Porous nanocrystalline cellulose structures

Abstract

Provided is a unique class of foam materials characterized by regions of material unidirectionality. The foam materials are configured for a great variety of end-use applications as core materials or as materials in construction of multilayered structures. The novel and ingenious process for making the composite materials of the invention, permits modifying the foam materials to suite any specific end use.

Claims

1. A process for producing nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) from a cellulose-containing sludge, the process comprising: contacting the cellulose-containing sludge with acid, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge is treated with an aqueous sulfuric acid solution comprising 61 to 63% sulfuric acid to form treated cellulose-containing material, said treatment does not alter the morphology of the cellulose present in the cellulose-containing material; maintaining the treated cellulose-containing material at a temperature of about 50 C. thereby causing preferential degradation of cellulose amorphous domains while maintaining intact the cellulose crystalline domains; and isolating crystalline NCC; wherein the only acid that contacts the cellulose-containing sludge consists of sulfuric acid.

2. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge comprises at least one member selected from the group consisting of paper mill sludge, paper pulp, paper waste water, cellulose source recycled from agricultural or industrial by-products, municipal sludge, municipal sewage, dairy farms sludge, and agricultural cellulosic waste.

3. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge is treated with the aqueous sulfuric acid solution comprising 62 to 63% sulfuric acid.

4. The process according to claim 1, wherein the NCC produced is characterized by nanocrystals having an average length of 250100 nm.

5. The process according to claim 1, wherein the NCC produced is characterized by a charge in the range of 0.3-0.9 mmol/g.

6. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge is selected from at least one member of the group consisting of paper mill sludge discharged from a paper mill, toilet paper scraps, vegetable fibers, wheat straw, sunflower stalks, garment industry scraps.

7. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge comprises paper mill sludge discharged from a paper mill.

8. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge comprises at least one member selected from the group consisting of paper pulp and paper waste water.

9. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge comprises at least one member selected from the group consisting of cellulose source recycled from agricultural or industrial by-products, municipal sludge, municipal sewage, dairy farms sludge, and agricultural cellulosic waste.

10. The process according to claim 1, wherein the treated cellulose-containing sludge is maintained with the aqueous sulfuric acid solution comprising 61 to 63% sulfuric acid for 1 to 4 hours.

11. The process according to claim 10, wherein the isolated crystalline NCC are fibers having an average length of between 150 and 350 nm.

12. The process according to claim 11, wherein the treated cellulose-containing sludge is maintained with the aqueous sulfuric acid solution comprising 62 to 63% sulfuric acid for 1 to 4 hours.

13. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge contains between 5 percent and 60 percent of cellulose based on total amount of solid matter.

14. The process according to claim 13, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge comprises at least one member selected from the group consisting of cellulose source recycled from paper mill waste discharge from paper mills or paper mill sludge discharge from paper mills.

15. The process according to claim 14, wherein the treated cellulose-containing sludge the sludge is not contacted with acid other than sulfuric acid.

16. The process according to claim 15, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge is not pretreated prior to contact with sulfuric acid.

17. The process according to claim 1, wherein the cellulose-containing sludge is not pretreated prior to contact with sulfuric acid.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) In order to better understand the subject matter that is disclosed herein and to exemplify how it may be carried out in practice, embodiments will now be described, by way of non-limiting example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

(2) FIG. 1 shows an exemplary schematic representation of a controlled-cooling system used in a process of the invention.

(3) FIG. 2 shows the kinetics of ice front during unidirectional freezing of 3% NCC slurries under various cooling regimes.

(4) FIG. 3 shows the dependence of ice-front velocity on the heat flux for 3% NCC slurries.

(5) FIG. 4A is a comparative image of samples cooled at 3 C./min, 5 C./min and at a constant temperature of 50 C. FIGS. 4B-4C are SEM images of the highly-oriented structures for NCC samples cooled at 3 C./min and 5 C./min, respectively.

(6) FIG. 5 presents compression strength-strain curves of samples cooled at 3 C./min, 4.8 C./min and 5 C./min.

(7) FIG. 6 provides a graphical presentation of compression strengths of foam boards according to the invention.

(8) FIGS. 7A-7D are images showing the sequence of preparation of NCC honeycomb structures of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

(9) Preparation of NCC

(10) 10 grams of 200 m particle size micro-crystalline cellulose (MCC, Avicel) were suspended in 200 ml of DDW in a glass flask. The flask was positioned in an iced water bath while stirring. H.sub.2SO.sub.4 was gradually added to a final concentration of 59% while keeping the temperature at about 50 C. The suspension was transferred to a 60 C. water bath and incubated while shaking for 2-4 hours followed by Centrifugation at 8000 rpm for 10 min. Acid was removed and the pellet was re-suspended in DDW. The washing and re-suspension cycles were repeated for 4 to 5 times until the supernatant coming out of the centrifuge was turbid. Following the final wash the NCC was suspended in around 90 ml DDW (to give around 5% NCC concentration). A sample of the precipitate was weighed before and after drying to determine whiskers concentration.

(11) The same procedure was repeated, mutatis mutandis, with acid concentration of between 60 and 63% to yield NCC of identical quality and purity.

(12) When the acid concentration was 64% and higher or 58% and lower, NCC was not isolated. The materials obtained under these conditions contained cellulose materials of different and varying constitutions. Comparative data is presented in Table 1.

(13) Preparation of NCC Slurries

(14) NCC suspensions were prepared either by acid hydrolysis or by mechanical disruption of cellulose fibers. The cellulose source which was used varied. In all instances, NCC production followed mutatis mutandis the process described below. It should be understood that while the present example specifically described the NCC production from micro-crystalline cellulose, NCC was similarly obtained from other sources such as pulp and paper mill waste.

(15) Hydrolysis:

(16) Hydrolysis was achieved in a preheated 50 C., 60% H.sub.2SO.sub.4 solution. Dry pulp was added to this acid solution in 15 L acid/1 kg dry solids ratio. The suspension was mixed with a mechanical stirrer for 2 h. The suspension was then cooled to 15 C. and transferred to Centrifugation at 5,000 g for 5 min. Acid was removed and the pellet was re-suspended in DDW. The washing and re-suspension cycles were repeated for 4 to 5 times until the supernatant coming out of the centrifuge was turbid the retentate reach pH 3.

(17) The same process was repeated at acid concentration between 59 and 63%.

(18) Following the final wash the NCC was suspended in the required amount of DDW to give the final NCC concentration (1%-40%). Neutralization of the NCC was done with 1M NaOH. A sample of the precipitate was weighed before and after drying to determine NCC concentration. 0.1-10% NCC suspensions in water were prepared, followed by sonication by a probe sonicator until the solution became optically clear. The final honey like viscosity of the liquid crystal suspension was achieved after it has been cooled for a few hours.

(19) The Cooling System

(20) In order to produce foams with vertically aligned pores, a microstructure that combines high compressive and shear strength, a system for controlling the cooling rate of NCC slurries was constructed (FIG. 1). The system included a cooling stage, built from a heat conductive plate (104), e.g., steel, aluminum, copper, and with internal circulation system that enables coolant flow, e.g. liquid/gas nitrogen (102). The coolant (liquid or gas) was flown through the cooling system, thereby controlling the temperature of the plate. The system further included at least one temperature measuring unit, for allowing temperature control of the cooling stage.

(21) The mold used for producing the NCC foams combined a heat-conductive bottom (106) made of a highly thermal-conductive metal, e.g., copper; and insulating walls (108), such as those made from Delrin, having low thermal conductivity (high temperature resistance).

(22) In other non-limiting examples, the freezing was performed in a standard 80 C. refrigerator. The control of cooling was achieved by assembly of a mould that was thermally insulated, with the mould bottom being made from a conductive material such as copper. Following the pouring of the NCC whipped slurry, the mold was placed in a 80 C. refrigerator. The frozen foam was treated as described above.

(23) Foam Preparation Process

(24) Prior to the casting and freezing, the mold was pre-treated by coating with ice nucleating factors, e.g., a powdery bacterial extract that contained ice nucleating proteins (SNOMAX), that initiated freezing at around 3 C. The powder was dissolved in water and spread on the cooper bottom of the mold. Subsequently the mold was dried, resulting in coating of the bottom with the nucleating factors. The use of nucleating factors allowed reducing the super-cooling water in the NCC slurries, while maintaining gradual freezing and controlled progression of the ice crystals along the desired temperature gradient.

(25) NCC slurry was cast into the mold, and the mold was transferred to the refrigerator until the slurry stabilized at 4 C. Then, the mold was placed on the precooled cooling stage (0 C.) and the temperature was reduced either at a rate of 1-40 C./min, or by holding the cooling stage at constant temperature of below 30 C.

(26) After freezing was completed, cold ethanol (4 C.) was added and the frozen foam was allowed to thaw overnight. The ethanol was removed and the solvent exchange was repeated twice with new ethanol.

(27) Glycerol and maleic anhydride (1:1.5 mole ratio) were dissolved in ethanol. For 20 g of the glycerol/maleic anhydride mixture 80 mL of ethanol was used. The density of the cross-linked foams was decided by the amount of ethanol used compared to the total weight of the glycerol and maleic anhydride mixture. Castor oil was added to the monomers to introduce more hydrophobicity to the cross-linked foams Usually 20% of castor oil by weight was used compared to the monomer mixture, e.g., 4 g Castor oil for 20 g of the glycerol maleic anhydride mixture.

(28) The solution containing the monomers was used to either soak dry NCC foams or NCC foams containing a solvent, e.g., ethanol. If the NCC foam contained a solvent, the soaking was performed during gentle agitation for 8-24 hours followed by drainage of the remaining monomer solution. The foam was then cured at lower temperatures first at about 100 C. for 6-12 hours, followed by curing at higher temperatures 130-160 C. for 1-4 hours.

(29) Optimization of Freezing Conditions for Production of Unidirectional Foams

(30) In order to explore the optimal freezing conditions, different freezing rates and temperatures were attempted, mainly freezing at constant temperature and in decreasing temperature.

(31) The effect of cooling rate on ice front velocity was evaluated by video imaging of the ice front progression during freezing process. In order to visualize and record the ice front progression, transparent mold frame was used. Freezing was carried out in different cooling rates: between 0.5 and 40 C./min. Freezing was also carried out on a stage with a constant temperature of between 50 and 70 C. at the heat-conductive bottom (106, FIG. 1). See comparative results in FIGS. 2-3.

(32) After freezing, the samples were freeze-dried and analyzed by electron microscopy (SEM). It can be concluded that most aligned pore structure for 3% NCC slurry was obtained at cooling rates of between 3 and 5 C./min (FIG. 4). At higher cooling rates (e.g., 10-40 C./min) more interconnections in the pore structure appeared.

(33) In order to measure the effect of morphology, samples were tested for compression strength using tensile tester. It was concluded that cooling rates of 3-5 C./min yielded more aligned structures in the Z direction, and therefore higher compression strength in the this direction (FIG. 5). The foams were analyzed by compression tests using Instron tensile tester set to compression mode at rate of 1.3 mm/min. Force (N) and displacement (mm) curves were recorded during the compression. Stress/strain curves were generated by dividing the force with the samples' surface area and by dividing the displacement with the samples' height (FIG. 6). Foams were cast into a 2 cm diameter cell molds and measured for compression strength using Instron machine Model 3345; Load cell 5,000N. Measurements were carried out at a rate of 2.5 mm/min.

(34) Production of 30202 cm Unidirectional Foam Panels

(35) 1,500 ml NCC slurry at 3% was poured into the copper Delrin mold and transferred to the refrigerator until the temperature was stabilized at 4 C. The pre-cooled mold was then placed on the cooling stage with liquid nitrogen flow that reduced temperature at rate of 3 C./min until it reached 150 C. After freezing was completed, cold ethanol was poured on top of the frozen slurry and left for thawing. After thawing, fluids were removed and another two ethanol washes were carried out. Compression strength of a foam board according to the invention is given in FIG. 6. As may be noted, compression strengths can vary between about 2 and 0.4 MPa due to changes in density. Foams of 100 kg/m.sup.3 obtain compression strength of around 0.4 MPa while foams of 200 kg/m.sup.3obtain compression strength of around 2 MPa.

(36) Honeycomb Foams

(37) The methods above allow production of bulk foams but also of foams with complex internal architecture such as honeycomb structure. This is enabled by preparing a second mold that is dipped into the NCC slurry before freezing (FIG. 7). The mold renders the foam with a honeycomb shape and is removed during the drying of the foam. Due to the directional freezing the compression strength of the foam is increased compared to non-directional foams. It was observed that freezing rates that result in ice front progression of above 5 mm/min, the foams shrink along the Z axis; nevertheless it was found that this allows the formation of film-like walls around the honeycomb cells, resulting in significantly increased compressive strengths.

SPECIFIC EXAMPLES

Example 1

(38) A 1.0 L suspension comprising 2-5% NCC was mixed with a 2% xyloglucan solution. A 1:1 mixture of water and a commercial detergent was prepared and added to the mixture while stirring. After the addition of 2 mL of a detergent, stirring was maintained until the volume reached 1.3 L. A solution of nucleating factors (1 pellet of Snomax snow inducer dissolved in 50 ml DDW) was added on the top of a 360260 mm copper plate having plastic walls (1212 mm). The nucleating factor solution was evenly spread and dried on the plate. The foamed NCC suspension was added to the copper plate surface and the foam surface was made even by spackling. A freezing stage was pre-cooled to 80 C. and the mold containing NCC foam was applied on top.

(39) After freezing, cold ethanol was added to the frozen NCC foam. After thawing, more ethanol was added to the foam to remove the remaining water during agitation. The foam was now ready for crosslinking. 100 g glycerol (1.086 mol), 160 g maleic anhydride (1.629 mol) and 50 g castor oil (0.056 mol) were dissolved in 0.5-1 L ethanol was added to the foam. The amount of ethanol determined the final density of the foam. The monomer solution was removed and the soaked foam was cured at 110 C. over-night. Additional curing at 150 C. for 1-2 hour gave hard yellow foams.

(40) To improve the mechanical strength and fire retardation properties, the foams were soaked with a solution of furfuryl alcohol, furan resin, boric acid and triphenyl phosphate in acetone or ethanol. The soaked foams were cured at 130-150 C. until strong black foams were obtained.

Example 2

(41) An ice cream machine was used for the following experiments together with NCC and different additives.

(42) The NCC was mixed with either ethanol or glycerol before mixing in the ice cream machine in order to obtain a sorbet or slush like texture of the NCC. In one experiment a 5% NCC suspension was mixed with ethanol to obtain a 5% ethanol concentration. After pre freezing the NCC was poured to a mold for the final freezing at a lower temperature.

(43) In another experiment glycerol was also tried together with the NCC in the ice cream machine. A similar sorbet like texture was obtained when 10% glycerol was used. In a third experiment a premade sorbet of 5% ethanol was added to ice cold NCC. The mixture was then completely frozen at lower temperatures.

Example 3

(44) Another approach was to use solvents with high freezing point e.g. glacial acetic acid and DMSO to create pours within the NCC. Acetic acid or DMSO were first frozen and then mixed with different amounts off ice cold NCC. The NCC containing the frozen solvents were either directly put in ethanol for precipitation of the NCC and leaching of the frozen solvents. Alternatively the NCC with acetic acid or DMSO crystals was frozen completely before solvent exchange and drying.

Example 4

(45) Emulsion of NCC with castor oil was also prepared to investigate the possibility of creating closed cell structures within the NCC due to micelle formation. Detergents were used to stabilize the emulsions. The reason for using castor oil was the high solubility of the oil in ethanol. The emulsions were either frozen directly or put in ethanol.

Example 5

(46) During the experiments it was found out that when NCC was vigorously mixed with a detergent it was concentrated to the bubbles walls acting as a fibrous surfactant and stabilizes the foam. As a result, thick foam was formed similar to whipped cream or eggs.

(47) Different detergents were tested. In the initial experiments NCC/detergent mixtures were vigorously whipped in a homogenizer (UIltra Turrax) until homogenous foams were obtained. The foaming was controlled by the amount of detergent and the speed of the mixing. After the initial experiments, a NCC concentration was adjusted to 5% endowing the same foam density as with the aligned NCC foams taking in consideration the increase of volume. The mixing was set to low speed to ensure homogenous foaming For 1 L NCC with a concentration of 5% 2 mL of a detergent-water (1:1) mixture was used. By reaching the volume of 1.3 L the foams were ready for freezing.

(48) After the whipping was completed the samples were frozen on the same freezing stage previously used for freezing the aligned foams. During the freezing experiments it was noticed that whipped foams were resistant to low temperatures without any shrinkage that was observed in previously manufactured foams Moreover it was found that the foam structure was far less susceptible to differences in the freezing conditions therefore it was no longer necessary to freeze in a temperature gradient and the foams could be produced at a constant temperature, e.g., 80 C. This resulted in relatively fast freezing (15-20 minutes for completion) and also the possibility to freeze several foams in a row. The stage could be kept at constant temperature omitting the time consuming requirement for reheating the freezing to 0 C. before each freezing cycle.

(49) Attempts were also performed to freeze the foams in air freezing (refrigerator). Compared to the freezing according to processes of the invention, air freezing allowed the progression of several ice fronts from different directions and should enhance the freezing rate. Since freezing from the bottom was maintained the foams still keep some degree of Z direction orientation combined with the spherical isotropic structure that renders the foams significantly improved homogeneity, bending and shear strength.

(50) Characterization of Foam Structures and Other Products According to the Invention

(51) Foam samples were cut and analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The SEM analysis showed a clear structure of the foams. When NCC was either dried or frozen in a directional freezing it self-assembles into laminated structures, as defined herein. Interestingly this structure was maintained in products according to the invention.

(52) When foams were made utilizing a detergent as described, the sheets were formed around of the soap bubbles resulting in a spherical structure. The structure was formed during the whipping where the liquid solution of water, NCC, xyloglucan and a detergent concentrated at the bubbles walls. During the freezing the bubbled structure was maintained and dictated the final foam into spherical structure. SEM images were analyzed by ImageJ image processing software [Rasband, W. S., ImageJ, U.S. National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md., USA, http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/, 1997-2014]. The average pore size was determined at 100 m32 m. The single sheet thickness was 5 m, similar to the laminated directional foams. Moreover the spheres exhibited open cells structure and were relatively homogenous throughout the foam. The spherical structure of the foams improved their resistance to shrinkage and bending.

(53) The initial step in preparation for testing of the foams density was removal of the foams edges. The foams were cut with a scroll saw to dimensions of 20301 cm, weighed and the density was recorded. Using a blackboard chalk the foam was divided and cut with the saw to 55 cm. Each sample was weighed for density calculation followed by compression testing.

(54) Once the first two foams ready they were cut for compression testing as described above. Statistical analysis of all the foams was performed by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) procedure using JMP 11 software (JMP 11 Statistical Discovery).

(55) As shown in Table 2 below, foams nos. 1 and 2 complied with the density requirements but their compressive strength was slightly below 1 MPa. This result required further improvement in the production method mainly in the final step of the crosslinking Adjustments of the final crosslinking formulation of furfuryl alcohol and flame retardants allowed significant improvements in the foams strength. As shown below the improvements were performed in several steps until the most satisfactory formulation was achieved. Following the first improvement a set of 3 new foams was prepared for testing (foam nos. 3-5). The testing results indicated that the foams were improved and all the last three foams met the technical parameters.

(56) Additional foams were prepared in order to try and reach higher compressive strength results. The improvement was performed mainly by modifying the crosslinking reaction, optimization of the ratios between the components and crosslinking time and temperatures. A set of two foams were prepared which felt by hand impression significantly stronger compared to the previous foams. The tests indicated that indeed they were significantly stronger but also slightly heavier since the density was raised above 200 Kg/m.sup.3 (foam nos. 7 and 8). Consequently the crosslinking was tuned once more to generate a set of four new foams with improved strengths compared to foams 1-5, as well a density that meets the requirements. Moreover, the foams were relatively homogenous in their density and compressive strength (foam nos. 8-11).

(57) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 summary of foam compression studies No. of Density Confidence Confidence 5 5 cm (Kg/m.sup.3) interval 95% Compressive interval 95% Foam samples Standard Upper Lower strength Upper Lower No. tested Error (Kg/m.sup.3) (Kg/m.sup.3) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) 1 21 172.0 2.1 176.1 167.8 0.73 0.04 0.80 0.66 2 22 190.0 2.4 194.9 185.2 0.88 0.03 0.94 0.81 3 21 193.0 2.4 197.6 188.1 1.00 0.03 1.06 0.94 4 18 187.0 2.7 192.4 181.6 1.12 0.04 1.19 1.05 5 22 190.6 2.4 195.5 185.8 1.14 0.03 1.20 1.08 6 24 197.7 3.1 203.9 191.5 1.84 0.04 1.93 1.76 7 24 204.8 3.1 210.9 198.6 1.86 0.04 1.95 1.77 8 21 190.0 1.4 193.2 187.8 1.58 0.03 1.64 1.52 9 15 197.2 1.6 200.0 194.0 1.60 0.04 1.68 1.53 10 20 197.3 1.4 200.0 194.5 1.68 0.03 1.74 1.61 11 17 192.8 1.5 195.8 189.7 1.68 0.03 1.74 1.60

(58) Foam fire retardation properties were evaluated in comparison to commercial expanded rigid PVC foam. During the development of the fire retardation formulations qualitative evaluation of the foam samples was performed under aggressive fire condition applying Bunsen burner flame for 60 seconds. During the test it was observed that the expanded PVC foam produced relatively large flame and generated large amounts of black smoke. Examination of the samples following the burning revealed that the foam deformed and lost significant mass. Moreover the fire progressed and consumed large part of the foam. On the other hand, when the NCC foam was exposed to the fire, a significantly less powerful flame was observed along with a significantly reduced smoke generation. Moreover the flame damage was local and mild structural deformation was observed.

(59) Quantitative testing was performed according to EN ISO 11925-2:2010 standard ignitability test of building products subjected to direct impingement of flame. Foams were cut to 8301 cm stripes which were tested according to the standard. The test included applying a small flame on the sample for 30 seconds. All samples that were tested did not burn at all. No droplets were observed and thermal camera observation indicated that the foams were cooling very rapidly and could be touched after 1 minute from removal of the flame. The test was extended to 120 seconds with similar results.

(60) In addition to the fire test before, the foam samples were burned nondestructive thermal characterization was performed. The average thermal resistance of the foams was 0.044 W/mK similar to insulation materials such as mineral wool at density of 180 kg/m.sup.3 (0.043 W/mK).

(61) Table 3 provides a summary of the ISO 11925-2:2010 flame test results.

(62) More tests were performed comparing NCC foam to commercial expanded PVC foam. During the test different parameters were measured in order to determine the samples properties. Applying the flame on the expanded PVC foam resulted in immediate formation of extensive orange flame and extensive black smoke. The expanded PVC foam failed in the criteria of the time of start of test of flame tip to reach 150 mm which occurred in few seconds.

(63) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 summary of the ISO 11925-2: 2010 flame test results Time from start of test Extent of Extent of of flame tip flame damaged area Foam Specimen Ignition to reach 150 spread Flaming (mm) material No. Yes/No mm (seconds) (mm) debris Glowing Height Width expanded 1 No Immediate Extensive None None 191.5 34.9 PVC 2 No Immediate Extensive None None 192 37.9 3 No Immediate Extensive None None 175.5 51.1 4 No Immediate Extensive None None 176.9 45 5 No Immediate Extensive None None 171.8 45.9 6 No Immediate Extensive None None 160.1 28 Average 178 40.5 NCC foam 1 No Did not reach Minor None None 93.2 30.8 2 No Did not reach Minor None None 81.7 20.6 3 No Did not reach Minor None None 88.5 24.6 4 No Did not reach Minor None None 111.4 31.7 5 No Did not reach Minor None None 110 26 Average 97 26.7

(64) The performance of the NCC foam was significantly superior. The flame was limited, little smoke was produced and the flame tip was maintained significantly below 150 mm during the whole test.

(65) Following the removal of the flame, the foam was inspected and the surface area of the damage was measured. The damage surface area of the expanded PVC foam was significantly higher compared to the NCC-foam. In fact the damage area of the NCC foam was limited to the surface while the foam maintained its structural integrity compared to the expanded PVC foam were significant structural damage and deformation was observed.