Intercalation-Based Materials and Processes for Softening Water

Abstract

A device for removing ions from a flow of water includes a first electrode and a counter-electrode opposite the first electrode in the flow of water. The first electrode contains at least one material which is capable of intercalating one or both of Mg.sup.2+ and Ca.sup.2+ ions in the flow of water. The counter-electrode can include a material capable of binding to anions in the flow of water.

Claims

1. A device for removing ions from a flow of water comprising: a first electrode connectable to a current source and configured to be arranged in a flow of water; and a counter-electrode connectable to the current source and configured to be arranged in the flow of water opposite said first electrode, wherein said first electrode contains at least one material which is capable of intercalating one or both of Mg.sup.2+ and Ca.sup.2+ ions in the flow of water.

2. The device of claim 1, wherein the at least one material is selected from the group consisting of: A.sub.xCuFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xMnFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xMnMn(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xZnFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xBaFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xFeFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xNiFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; Ti.sub.xFe.sub.1-x[Fe(CN).sub.6].sub.0.96 0x1; polyimide; FePO.sub.4; NaMnFe.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; Na.sub.3Fe.sub.3(PO.sub.4).sub.4; Na(M)PO.sub.4, M=Fe, Mn, or Fe.sub.xMn.sub.1-x0x1; MnO.sub.2; Na.sub.xMnO.sub.2, 0x1; ZnMn.sub.2O.sub.4; MgFeSiO.sub.4/C; Mg.sub.xMn.sub.2-xSiO.sub.4, 0x2; Mg.sub.0.5Ti.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; LiTi.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; Ti.sub.xAl.sub.2-x(PO.sub.4).sub.3, 0x2; TiP.sub.2O.sub.7; Na.sub.3MnTi(PO.sub.4).sub.3; K.sub.2Ti.sub.4O.sub.9; TiS.sub.2; FeS.sub.2; CaMO.sub.3 (M=Mn and/or Fe); potassium terephthalate; 2,5-pyridinedicarboxylate (K.sub.2PC); KFeF.sub.3; K.sub.0.3MnO.sub.2; KMg.sub.xFe.sub.2-x(PO.sub.4).sub.2, 0x2; NaTi.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; Na.sub.2FeP.sub.2O.sub.7, TiO.sub.2, and Na.sub.2Ti.sub.3O.sub.7.

3. The device of claim 1, wherein the counter-electrode includes a material capable of binding anions in the flow of water to the counter-electrode.

4. The device of claim 3, wherein the counter-electrode material is capable of binding one or both of Cl.sup. and Co.sub.3.sup.2 anions in the flow of water to the counter-electrode.

5. The device of claim 4, wherein the counter-electrode material includes a porous carbon layer.

6. The device of claim 3, wherein the counter-electrode includes an ion-selective membrane arranged on said counter-electrode to be between the counter-electrode material and the flow of water.

7. The device of claim 1, further comprising a non-conductive water permeable separator arranged to be disposed in the flow of water between said first electrode and said counter-electrode.

8. The device of claim 1, wherein said counter-electrode contains at least one material which is capable of intercalating one or both of Mg.sup.2+ and Ca.sup.2+ ions in the flow of water.

9. The device of claim 8, wherein the at least one material of the counter-electrode is selected from the group consisting of: A.sub.xCuFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xMnFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xMnMn(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xZnFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xBaFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xFeFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xNiFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; Ti.sub.xFe.sub.1-x[Fe(CN).sub.6].sub.0.960x1; polyimide; FePO.sub.4; NaMnFe.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; Na.sub.3Fe.sub.3(PO.sub.4).sub.4; Na(M)PO.sub.4, M=Fe, Mn, or Fe.sub.xMn.sub.1-x0x1; MnO.sub.2; Na.sub.xMnO.sub.2, 0x1; ZnMn.sub.2O.sub.4; MgFeSiO.sub.4/C; Mg.sub.xMn.sub.2-xSiO.sub.4, 0x2; Mg.sub.0.5Ti.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; LiTi.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; Ti.sub.xAl.sub.2-x(PO.sub.4).sub.3, 0x2; TiP.sub.2O.sub.7; Na.sub.3MnTi(PO.sub.4).sub.3; K.sub.2Ti.sub.4O.sub.9; TiS.sub.2; FeS.sub.2; CaMO.sub.3 (M=Mn and/or Fe); potassium terephthalate; 2,5-pyridinedicarboxylate (K.sub.2PC); KFeF.sub.3; K.sub.0.3MnO.sub.2; KMg.sub.xFe.sub.2-x(PO.sub.4).sub.2, 0x2; NaTi.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; Na.sub.2FeP.sub.2O.sub.7, TiO.sub.2, and Na.sub.2Ti.sub.3O.sub.7.

10. The device of claim 1, further comprising an ion exchange membrane between said first electrode and said counter-electrode.

11. The device of claim 10, wherein the ion exchange membrane is an anion exchange membrane.

12. The device of claim 10, wherein the ion exchange membrane is a cation exchange membrane.

13. The device of claim 1, wherein said first electrode includes: a conductive substrate; and a layer on said substrate including said at least one material, an electrically conductive additive and a binder.

14. The device of claim 13, wherein said electrically conductive additive is a carbon composition.

15. The device of claim 13, wherein said binder is a polyvinylidene di-fluoride (PVDF).

16. The device of claim 15, wherein said layer includes said at least one material in 60-85 wt. %, said PVDF binder in 5-35 wt. % and a carbon composition as said electrically conductive additive in 3-10 wt. %.

17. A method for removing ions from a flow of water comprising: positioning a device in the flow of water, the device comprising a first electrode and a counter-electrode opposite said first electrode, wherein said first electrode contains at least one material which is capable of intercalating one or both of Mg.sup.2+ and Ca.sup.2+ ions in the flow of water; applying a positive voltage to the first electrode to intercalate one or both of the Mg.sup.2+ and Ca.sup.2+ ions from the flow of water into the first electrode.

18. The method of claim 17, further comprising discharging the water with one or both of the Mg.sup.2+ and Ca.sup.2+ ions removed from the device.

19. The method of claim 17, wherein the positive voltage is within the stability window of water.

20. The method of claim 17, further comprising applying a negative voltage to the first electrode to release the one or both of the Mg.sup.2+ and Ca.sup.2+ ions intercalated in the first electrode from the first electrode.

21. The method of claim 20, wherein the negative voltage is within the stability window of water.

22. The method of claim 20, further comprising releasing the one or both of the Mg.sup.2+ and Ca.sup.2+ ions into a flow of water discharged from the device.

23. The method of claim 22, further comprising discharging the water with one or both of the Mg.sup.2+ and Ca.sup.2+ ions removed from the device separate from the flow of water discharged from the device in which the one or both of the Mg.sup.2+ and Ca.sup.2+ ions have been released.

24. The method of claim 17, wherein: the counter-electrode of the device includes a material capable of binding anions; and the step of applying a positive voltage to the first electrode includes applying a negative voltage to the counter-electrode to bind the anions in the flow of water to the counter-electrode.

25. The method of claim 24, wherein counter-electrode material is capable of binding one or both of Cl.sup. and Co.sub.3.sup.2 anions in the flow of water to the counter-electrode.

26. The method of claim 17, wherein the at least one material is selected from the group consisting of: A.sub.xCuFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xMnFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xMnMn(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xZnFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xBaFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xFeFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; A.sub.xNiFe(CN).sub.6 (A=Li,Na,K,Cs) 0x1; Ti.sub.xFe.sub.1-x[Fe(CN).sub.6].sub.0.96 0x1; polyimide; FePO.sub.4; NaMnFe.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; Na.sub.3Fe.sub.3(PO.sub.4).sub.4; Na(M)PO.sub.4, M=Fe, Mn, or Fe.sub.xMn.sub.1-x0x1; MnO.sub.2; Na.sub.xMnO.sub.2, 0x1; ZnMn.sub.2O.sub.4; MgFeSiO.sub.4/C; Mg.sub.xMn.sub.2-xSiO.sub.4, 0x2; Mg.sub.0.5Ti.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; LiTi.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; Ti.sub.xAl.sub.2-x(PO.sub.4).sub.3, 0x2; TiP.sub.2O.sub.7; Na.sub.3MnTi(PO.sub.4).sub.3; K.sub.2Ti.sub.4O.sub.9; TiS.sub.2; FeS.sub.2; CaMO.sub.3 (M=Mn and/or Fe); potassium terephthalate; 2,5-pyridinedicarboxylate (K.sub.2PC); KFeF.sub.3; K.sub.0.3MnO.sub.2; KMg.sub.xFe.sub.2-x(PO.sub.4).sub.2, 0x2; NaTi.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3; Na.sub.2FeP.sub.2O.sub.7, TiO.sub.2, and Na.sub.2Ti.sub.3O.sub.7.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0012] FIG. 1 depicts a water softening device according to a first embodiment, the device including an electrode with at least one material configured to intercalate target cations in a water supply.

[0013] FIG. 2 illustrates the water softening device of FIG. 1 in an operating state in which a voltage is applied to the electrode and the target cations are removed from the water supply via intercalation with the material.

[0014] FIG. 3 illustrates the water softening device of FIG. 1 in an operating state in which the voltage applied to the electrode is reversed and the target cations are released into a wastewater stream.

[0015] FIG. 4 depicts a cartridge embodiment of the device shown in FIGS. 1-3 in which the cartridge is supported within a housing integrated into a water supply system for a dwelling or building.

[0016] FIG. 5 depicts a water softening device according to a second embodiment, the device shown in a first operating state in which a voltage is applied to a first electrode with a first material and to a second electrode with a second material, the first material configured to intercalate target cations from a water supply and the second material configured to release the target cations to a wastewater stream.

[0017] FIG. 6 illustrates the water softening device of FIG. 5 in a second operating state in which the voltage polarity is reversed, the first material configured to release the target cations to the wastewater stream and the second material configured to intercalate the target cations from the water supply.

[0018] FIG. 7 depicts a cartridge embodiment of the device shown in FIGS. 5-6 in which the cartridge is supported within a housing integrated into a water supply system for a dwelling or building.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0019] For the purpose of promoting an understanding of the principles of the disclosure, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and described in the following written specification. It is understood that no limitation to the scope of the disclosure is thereby intended. It is further understood that the disclosure includes any alterations and modifications to the illustrated embodiments and includes further applications of the principles of the disclosure as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which this disclosure pertains.

[0020] FIGS. 1-3 depict a first embodiment of a device 100 for softening water. The device 100 includes at least one electrode 104 and a counter-electrode 136. The electrode 104 can have a substrate 108 with at least one material 112 disposed on the substrate 108. In one embodiment, the substrate 108 is a metal substrate. The material 112 on the substrate includes an intercalation host material configured to intercalate one or more first target ions 116 from a flow of water 120. In the illustrated embodiment, the intercalation host material 112 can be configured to intercalate with one or both of the divalent cations Ca.sup.2+ and Mg.sup.2+ as the first target ions, although in other embodiments the first target ions 116 can be other target ions. The water flow 120 can also include other cations and anions.

[0021] The intercalation host material 112 of the electrode 104 disclosed herein is one or more of the compounds identified in Table 1 below:

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 A.sub.xCuFe(CN).sub.6, where A = Li, Na, K, Cs and 0 x 1 A.sub.xMnFe(CN).sub.6, where A = Li, Na, K, Cs and 0 x 1 A.sub.xMnMn(CN).sub.6, where A = Li, Na, K, Cs and 0 x 1 A.sub.xZnFe(CN).sub.6, where A = Li, Na, K, Cs and 0 x 1 A.sub.xBaFe(CN).sub.6, where A = Li, Na, K, Cs and 0 x 1 Ti.sub.xFe.sub.1x[Fe(CN).sub.6].sub.0.96, where 0 x 1 Polyimide (PNDIE) FePO.sub.4 NaMnFe.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3 Alluaudite Na.sub.3Fe.sub.3(PO.sub.4).sub.4 Na(M)PO.sub.4, where M = Fe, Mn, or Fe.sub.xMn.sub.1x and 0 x 1 MnO.sub.2 Na.sub.xMnO.sub.2, where 0 x 1 ZnMn.sub.2O.sub.4 MgFeSiO.sub.4/C Mg.sub.xMn.sub.2xSiO.sub.4, where 0 x 2 Mg.sub.0.5Ti.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3 LiTi.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3 Ti.sub.xAl.sub.2x(PO.sub.4).sub.3, where 0 x 2 TiP.sub.2O.sub.7 Na.sub.3MnTi(PO.sub.4).sub.3 K.sub.2Ti.sub.4O.sub.9 TiS.sub.2 FeS.sub.2 CaMO.sub.3, where M = Mn and/or Fe) potassium terephthalate 2,5-pyridinedicarboxylate (K.sub.2PC) KFeF.sub.3 K.sub.0.3MnO.sub.2 KMg.sub.xFe.sub.2x(PO.sub.4).sub.2, where 0 x 2 A.sub.xFeFe(CN).sub.6, where A = Li, Na, K, Cs and 0 x 1 A.sub.xNiFe(CN).sub.6, where A = Li, Na, K, Cs and 0 x 1 NaTi.sub.2(PO.sub.4).sub.3 Na.sub.2FeP.sub.2O.sub.7 TiO.sub.2 Na.sub.2Ti.sub.3O.sub.7

[0022] In one embodiment, the electrode 104 includes material 112 disposed on the substrate 108 includes one or more of the intercalation host materials from Table 1, a carbon additive to improve electrical conductivity, and a binder. In one specific embodiment, the intercalation host materials are provided in an amount 60-85 wt %, the carbon additive provided in an amount 3-10 wt %, and a polyvinylidene di-fluoride (PVDF) is provided as the binder in an amount 5-35 wt %. To produce the electrode 104 having the intercalation host material 112, the carbon additive, and the polymeric binder are well-mixed as a slurry in an appropriate solvent, such as N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone (NMP), and then blade-cast, roll cast, or airbrushed onto the substrate 108 of the electrode 104.

[0023] The device 100 in some embodiments is arranged in a water supply system for a dwelling or other building (not shown) that includes various pumps, conduits, valves, and related components to transport water from an external water supply to water distribution branch circuits within the dwelling or building. Water flow 120 enters the device 100 at an input side 124 and exits the device 100 at an output side 128. The device 100 can be incorporated into a housing having an inlet, at the input side 124 of the device, which is in fluid-tight engagement with an input line connected to the external water supply, and an outlet, at the output side 128 of the device, which is in fluid-tight engagement with an inlet to the water distribution branch circuits.

[0024] As the water moves in a flow direction 132 through the device 100 and over the intercalation host material 112 on the electrode 104, the device 100 is configured to have different operating states so as to enable it to selectively remove the first target ions 116 from the water flow 120. The flow direction 132 shown in FIGS. 1-3 is for reference only and can be reversed in other embodiments. If the flow direction is reversed, the locations of the input side 124 and the output side 128 of the device will be reversed as well.

[0025] FIG. 1 illustrates the device 100 in a first operating state in which no voltage is applied to the electrode 104 while the water 120 flows through the device 100. In this first operating state, the intercalation host material 112 of the device 100 has virtually no effect on the ions in the water so the water 120 is unchanged as it enters the input side 124 and exits the output side 128. Likewise, the intercalation host material 112 also has virtually no effect on the ions when the water 120 is not flowing through the device.

[0026] FIG. 2 illustrates the device 100 in a second operating state in which a negative voltage 130 is applied to the electrode 104 while the water 120 flows through the device 100 in the flow direction 132. In the second operating state, the first target ions 116 are intercalated into the intercalation host material 112. The water that exits the output side 128 of the device 100 when the device is operated in the second operating state will contain a lower concentration of the first target ions 116 than the water that enters the input side 124 of the device 100. In the embodiment in which the first target ions 116 are one or both of the divalent cations Ca.sup.2+ and Mg.sup.2+, the water 120 exiting the device 110 will be softened water. The second operating state of the device 100 is sometimes referred to as a purification cycle since the removal of the first target ions 116 purifies the water stream exiting the device 100.

[0027] FIG. 3 illustrates the device 100 in a third operating state in which the voltage polarity is reversed and a positive voltage 130 is applied to the electrode 104 while the water 120 flows through the device in the flow direction 132. In the third operating state, the first target ions 116 are released from the intercalation host material 112 back into the water 120 flowing past the electrode 104. The water 120 that exits the output side 128 of the device 100 when the device is operated in the third operating state is typically referred to as the wastewater stream since it will contain a higher concentration of the first target ions 116 than the water that enters the input side 124 of the device. The third operating state of the device 100 is sometimes referred to as a regeneration cycle since the intercalation host material 112 is cleared of the first target ions 116 in preparation for a subsequent purification cycle.

[0028] The voltage applied to the electrode 104 in the second and third operating states is configured to be within the stability window of water (i.e., 0.401 to +1.23 V vs. SHE) so as to avoid water electrolysis. As such, the intercalation host materials 112 identified in Table 1 are configured to intercalate and release the first target ions 116 at voltages within the stability window of water.

[0029] With continued reference to FIGS. 1-3, in some embodiments the second electrode 136 is configured to remove second target ions 144. The second electrode 136 is spaced apart from the first electrode 104 on the opposite side of the water flow path 120. In the illustrated embodiment, the first and second electrodes are directly across from each other in the flow path; however, the electrodes can be offset from each other in the flow direction 132. In one embodiment, the second electrode 136 can be configured as a high-surface-area carbon counter-electrode. The device 100 in some embodiments also includes at least one ion-selective membrane 140 disposed between the second electrode 136 and the water 120. The ion-selective membrane 140 is configured to pass second target ions 144 and to improve resistance to co-ion adsorption. The device 100 in some embodiments can include a water-permeable separator 141 disposed in the water flow 120 (see FIG. 2) that prevents electrical contact between the electrodes. The separator 141 can be a nylon mesh or other non-conductive material, non-toxic material. When paired with the electrode 104, the second electrode 136 is configured in at least one operating state to selectively remove one or more second target ions 144 from the water 120 via electro-adsorption onto a porous carbon layer 148 through the ion exchange membrane 140. The second target ions 144 in the illustrated embodiment can be the anions Cl.sup. or CO.sub.3.sup.2, although in other embodiments the second target ions 144 can be other target ions.

[0030] When the device 100 is in the first operating state as shown in FIG. 1, no voltage is applied to the second electrode 136 while the water 120 flows through the device 100. In this first operating state, the second electrode 136 has virtually no effect on the ions in the water 120 so the water is unchanged as it enters the input side 124 and exits the output side 128. Likewise, the second electrode 136 also has virtually no effect on the ions in the water 120 when the water is not flowing through the device.

[0031] When the device 100 is in the second operating state as shown in FIG. 2, a positive voltage 130 is applied to the second electrode 136 while the water 120 flows through the device in the flow direction 132. In the second operating state, the second target ions 144 are accumulated at the second electrode 136. The water that exits the output side 128 of the device 100 when the device is operated in the second operating state will contain a lower concentration of the second target ions 144 than the water that enters the input side 124 of the device 100. In this second operating state, a negative voltage is applied to the first electrode 104 to intercalate the first target ions 116, as described above.

[0032] When the device 100 is in the third operating state as shown in FIG. 3, the voltage polarity is reversed and a negative voltage 130 is applied to the second electrode 136 while the water 120 flow through the device in the flow direction 132. In the third operating state, the second target ions 144 are released from the second electrode 136 back into the water 120 flowing past the electrode 136. The water that exits the output side 128 of the device 100 when the device is operated in the third operating state will typically contain a higher concentration of the second target ions 144 than the water that enters the input side 124 of the device 100. The voltage applied to the second electrode 136 in the second and third operating states is configured to be within the stability window of water (i.e., 0.401 to +1.23 V vs. SHE) so as to avoid water electrolysis. As described above, In this third operating state, a positive voltage is applied to the first electrode 104 to release the first target ions 116.

[0033] In some embodiments, the electrode 104 can be paired with one more auxiliary electrodes that reversibly react with other ions. For instance, the auxiliary electrode(s) can be formed from materials such as Ag/AgCl or BiOCl that reversibly react with chloride ions.

[0034] In one embodiment, the device 100 can be provided in the form of a cartridge 150 mounted within a housing 152, as illustrated in FIG. 4. The housing 152 includes an inlet fitting 153 adapted for fluid-tight engagement to a water inlet from the external water source, an outlet fitting 154 adapted for fluid-tight engagement to an inlet for a water distribution branch circuits of the dwelling or building, and an interior chamber 155 in which the cartridge 150 is received. The cartridge 150 can be replaceable. The housing 152 includes a controller 160 that is electrically connected to a current source V.sub.IN and to the electrodes 104, 136 by respective electrical conductors 105, 137. The controller 160 is configured and operable to selectively energize the two electrodes 104, 136 to achieve each of the three operating states of the device 100 described above. The controller can be an analog or digital device that is capable of selectively connecting the two electrodes to the current source V.sub.IN. In one simple embodiment, the controller is a three-position switch that allows an operator to selectively place the device 100 in any of the three states. However, the controller 160 is can incorporate a clock and/or timer that initiates each of the three operating states according to a particular schedule. The controller can also be programmable or configured to initiate any of the three operating states based on particular conditions in the water supply or based on water usage.

[0035] FIGS. 5 and 6 depict a second embodiment of a device 200 for softening water. The device 200 includes two porous electrodes 204 that are configured in essentially the same manner as the electrode 104 described with reference to FIGS. 1-3. Therefore, the two electrodes 204 of the device 200 each include the intercalation host material 112 (Table 1), which is configured to intercalate the first target ions 116 from the water supply 120. The device 200 further includes an ion exchange membrane 240 disposed between the two electrodes 204. The ion exchange membrane in the embodiment shown is an anion exchange membrane 240 that facilitates separation of the first target ions 116 into a first region 250 of the device 200 that is occupied by one of the electrodes 204 and a second region 254 of the device 200 that is occupied by the other of the electrodes 204. The anion exchange membrane 240 is configured to permit other ions, such as the second target ions 144, to freely pass through the anion exchange membrane between the first and second regions. The configuration of the device 200 with the two electrodes 204 and the anion exchange membrane 240 obviates the need for a dedicated electrode to accumulate anions.

[0036] The device 200 in some embodiments is arranged in a water supply system (not shown) that includes various pumps, conduits, valves, and related components to transport water from a source to an end user. The device 200 is arranged in the water supply system such that the water 120 enters the device 200 at an input side 224 and exits the device 200 at an output side 228. As the water moves in a flow direction 232 through the device 200 and over the intercalation host material 112 on the electrodes 204, the device 200 is configured to have different operating states so as to enable it to selectively remove the first target ions 116 from the water 120.

[0037] FIG. 6 illustrates the device 200 in a first operating state in which a voltage is applied to the electrodes 204 while the water 120 flows through the device 200 in the flow direction 232. As shown in FIG. 4, a positive voltage 230 is applied to the electrode 204 in the first region 250 while a negative voltage 230 is applied to the electrode 204 in the second region 254. In the first operating state, the first target ions 116 are intercalated into the intercalation host material 112 of the electrode 204 in the second region 254, which decreases the concentration of the first target ions 116 in the second region 254. Conversely, the first target ions 116 are released from the intercalation host material 112 of the electrode 204 in the first region 250, which increases the concentration of the first target ions 116 in the first region 250. The increased concentration of the first target ions 116 in the first region 250 also has the effect of causing a transfer of the second target ions 144 from the second region 254 into the first region 250, thereby decreasing the concentration of the second target ions 144 in the second region 254. Due to the separation of the first target ions 116 and the second target ions 144 in the first operating state, the water 120 exiting the device 200 from the second region 254 will be the softened water while the water exiting the device 200 from the first region 250 will constitute the wastewater stream.

[0038] FIG. 7 illustrates the device 200 in a second operating state in which the voltage applied to the electrodes 204 is reversed. In particular, the negative voltage 230 is applied to the electrode 204 in the first region 250 while the positive voltage 230 is applied to the electrode 204 in the second region 254. In the second operating state, the first target ions 116 are intercalated into the intercalation host material 112 of the electrode 204 in the first region 250, which decreases the concentration of the first target ions 116 in the first region 250. Conversely, the first target ions 116 are released from the intercalation host material 112 of the electrode 204 in the second region 254, which increases the concentration of the first target ions 116 in the second region 254. The increased concentration of the first target ions 116 in the second region 254 also has the effect of causing a transfer of the second target ions 144 from the first region 250 into the second region 254, thereby decreasing the concentration of the second target ions 144 in the first region 250. Due to the separation of the first target ions 116 and the second target ions 144 in the second operating state, the water 120 exiting the device 200 from the first region 250 will be the softened water while the water exiting the device 200 from the second region 254 will constitute the wastewater stream.

[0039] The device 200 can be provided as a cartridge 201 mounted within a housing 260 configured to be integrated into the water supply system of a dwelling or building, in a manner similar to the housing 152 described above. However, since the device 200 includes two discrete regions 250, 254 that alternate between a softened water flow path and a waste flow path, the housing 260 defines two discrete chambers 261, 265, each having a respective inlet fitting 262, 266 and outlet fitting 263, 267. The housing is configured to preserve the integrity of the two chambers and regions 250, 254 to prevent cross-contamination. A controller 268 is provided that is connected to a current source V.sub.IN and to each of the electrodes 204 to selectively apply a positive voltage, negative voltage or no voltage to the electrodes according to one of the three operating states described above. Since the two regions alternatively flow softened water and waste water through them, depending on the operating state, the outputs of the two chambers 261, 265 of the housing are fed to a two position valve assembly 270. A first element 271 of the valve assembly provides a direct connection 271a between the left chamber 261 and a waste outlet W, and a direct connection 271b between the right chamber 265 and a soft water outlet S. The second element 272 of the valve assembly crosses the connections, thereby providing a direct connection 272a between the left chamber 261 and a softened water outlet S, and a direct connection 272b between the right chamber 265 and a waste outlet W. A valve controller 273, such as an electrical solenoid, is provided to selectively move the valve assembly into one of the two positions. The valve controller 273 is tied to the controller 268 that selectively energizes the electrodes 204 to coordinate the action of the electrodes with the action of the valve assembly for each operating state. Thus, when the device 200 is in the second operating state shown in FIG. 5, the valve assembly is activated to position the first element 271 between the outlets of the housing and the waste outlet W and softened water outlet S, as depicted in FIG. 7. When the controller 268 activates the device in the third operating state, the valve controller 273 activates the valve assembly so that the second element 272 is aligned between the housing outlets 263, 267 and the waste outlet W and softened water outlet S.

[0040] While the disclosure has been illustrated and described in detail in the drawings and foregoing description, the same should be considered as illustrative and not restrictive in character. It is understood that only the preferred embodiments have been presented and that all changes, modifications and further applications that come within the spirit of the disclosure are desired to be protected.