (FIG. 14) is remarkable, as evidenced by the CVs at different rotation speed and the following Koutecky-Levich analysis. The Koutecky-Levich analysis is a common method for the evaluation of ORR kinetics, particularly useful to get information on the reaction mechanism and to discriminate which among the two-electrons (from O.sub.2 to H.sub.2O.sub.2) or the four-electrons (from O.sub.2 to H.sub.2O) pathway prevalently occurs. Indeed, H.sub.2O or H.sub.2O.sub.2 can be produced following two reaction pathways:

##STR00001##

[0167] The method allows extracting ORR kinetics applying ohmic drop and mass transport corrections by using the Levich equation for the convective transport in an RDE configuration (Eq. 2). Previous reports showed a dependence of ORR kinetics on the electrode thickness using FeNC catalysts. An apparent 4-electrons reduction process was indeed observed in thick electrodes, where the fast chemical disproportionation of the produced H.sub.2O.sub.2 would occur, then affecting the K-L analysis. However, such effect is excluded in the present case for the low volume of deposited catalyst that corresponds in the worst scenario (loading of 350 g/cm.sup.2) to a film thickness in the range of 1.5-2 m. For the intermediate loading of Fe(np)/nCs (140 g/cm.sup.2), this corresponds to a loading of 16 gFe/cm.sup.2. Such iron content is even lower to those commonly used in commercial ORR catalysts (28 gPt/cm.sup.2), which in addition contain a noble metal like Pt.

[0168] The Tafel analysis highlighted in FIG. 6 reveals a slope of 60-62 mV/dec, indication of a good control over O.sub.2 mass transport. As previously mentioned, some artefacts on ORR kinetics have been noticed on thick-film electrodes, and the related Tafel slopes values scattered in a wide range of values for a given catalyst. The same slopes found here at different catalyst loading again exclude the occurrence of such artefacts.

[0169] Regarding OER electrocatalytic activity, the absolute overpotential required by Fe(np)/nCs to drive OER is remarkably low. To the best of our knowledge this is the highest OER activity so far reported using electrocatalysts entirely Fe-based. We attribute this unusual activity to the very small particle size (2-5 nm) that the method of the invention allows to obtain. Several previous works have focused on bulk or electrodeposited Fe, on pyrolysis of appropriate iron precursors, or on solvothermal approaches. All of these methods produce iron/iron oxide nanoparticles with a much higher 3D dimensionality, that would account for the different observed catalytic activity.

[0170] The electroactivity of Fe(np)/nCs for OER in alkaline solution is particularly compelling at all catalyst loadings. Indeed, within the investigated time-scale the overpotential of 0.4 V needed to reach 10 mA/cm.sup.2 is almost identical to that of state-of-the-art RuO.sub.2, IrO.sub.2 and LiCoO.sub.2 catalysts (=0.38-0.39 V). In the case of OER, the observed low Tafel slopes of 40 mV/dec (FIG. 6a) are not exclusive and characteristic of a single rate determining step but can be associated to different reaction mechanisms depending especially on the surface coverage of adsorbed intermediates. In general, Tafel slopes <120 mV/dec indicate how the formation of the first adsorbed intermediate (Eq. 3) is not limiting OER on Fe(np)/nC.

M+OH.sup.MOH+e.sup.Eq. 3

[0171] The observed activity of the different Fe(np)/nCs electrodes for ORR and OER are summarized in the Tafel plot of FIG. 6a, which provide information about the underlying reaction mechanisms. From the analysis of the Tafel plot, is of great interest to note the bi-functional behaviour of Fe(np)/nC, for both ORR and OER. As mentioned, the electroactivity for the latter reaction is particularly compelling at all catalyst loadings, whereas the driving force for ORR is somewhat larger, but in the range of other reported Fe-based, cheap and earth-abundant catalysts. Overall, the total overpotential required to reach the benchmark values of 10 mA/cm.sup.2 current density for both reactions is in the order of 1 V and is in line with the state-of-the-art bi-functional materials. Notice that, the top efficient electrocatalysts, are more precious and are commonly tested at higher catalyst loadings (FeNC/NiFe-LDH, IrO2, Pt/C). This peculiarity can be seen in FIG. 6b, where a direct comparison with some of the best-performing bi-functional catalysts reveals how Fe(np)/nC is useful for oxygen electrocatalysis, especially when all its compelling aspects like the very low specific Fe loading, the high-quality of the carbon support, stability and low cost are considered. In particular, Fe(np)/nC stands out as OER catalyst, and having the advantages to be cheap and free of high-cost and time consuming purification procedures (i.e. calcination) its value may outperform that of actual precious catalysts. In contrast to various literature examples, where nitrogen doping of the carbon framework is essential for good electroactive activity, the presented electro catalytic properties of Fe(np)/nC composite material is observable without any nitrogen doping of the carbon framework. It is noteworthy, that the Fe(np)/nC is truly a sustainable catalytic system, because iron oxides are used as catalytic active centers, the nanographite is prepared from renewable resources.

[0172] Accordingly, this example clearly demonstrates that examples of nanographene-supported metal and/or metal oxide nanoparticle composites exhibit ORR and OER bi-functional activity and have remarkable electro catalytic properties.

[0173] In particular, this example clearly demonstrates that the composite obtained by the method of the present invention is useful for example as catalytic material, as electrode material for use in electrocatalysis, for example in fuel cell and energy storage technology, as electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) or oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and as bifunctional electrocatalyst for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) or oxygen evolution reaction (OER).

[0174] This is particularly important in light of the fact that development of sustainable materials capable of meeting the demand of high performance devices such as energy storage systems (e.g. fuel cells) or catalysts for chemical reactions is still a major challenge. In the context of energy storage and conversion, oxygen electrocatalysis has a dramatic influence on the energy efficiency of the technology developed so far. As a matter of fact, oxygen reduction reaction (ORR: O.sub.2+2H.sub.2O+4e.sup..fwdarw.4OH.sup.) is a key reaction for low temperature hydrogen fuel-cell technology, both in acidic and alkaline environments. The reaction requires an efficient 4-electron reduction of oxygen, and catalysts, selectively generating water are highly sought after. On the other hand, the oxygen evolution reaction (OER: 4OH.sup..fwdarw.O.sub.2+2H.sub.2O+4e.sup.) is central in respect to the electrolysis of water, the development of rechargeable air batteries and artificial photosynthesis. Both reactions, however, have quite large kinetic limitations that limit the energy efficiency of the above-mentioned technologies. Bi-functional catalysts that combine both OER and ORR are thus highly sought after for various applications. Platinum group metals are among the best catalysts for these electro-catalytic reactions, however their scarcity and high cost call for alternatives. Earth-abundant catalysts are sought as promising options, but their development is still a demanding technological hurdle. Major difficulties are related to their lower intrinsic catalytic activity and additional issues such as limitation in mass transport, number of active sites, and chemical stability. Remarkable improvements have been obtained by nanostructuring of earth-abundant metals. In this context, a defined synthesis is crucial to generate materials with specific properties for catalytic purposes, improving the overall performance of catalysts, their selectivity and their durability. Thus, the composites according to the present invention fills a real need for bi-functional catalysts, in particular that could catalyze both OER and ORR.

Example 3: Preparation of Nanographene-Supported Metal and/or Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Composites

[0175] The experimental procedure has been carried out according to the procedure of Example 1 with different metals (M=Ni, Mn, Cu or Co).

TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5 Synthesis details regarding the preparation of M(np)/nC composite materials: Weight of Weight of Volume of solvated Amount of added graph- inter- added metal enide calation Amount of metal (II) solution compound electrons salt chloride [mL] [mg] [mol] [mol] [mg] Ni(nP)/nC 100 20 148 74 9.5 (NiCl.sub.2) Mn(nP)/nC 100 20 148 74 9.3 (MnCl.sub.2) Cu(nP)/nC 100 20 148 74 9.9 (CuCl.sub.2) Co(nP)/nC 100 20 148 74 9.6 (CoCl.sub.2)

TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 6 Analysis of the measured TGA data (FIG. 18) and calculation of the individual metal content in atomic percentage (at %) for the different M(nP)/nC materials: Mn(nP)/nC Fe(nP)/nC Co(nP)/nC Ni(nP)/nC Cu(nP)/nC weight 5.96 1.84 3.67 2.29 5.33 in TGA [mg] mass 24.7 21.4 20.6 19.4 22.1 percentage [%] wt residue 1.47 0.39 0.76 0.44 1.18 [mg] assumed Mn.sub.2O.sub.3 Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 Co.sub.3O.sub.4 NiO CuO oxide molar 157.9 159.6 240.8 74.7 79.5 mass oxide [g*mol.sup.1] weight 1.02 0.28 0.56 0.35 0.94 metal residue [mg] molar 54.93 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 mass metal [g*mol.sup.1] mass 4.49 1.45 2.91 1.85 4.15 carbon [mg] n (carbon) 0.374 0.121 0.243 0.154 0.346 [mmol] n (metal) 0.019 0.005 0.01 0.006 0.015 [mmol] n (oxygen) 0.028 0.007 0.012 0.006 0.015 [mmol] n (total) 0.421 0.133 0.265 0.166 0.376 [mmol] atomic 4.4 3.7 3.6 3.6 3.9 percentage metal [at %]

[0176] The remaining mass after TGA measurement is composed of the metal oxide that is the most stable one after thermal treatment at 800 C. in synthetic air. The assumption of the respective oxide species for the different M(nP)/nC composite materials is depicted in the table 6 above. This allows calculating the respective amounts of metal as well as the atomic percentage of the metal in the composite materials. The values are generally lying close together and values between 3.6 and 4.4 at % have been determined.

[0177] The presence of the nanoparticles and the chemical composition of the different M(nP)/nC composite materials have been further investigated by XPS measurements.

TABLE-US-00007 TABLE 7 Calculated atomic percentages based on the fitted XPS data presented in FIG. 21: Mn(nP)/nC Fe(nP)/nC Co(nP)/nC Ni(nP)/nC Cu(nP)/nC C.sub.1s 79.56 79.48 66.72 74.93 91.00 [at %] O.sub.1s 15.03 14.56 25.25 20.60 6.02 [at %] M.sub.2p3 5.34 4.41 7.82 4.57 2.85 [at %]

[0178] The sizes of the nickel oxide particles are in the range between 1-4 nm and 4-10 nm for the manganese nanoparticles (FIG. 21).

[0179] The sizes of the copper oxide nanoparticles are in the range between 1-4 nm and 3-5 nm for the cobalt nanoparticles (FIG. 22).

Spectroscopic Analyses:

Raman Spectroscopy.

[0180] Raman spectroscopic characterization was carried out on a Horiba Jobin Yvon Xplora microscope equipped with a cooled Andor CCD detector; excitation wavelength: 532 nm, calibration on HOPG, laser spot size of 1 m, 1200 lines per mm grating, objective Olympus 50LWD. Raman mappings were performed with a motorized x-y m scanning table. 1681 individual spectra were recorded on each sample. Calculations were performed using Labspec6 and Origin 9.2.

X-Ray Powder Diffraction (XRD):

[0181] XRD patterns were collected on a PANalitycal X'pert MPD-PRO Bragg-Brentano - geometry diffractometer equipped with a secondary monochromator over an angular range of 2=8-80. Each acquisition lasted for 2 hours and 5 minutes. The Cu-K radiation was generated at 45 KV and 40 mA (=0.15418 nm). The samples were put on silicon wafer (zero background) sample holder and flattened with a piece of glass.

Thermo Gravimetric Characterization (TGA):

[0182] Thermo gravimetric characterization was performed on a TA Q50 TGA. Between 4-7 mg of composite sample was weighed in a Pt-crucible. The measurements were performed under air between 30-750 C. with a heating slope of 10 C./min.

X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS):

[0183] A ThermoFisher Scientific K-ALPHA spectrometer was used for surface analysis with a monochromatized AlK source (hv=1486.6 eV) and a 200 microns spot size. A pressure of 10 Pa was maintained in the chamber during analysis. The full spectra (0-1150 eV) were obtained with constant pass energy of 200 eV and high resolution spectra at constant pass energy of 40 eV. Charge neutralization was applied for all samples. High resolution spectra were fitted and quantified using the AVANTAGE software provided by ThermoFisher Scientific and the Scofield sensitivity factors available from the internal database.

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM):

[0184] AFM images in ambient air were acquired using a Nanoscope III microscope operated in tapping mode using 8 nm radius tips MPP-111000.

Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM):

[0185] Ambient STM images were recorded on Nanoscope III microscope operated in STM mode using freshly cut platinum/iridium wire (Pt 80/Ir 20, 0.25 mm diameter).

Deposition of the Solutions onto Substrates for AFM and STM Imaging:

[0186] Deposits of the nanographene composite dispersions were prepared by drop-casting the dispersion directly onto freshly cleaved mica or HOPG substrates. In detail, 20 l of composite dispersions in THF were deposited on ca 1 cm.sup.2 substrates. The coated surfaces were dried under vacuum at room temperature and then washed carefully using deionized water. Finally, the coated mica substrates were dried at 100 C.; the HOPG substrate was dried at 50 C. under vacuum overnight.

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM):

[0187] TEM measurements were performed on a TEM-FEG HR (JEOL 2200FS). TEM grids have been prepared by drop casting 20 l of nanocomposite dispersion in THF directly onto a SF400-CU TEM grid (Electron microscopy science)

Comparative Example 1: Preparation of Large Flake Graphene-Supported Metal and/or Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Composites

[0188] A composite material was prepared using natural graphite as starting material in the synthesis, instead of nanographite. The experimental procedure has been carried out according to the procedure of Example 1, namely: [0189] graphite intercalation compound (GIC) was prepared by reduction of natural graphite with cleaned potassium (stoichiometry KC.sub.8), under the same reaction conditions as Example 1b; [0190] the resulting GIC was dissolved in absolute THF to lead to a graphenide solution in THF, under the same reaction conditions as Example 1c; and [0191] the resulting graphenide solution was reacted with recrystallized iron tetrafluoroborate salt dissolved in THF, under the same reaction conditions as Example 1d.

[0192] The resulting composite product has been characterised by the means of TEM analysis (FIG. 17). In the image, it becomes apparent that particle formation of iron oxide can also be found when natural graphite is used as starting material. However, the size of the particles is significantly larger than what was observed in the case of nanographite (Example 1). Specifically, in this comparative Example 1, the iron oxide particle size is in the range of 20-50 nm, which is about an order of magnitude higher than that obtained with nanographene-supported metal and/or metal oxide nanoparticle composites (typically 2-5 nm, Example 1).

Comparative Example 2: Preparation of Large Flake Graphene-, Micrographene- and Nanographene-Supported Metal and/or Metal Oxide Nanoparticle Composites

[0193] The synthesis of different iron oxide nanoparticle carbon composite materials (Fe(NP)/nC) exploiting the reaction between graphenide solutions and anhydrous iron (II) tetrafluoroborate as in comparative example 1.

[0194] Three order of magnitude of graphene layers have been compared: flake graphene (I for large), micrographene (m for medium) and nanographene (s for small).

[0195] The different graphenide solutions containing charged graphene layers with varying size distributions, result in composite materials which are composed of carbon layers covered by a distribution of different iron nanoparticle sizes, increasing in the order s-(Fe(NP)/nC), over m-(Fe(NP)/nC) to l-(Fe(NP)/nC).

[0196] The synthesized composite materials exhibit different size distributions of iron oxide nanoparticles, increasing in the order s-(Fe(nP)/nC), over m-(Fe(nP)/nC) to l-(Fe(nP)/nC), observing a variation of size distribution of about one order of magnitude.

[0197] For the metal nanoparticle size, the size distribution for the m-Fe(nP)/nC and the l-Fe(nP)/nP composite material average values of about 22 nm for the former and 35 nm for the later have been calculated. For s-Fe(nP)/nC the particle sizes in the range of about 5 nm has been observed in HR-TEM measurements (FIG. 25).

[0198] The m-Fe(nP)/nC and the l-Fe(nP)/nP composite material average values are much larger than s-Fe(nP)/nC.

LIST OF REFERENCES

[0199] [1] Hof et al. Conductive inks of graphitic nanoparticles from a sustainable carbon feedstock Carbon 111 (2017) 142-149. [0200] [2] A. Herold, Synthesis of graphite intercalation compounds, in Chemical physics of intercalation, A. P. Legrand and S. Flandrois Eds, NATO ASI Series, series B, Vol. 172, pp. 3-45 (1987). [0201] [3] WO 2009/056696 [0202] [4] C. Stein, J. Poulenard, L. Bonnetain, J. Gole, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 260, 4503 (1965). [0203] [5] F. Beguin and R. Setton New ternary lamellar compounds of graphite, Carbon 13, 293-295 (1975). [0204] [6] Hodge, S. A., Fogden, S., Howard, C. A., Skipper, N. T. & Shaffer, M. S. P. Electrochemical Processing of Discrete Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Anions. ACS Nano 7, 1769-1778 (2013). [27] [0205] [7] Haeshin Lee et al. Facile Conjugation of Biomolecules onto Surfaces via Mussel Adhesive Protein Inspired Coatings Adv Mater. 2009 Jan. 26; 21(4): 431-434. [0206] [8] M. C. Biesinger, L. W. M. Lau, A. R. Gerson, R. S. C. Smart, Appl. Surf. Sci. 2010, 257, 887. [0207] [9] M. C. Biesinger, B. P. Payne, A. P. Grosvenor, L. W. M. Lau, A. R. Gerson, R. S. C. Smart, Appl. Surf. Sci. 2011, 257, 2717.