CORROSION RESISTANT METAL AND METAL ALLOY COATINGS CONTAINING SUPERSATURATED CONCENTRATIONS OF CORROSION INHIBITING ELEMENTS AND METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR MAKING THE SAME

Abstract

A method and apparatus for producing a corrosion inhibiting coating for metal and metal alloy substrates. The coating is comprised of a metal or metal alloy that is similar in composition to the substrate to be coated, further combined with a corrosion inhibiting material. The corrosion inhibiting material may be a refractory metal or metalloid. The method and apparatus for producing the coating allows for the corrosion inhibiting coating to have a supersaturated concentration of the corrosion inhibiting material alloyed with another metal or metal alloy. The method and apparatus allow for the selective vaporization of material sources to make the coating vapor, which are then entrained in a high speed gas flow that directs the coating vapor onto the substrate. Optional plasma assistance and application of a voltage to the substrate may be used. The coating may be customized for a variety of applications.

Claims

1.-47. (canceled)

48. A composition for coating an aluminum substrate or an aluminum alloy substrate to protect the substrate from corrosion, wherein said coating of said substrate comprises: aluminum or aluminum alloy and one or more corrosion inhibiting materials alloyed and deposited as a coating on the aluminum or aluminum alloy substrate; wherein said alloyed and deposited coating comprises aluminum or aluminum alloy and a supersaturated concentration of at least one of said one or more corrosion inhibiting material.

49. The composition of claim 48, wherein said one or more corrosion inhibiting materials comprises one or more of the following: tungsten, niobium, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum, zirconium, nitrogen, boron, phosphorous, vanadium, or yttrium.

50. The composition of claim 48, wherein said coating is substantially non-porous.

51. The composition of claim 48, wherein said coating is substantially porous.

52. The composition of claim 48, wherein said coating is a thin film.

53. The composition as in claim 52, wherein said thin film is approximately 400 nanometers thick.

54.-58. (canceled)

59. A composition for coating a metal substrate or metal alloy substrate to protect the substrate from corrosion, wherein said coating of said substrate comprises: metal or metal alloy and one or more corrosion inhibiting materials alloyed and deposited as a coating on the metal or metal alloy substrate; wherein said alloyed and deposited coating comprises metal or metal alloy and a supersaturated concentration level of at least one of said one or more corrosion inhibiting materials.

60. The composition of claim 59, wherein said alloyed and deposited coating of said metal or metal alloy comprises any one of the following: aluminum, copper, magnesium, iron, or nickel or alloys thereof.

61. The composition of claim 60, wherein said one or more corrosion inhibiting materials sources comprises any one of the following: tungsten, niobium, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum, zirconium, nitrogen, boron, phosphorous, vanadium, or yttrium.

62.-70. (canceled)

71. The coating of claim 48, wherein said substrate comprises: a) a portion of a land, sea, air, or space vehicle, craft or robot; or b) a portion of a building structure or building exterior.

72. The coating of claim 59, wherein said substrate comprises: a) a portion of a land, sea, air, or space vehicle, craft or robot; or b) a portion of a building structure or building exterior.

Description

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0029] The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated into and form a part of the instant specification, illustrate several aspects and embodiments of the present invention and, together with the description herein, serve to explain the principles of the invention. The drawings are provided only for the purpose of illustrating select embodiments of the invention and are not to be construed as limiting the invention.

[0030] FIG. 1 provides a schematic illustration of an embodiment of the directed vapor deposition apparatus with plasma assist during operation.

[0031] FIG. 2 provides a graph of the electron energy distribution in a hollow cathode-produced plasma.

[0032] FIG. 3 provides a schematic illustration of an embodiment of the plasma generation apparatus.

[0033] FIG. 4 provides a photographic depiction of an embodiment of the plasma generation apparatus during operation.

[0034] FIG. 5 provides a micrographic depiction of an example of the corrosion resistant coating as applied to a substrate.

[0035] FIG. 6 provides an equilibrium phase diagram of an AlZr binary alloy system.

[0036] FIG. 7 provides a graph of anodic polarization curves for a Zr-5083 coating and uncoated 5083 aluminum in deaerated 0.6M NaCl.

[0037] FIG. 8 provides anodic polarization curves for tantalum coated and uncoated 5083 aluminum in deaerated 0.6M NaCl.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

[0038] Metals and metal alloys used in salt water environments are susceptible to corrosion. While there are significant differences in the rates of corrosion between different metals and metal alloy types, all may be vulnerable to this mechanism of attack in aqueous environments. The phenomenon results from a local breakdown in the effectiveness of the oxide (passivating) film that naturally forms on atmospherically exposed metal and metal alloy surfaces. This native oxide film breakdown can occur at intermetallic particles which are present in all engineering alloys. This film breakdown exposes bare metal or alloy to local electrochemical attack and results in corrosion. The mechanism of oxide breakdown begins with the adsorption of Cl.sup. ions on the surface, which is controlled by the surface charge state of the oxide. If the net charge is positive, Cl.sup. ions are attracted to the surface and corrosion can occur. The surface charge state is dependent upon many characteristics of the oxide, including its composition, state of hydration, conductivity, bonding environments, etc. The control of these quantities provides a potential route for controlling pitting and corrosion.

[0039] Aluminum and its alloys are particularly susceptible to this mechanism for corrosion in salt water environments. In particular, aluminum and its alloys suffer from localized pitting due to breakdown of the native oxide layer from the adsorption of Cl.sup. ions.

[0040] An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention provides, among other things, a corrosion inhibiting coating for a metal or metal alloy substrate including a metal or metal alloy further alloyed with one or more refractory metals or metalloids.

[0041] While several elements (W, Nb, Cr, Mo, Ta, Zr, N, B, P, V, Y, etc., or the like) have been shown to be effective at mitigating corrosion and pitting, none are sufficiently soluble that they can be added as alloying elements during conventional melt phase processing of many engineering alloys. Even if such approaches were developed, for example by rapid solidification processing, they would result in an inefficient use of these costly alloying elements since they are then distributed throughout the alloy interior where they serve no corrosion inhibiting function. Vapor phase processing using ion implantation or sputter deposition approaches have shown promise for creating surface films that are enriched in the elements of interest. However, these fabrication processes are difficult and expensive to implement because of high equipment cost, low throughput, and the need for high-vacuum process environments. They are also incapable of uniformly coating components of a complex shape, particularly where some areas of the part to be coated are not in the line of sight of the vapor source.

[0042] An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention teaches a coating and process for making the same that overcomes many of these problems. It uses thermal techniques, for example intense electron beams, to vaporize one or more closely spaced source materials. These can be elemental metals or alloy sources provided that the source materials have similar vapor pressures at the temperature used for evaporation. The vapor plumes from the multiple sources are then entrained in a high-speed helium or other gas flow and directed to a substrate where deposition occurs. By choosing appropriate process conditions, it is possible to completely mix the multiple material source vapor plumes creating a homogeneous alloy plume. Plasmas can also be created within the process chamber providing opportunities to athermally control the surface assembly processes during low temperature film growth. This then enables the film to be supersaturated in elements that are normally of low solubility without segregation or intermetallic phase formation. Because vapor is deposited from the stream lines of the gas flow by binary scattering, a coating may be deposited on any surface that is reachable by the flowing carrier gas stream. As a result, complicated shapes and contours can be coated including those with regions that are not in the line of sight of the vapor. It should be appreciated that the various coating techniques of the present invention include line of sight, non line of sight, or a combination thereof.

[0043] An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention provides, among other things, the use of these coatings deposited upon the surface of metals or metal alloys for protecting them from corrosion. The films are made by co-evaporating (or co-sputtering or otherwise creating a vapor phase of) a metal or metal alloy of similar or identical composition to the metal or metal alloy to be protected and one or more pitting or corrosion mitigating elements (such as, but not limited, to W, Nb, Cr, Mo, Ta, Zr, N, B, P, V, Y, etc., or the like) and co-depositing them. The use of a reactive plasma assisted deposition approach may also be used to incorporate nitrogen or other materials into some of the alloy coatings. In each system, dense films with high concentrations of the corrosion mitigating elements, sometimes retained in supersaturated solid solution, provide significant corrosion protection. Supersaturated solutions are often defined as a chemical solution that is more highly concentrated than is normally possible under given conditions of temperature and pressure. Furthermore, to supersaturate a solution is to cause a chemical solution to be more highly concentrated than is normally possible under given conditions of temperature and pressure. Supersaturated solutions may refer to any state of matter, and in particular may be directed towards liquid solutions, liquid-solid solutions, and solid solutions.

[0044] Also claimed is the use of a plasma etching method to remove the native oxide on a substrate prior to the start of the deposition and the use of controlled plasma oxidation to create a synthetic oxide layer on the films after deposition. It should be appreciated that the coating technique disclosed herein may be a separate process from the etching technique.

[0045] FIG. 1 provides a schematic illustration of an aspect of an embodiment of the Directed Vapor Deposition (DVD) system 1, for example, that may be used to produce coatings with supersaturated levels of corrosion inhibiting materials on a substrate 2. It should be appreciated that various available depositing methods or apparatuses are considered part of the present invention, and may be employed within the context of the invention. The DVD system includes an electron beam gun 4 with a maximum power of 10 kW and a beam accelerating voltage of 70 kV. It should be appreciated that in additional embodiments of the DVD system, different levels of maximum or minimum power and accelerating voltage may be desired or required for different types of substrate, material sources, or coating compositions. Furthermore, it should be appreciated that energy sources other than electron beam guns may be used, including but not limited to lasers, ion discharge guns, radiant heat sources, or direct heating. The high voltage is used to reduce the electron scattering cross-section from background gas atoms, permitting focused penetration of the beam over considerable distances in a low vacuum (high pressure) vapor deposition chamber. By impinging the electron beam 24 on first and second material sources 9, 10 (even if those materials have a very high melting point), the sources may be thermally vaporized into a coating vapor 14 by heating their surfaces into the liquid phase. The rate of vaporization depends upon the vapor pressure-temperature relation of the first and second material sources 9, 10. The vapor pressure rises very rapidly with surface temperature, and since this is controlled by the power of electron beams 24 impinging on the first and second material sources 9, 10, the electron beam power (or dwell time) incident upon the first and second material sources 9, 10 is used to control the coating vapor 14 emission rate and composition. The upper limit on the rate of evaporation may be very high, corresponding to deposition rates of hundreds of micrometers per second.

[0046] Normally, the creation of such a high coating vapor 14 concentration leads to nanoparticle formation and sooty deposits. However, the coating vapor 14 created in the DVD process is entrained in a high speed gas flow 11 and rapidly swept from the first and second material sources 9, 10 and diluted. This flow 11 is created by the expansion of a gas, such as helium, through a nozzle 7 located near the first and second material sources 9, 10. Crucibles 8 have been developed to co-evaporate multiple source materials 9, 10 with a single electron beam 24. In this case, the electron beam 24 scan pattern is programmed to rapidly jump the electron beam 24 between the first and second material sources 9, 10. Each individual source material may be evaporated with different rates by controlling the dwell time of electron beam 24 on each molten source pool. The ability to evaporate each individual source material with an independently controllable rate enables the deposition of a coating with a precise composition to be synthesized. High-speed beam scanning with a frequency of 100 kHz has been incorporated in the electron beam gun 4 to control the source melting precisely, thereby facilitating very high rates of evaporation. It should also be appreciated that electron beam 4 may use any rate of cycling, dwell time, or combinations thereof, as required to control the coating vapor 14 composition. If needed, multilayer deposition can be easily achieved by moving the electron beam 24 between the various source materials more slowly (without breaking the vacuum). It should be appreciated that electron beam 24 may be alternated between first and second material sources 9, 10, or any number of material sources in crucible 8, to create the appropriate composition of coating vapor 14 as desired or required by the user. As an example, crucible 8 may be configured to hold two, three or more different material sources, or multiples of the same source. Crucible 8 may also be configured in an annular or ring shape to allow gas flow 11 to move through its center.

[0047] It should be appreciated that FIG. 1 shows only one exemplary embodiment of the present invention and is not intended to limit other potential embodiments that may be desired or required. Notably, there are a number of variations that may be useful for particular applications. For instance, gas flow 11 may be composed of a number of gasses with different properties. Inert gasses, for example, but not limited to, helium, may be used for coatings where it is not desired to have a gas stream that is reactive with the coating vapor 14. Alternatively, a reactive gas, such as, but not limited to, nitrogen, may be used when it is desirable for the gas flow 11 to provide a chemical constituent to the coating. Furthermore, gas flows 11 may constitute a mixture of gasses, all of which are inert or reactive, or a combination of inert and reactive. It should also be appreciated that gas flow 11 may be provided at a number of different flow rates or speeds. For example, gas flow 11 may be supersonic, with speeds in the range of Mach 1-2.

[0048] Still referring to FIG. 1, it should be appreciated that nozzle 7 may be provided in a number of forms or configurations as desired or required. As shown in FIG. 1, nozzle 7 may be annular in shape and located around crucible 8. However, nozzle 7 may also be provided as a nozzle concentric to crucible 8 and first and second material sources 9, 10. Furthermore, it should be appreciated that nozzle 7 may be configured in any way within enclosure 13 such that it provides for adequate transportation and mixing of coating vapor 14. As such, nozzle 7 may be disposed above, below, or to the side of crucible 8 and first and second material sources 9, 10. It should also be appreciated that multiple nozzles may be used to provide gas flow 11 within enclosure 13. Furthermore, nozzle 7 may be located in such a way as to produce gas flow 11 such that the gas flow 11 is concentric to the material sources that are vaporized by electron beam 24.

[0049] Still referring to FIG. 1, it should be appreciated that crucible 8 may take any number of forms. Notably, in an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, crucible 8 may be configured to accept coolant supply 12. Furthermore, in another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, crucible 8 may be configured to accept any number of material sources as are desired or required to provide coating vapor 14 with 2, 3, or more constituent materials.

[0050] Still referring to FIG. 1, in an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, an optional plasma assist system may be incorporated into the coating deposition apparatus 1. A plasma activation unit 5 in communication with a hollow cathode 18 works in conjunction with an anode 6 disposed across the enclosure 13. A gas, or combination of gasses, which may be inert, reactive, and of similar or different composition to the gas flow 11, flows through the plasma activation unit 5 and is ionized to create a plasma 15 within the enclosure 13. The plasma 15 mixes with the coating vapor 14 and gas flow 11 to create the mixed vapors and plasma 16. It should be appreciated that a user may alter the relative concentrations, pressures, and compositions of the plasma 15, gas flow 11, and coating vapor 14 to create mixed vapors and plasma 16 specifically suited to the substrate material, material sources, and the desired properties of the corrosion resistant alloy layer. It should also be appreciated that there is no requirement that the plasma 15 must be present for the proper functioning of all embodiments of the present invention. In such cases as the plasma 15 is not required, then the coating vapor 14 and gas flow 11 will combine to form mixed vapors 16 alone.

[0051] Still referring to FIG. 1, in an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, a substrate bias 3 may be applied to the substrate 2 to aid in depositing the corrosion resistant coating on the substrate 2. Application of a substrate bias 3 may also be useful for other functions, including removal of a native oxide layer that may build up on substrate 2 and cause difficulty coating the substrate 2. It should be appreciated that the substrate bias 3 may be positive, negative, or alternating in polarity, and it may take on any value as desired or required by the user, including different values of voltage, amperage, or cycle time for alternating polarity.

[0052] During the deposition process, the upstream of the nozzle pressure (P.sub.u) is kept higher than the downstream pressure (or chamber pressure P.sub.o). If the ratio of the pressure exceeds 2, a supersonic gas flow is created around the material source rod. The vapor atoms from the source material will then be entrained in the supersonic carrier gas flow, and rapidly transported (at 500-1000 m/s) to the substrate. The gas flow speed and density can be controlled by the choice of upstream pressure (P.sub.u) and downstream pressure (chamber pressure, P.sub.o) ratio and the nozzle dimensions. The speed of a supersonic gas flow, U, can be estimated from the following equations:

U=M{square root over (R.sub.sT)}(1)

[0053] Where =Ratio of specific heats (5/3 for helium),

[0054] M=Flow's Mach number, T=Absolute temperature (K), and

[0055] R.sub.s=Specific gas constant (2077 J/kg/K for helium).

[0056] The Mach number is determined by a pressure ratio (P.sub.u/P.sub.o):

[00001]$\begin{array}{cc}\frac{P_u}{P_o}={\left[1+\frac{-1}{2}.Math.M^2\right]}^{/\left(-1\right)}& \left(2\right)\end{array}$

[0057] These two equations indicate that the speed of a supersonic gas flow may be increased by increasing the pressure ratio (P.sub.u/P.sub.o). If a reactive gas (oxygen or nitrogen) is mixed with helium and expanded into the chamber, the pressure difference rises and therefore the gas speed increases. Pressure ratios of 6 to 8 were used for the examples given.

[0058] The use of a supersonic gas flow promotes both a deposition rate and efficient utilization of the coating vapor by focusing the vapor flux plume to the dimensions of a substrate. This occurs because the coating vapor is transported along the gas flow streamlines. Binary scattering from these streamlines then leads to deposition onto substrates within one to two mean free scattering distances of the streamline. Since the scattering rate and distances are controlled by the local pressure and cross sections of the scattering species, it is possible to control the rate of vapor deposition by varying the gas pressure and flow velocity. Since streamlines may flow around corners, it is also possible to deposit vapor evenly onto complicated shapes, which is impossible using other physical vapor deposition processes. Because the DVD process is somewhat analogous to spray deposition, very large areas may be coated by directing the gas flow by swiveling the gas flows or nozzles, or by applying pressure gradients across the annular nozzle to aerodynamically vector the jet. It should also be appreciated that it in another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, large areas may be covered by translating the substrate relative to the gas flow, or rotating the substrate relative to the gas flow, or translating and rotating the substrate relative to the gas flow or vice versa.

[0059] For the examples given, a two source crucible with 12.5 mm diameter material sources was used. One of the sources consisted of the aluminum alloy to be deposited (AA 5083). The second source consisted of either 5N purity Zr, Ta, W or Mo. A series of experiments were performed to establish the relationship between electron beam impingement conditions and the evaporation rate of each material, which was used this to establish a co-evaporation condition that created the desired vapor composition. It should be appreciated that this and other examples do not limit the materials, parameters, or results that are possible with the DVD process for producing supersaturated coatings.

[0060] When the DVD approach is conducted under a low-vacuum environment (7.510.sup.30.75 Torr), coating vapor atoms are strongly thermalized and the DVD deposited coating may form porous columnar structures. However, under certain circumstances a less porous coating may be desired, so a plasma assisted deposition method may be used to deposit the coatings, as in the given examples. The combination of the high-rate evaporation process with a high-density plasma activation technique based upon hollow cathode arc discharge is useful for creating less-porous coatings. An optional hollow cathode-activated deposition (HAD) process may provide this functionality. The HAD process has been successfully used in the past for the deposition of dense films at low temperatures. However, the use of a plasma assist may create other concerns for the DVD coating process, and additional considerations in the parameters of the coating process may be necessary. For instance, plasma may defocus the coating vapor plume and shift the location of the plume's impingement with the substrate. Nevertheless, it provides at least one method for determine the viability of this general approach to achieve coatings with very high refractory (low solubility) element concentrations in solution. It should be appreciated that other means for plasma assist may be used which would be compatible with the DVD process for coating a substrate.

[0061] FIG. 2 provides a graph of the electron energy distribution in a hollow cathode-produced plasma (HCP). The dotted line represents the electron energy distribution function close to the cathode. The solid line represents the electron energy distribution at a distance of 5-7 cm from the core of the hollow cathode plasma in a longitudinal magnetic field. The hollow cathode arc discharge creates a very high electron density (10.sup.12 cm.sup.3). The high electron density of the hollow cathode plasma can be explained by the electron energy distribution function (EEDF), which consists of a Maxwellian distribution of the isotropic electrons and a superimposed group of directed electrons. Directed electrons comprise the low-voltage electron beam (LVEB) ranging from 0-25 eV and are accelerated at the exit of the cathode by a nearby anode (made of copper for these examples). Because the LVEB electrons have high energy, the ionization processes will take place in the core region of the discharge and the ions propagate by diffusion. By using the hollow cathode arc discharge, vapor ionization fractions of approximately 30% or more can be achieved. If an insulated (floating) substrate is placed near the plasma, then the ion current becomes the same as the electron current on the substrate. The floating potential (V.sub.f) can be estimated from the relation:

[00002]$\begin{array}{cc}{V}_f=\frac{{\mathrm{kT}}_e}{2.Math.e}.Math.\ln \left(\frac{}{2}.Math.\frac{m_e}{M_i}\right)& \left(3\right)\end{array}$

where

[0062] k=Boltsmann constant (8.61710.sup.5 eV/K),

[0063] T.sub.e=Electron temperature (K),

[0064] m.sub.e=Electron mass (9.1110.sup.31 kg), and

[0065] M.sub.i=Ion mass (for example, argon: 6.67110.sup.26 kg).

[0066] FIG. 3 provides a schematic illustration of an aspect of an embodiment of the plasma activation unit 5. The plasma activation unit 5 creates a plasma with a working gas, in this case the inert gas argon, which is used to assist in the directed vapor deposition technique to produce supersaturated alloy coatings. It should be appreciated that the plasma activation unit may take a variety of different shapes as desired or required, and that it may function with a number of different gasses, whether they are inert, reactive, or a combination thereof. The plasma activation unit 5 includes the hollow cathode 18, which is in communication with a heating element 19, which may be, but is not limited to, a tungsten coil. The hollow cathode 18 is disposed across from an anode 6. The hollow cathode 18 and anode 6 are in communication with a power supply 17 that provides energy for the creation of a plasma 15. The plasma 15 mixes with the gas flow 11 and coating vapors 14 created by the vaporization of a material source (not shown) to create a mixed vapor and plasma 16. The gas flow 11 with entrained coating vapor 14 flows generally upward and through plasma 15 to make mixed vapor and plasma 16, which flows generally towards and around the substrate 2 as shown by the arrows. It should be appreciated that the cathode of the plasma activation unit 5 may take many forms, and is not necessarily limited to a hollow cathode design. Furthermore, the plasma 15 is depicted as argon for illustrative purposes. However, it should not be construed as to limit the invention to argon, as any number of gasses, reactive or inert, may be suitable as a plasma source.

[0067] Still referring to FIG. 3, it should be appreciated that the hollow cathode 18 uses thermionic electron emission to create a low-voltage electron beam in the 0-25 eV range. These electrons are injected with a gas flow into the enclosure through the end orifice of the hollow cathode 18 toward the anode 6. A plasma consisting of electronically excited, ionized evaporants and working gas atoms/molecules is formed. If a negative potential 3 is applied to the substrate 2, a plasma sheath 21 is formed near the biased substrate 2 and this sets up a plasma sheath potential 20, which draws the ion flux toward the deposition surface.

[0068] Still referring to FIG. 3, a substrate bias 3 may be applied to a substrate 2 to assist in creating a supersaturated alloy coating. If a negative potential 3 is applied to a substrate 2, then it attracts positive ions and creates a plasma sheath 21 near the substrate 2. Because the plasma sheath 21 generates a sheath potential (V.sub.ps) 20 between the substrate 2 and the plasma 15 itself, the sheath potential 20 strongly accelerates positively ionized vapor atoms towards the substrate 2. This can increase the kinetic energy of the mixed vapor 16 from 0.2 eV to about 6.0 eV, enabling the formation of a dense coating without resorting to sufficient thermal activation to cause solute atom clustering or precipitation, create a vapor incidence angle more perpendicular to a film surface (less likely to form porosity), and increase the reaction rate between vapor atoms and reactive gases. Note that M designates coating vapor molecules 14, M* designates excited coating vapor molecules 14, and M.sup.+ designates ionized coating vapor molecules 14.

[0069] In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, a HCP current of 60 A was maintained with an external power supply. Argon with a flow rate of 0.3 slm was used as the hollow cathode working gas, and the emitted electrons from a heated hollow cathode therefore created an argon plasma. In the plasma assisted directed vapor deposition (PA-DVD) approach, since vapor atoms entrapped by a supersonic He gas jet are carried through the argon plasma, emitted electrons and argon ions are able to ionize some of vapor atoms and He gas while simultaneously transferring higher thermal energy.

[0070] Even though the HCP technique creates a dense argon plasma environment, LVEB electrons are still thermalized, which prevents the generation of a sufficient floating potential near the substrate. Previously, ion plating during the deposition process was used to modify film properties, such as film density, film adhesion, and film composition. If a substrate bias is applied, then the ion current (j.sub.i) incident on the substrate can be modified as indicated by the relation:

[00003]$\begin{array}{cc}{j}_i=\frac{4}{9}.Math.{{\mathrm{.Math.}}_0\left(\frac{2.Math.e}{M_i}\right)}^{\frac{1}{2}}.Math.\frac{{\left(V_p-V_{\mathrm{sb}}\right)}^{\frac{3}{2}}}{d_S^2}& \left(4\right)\end{array}$

where

[0071] M.sub.i=Ion mass (for example, argon: 6.67110.sup.26 kg),

[0072] V.sub.p=Plasma potential (V),

[0073] V.sub.sb=Substrate bias potential (V),

[0074] .sub.o=Dielectric constant (8.8410-14 F/cm), and

[0075] d.sub.s=Plasma sheath (mm).

[0076] Equation (4) indicates that if a negative bias is applied to a substrate, the ion current incident upon the substrate will increase. The increased current causes more ion bombardments of the growing film surface, which can enable further manipulation of the surface morphology and composition. As negative substrate bias increases, film structures may be modified from porous columnar to dense structures. However, the negative substrate bias results in energetic ion bombardments, which may increase the film stress and reduce the deposition rate (by resputtering). Furthermore, since the more energetic ion bombardments also deposit more heat in the substrate, they can enhance the atomic diffusional energy and precipitation reactions.

[0077] In an aspect of an embodiment of the PA-DVD approach described herein, a substrate bias technique is employed which can provide either a constant potential or an alternating bias of 200 V. After a series of experimental trials it was found that a potential of 50V provided the best results. However, it should be appreciated that a number of different values for the bias may be used as desired or required in order to meet the specific requirements of a particular substrate, desired coating, or application. For example, the bias may be, positive, negative, or alternating polarity with differing values of voltage, current, and cycle time.

[0078] Another benefit of the substrate bias technique is that it may be used for surface cleaning and pre-treatment prior to deposition of a supersaturated coating. For some metals or metal alloys, a very thin (native) oxide layer is easily formed when exposed to air. This oxide layer is likely to affect the adhesion between the substrate and the coating. Ion bombardment of the oxide using a plasma and a negative substrate bias provides an effective way to clean the surface and remove much of the oxide layer, though some is always present due to the presence of a low oxygen and water vapor partial pressure in the deposition chamber. In an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention an argon plasma and a bias potential of 50V may be used to clean the surface of the substrate prior to the start of deposition. The ion etching treatment may be performed for about 10 minutes while the rest of the process parameters were adjusted prior to the start of deposition. It should be appreciated, though, that differing values for the bias potential, positive, negative, and/or alternating, and different amounts of time may be used for effective ion etching treatment based on the material and the extent of the oxide layer formation. It should also be appreciated that a synthetic oxide layer may be formed on the coated substrate or uncoated substrate by ion barbardment with a reactive or oxidizing plasma, for example.

[0079] A series of coating trials are given to identify conditions that enable directed vapor deposition of refractory metal-doped coatings of an aluminum alloy 5083 on 25 mm by 25 mm by 6.4 mm thick pre-cleaned plates of aluminum alloy 5083. AA5083 source rods with the diameter of 12.5 mm were obtained. High purity refractory metals (Zr, Ta, W and Mo) were also obtained. The substrates were polished to 1 m with diamond suspension. The coatings were typically deposited at a pressure of 11-12 Pa.

[0080] As an example of an embodiment of the present invention, a refractory metal and AA5083 rod were placed in a dual crucible. In order to co-evaporate two source rods with a single electron beam, the electron beam scan pattern was programmed to rapidly jump the electron beam between the two sources. Each individual source material could be evaporated at different rates by controlling the dwell time of the electron beam on each molten source pool. The source materials were continuously raised during evaporation to compensate for their evaporation.

[0081] When a hollow cathode plasma was activated, the emitted electrons moved from the hollow cathode to the copper anode and then flowed into the current meter of the external power supply. In this way, the hollow cathode system forms a closed circuit during the PA-DVD deposition process. The plasma current was controlled by an external power supply and measured by a current meter in the external power supply. Table 1 shows the deposition conditions used for growth of refractory metal doped films.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Deposition conditions of metal doped AA5083 films. The pressure ratio is a ratio of the upstream pressure (Pu) to the downstream pressure (chamber pressure, Po). Plasma Beam Feeding Deposition Composition of Source Current Current He/Ar Pressure Rate Time Doped Element Rods (A) (mA) (slm) Ratio (mm/min) (mins) (at. %) AA5083/Zr 60 42/17-18 8.0/0.3 6.1 0.2/0.05-0.1 60 10-20% AA5083/Ta 42/25-30 7.1 0.2/0.01.sup. 60 10-95%

[0082] FIG. 4 provides a photographic depiction of an embodiment of the plasma generation apparatus during operation. A hollow cathode 18 was energized in association with an anode 6. As a result of the energized hollow cathode 18 and anode 6 in the presence of a gas flowing through the hollow cathode 18, plasma 15 was created. The plasma propagated vertically upwards in this figure. Optionally the hollow cathode 18 may be heated with a heating element or other heat source, such as a tungsten coil. This can result in thermionic electron emission, generating thermal electrons, which create a low-voltage electron beam ranging from 3 eV to 25 eV. When the low-voltage electron beam is generated, gas may be introduced into the chamber through the hollow cathode 18 and become ionized.

[0083] FIG. 5 provides a micrographic depiction of an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention. The corrosion resistant alloy layer 23 is applied to a substrate 2. It should be appreciated that the corrosion resistant alloy layer 23 contains a supersaturated concentration of a refractory metal or metalloid that assists in the prevention of corrosion of the substrate 2. In the micrographic depiction given, the corrosion resistant alloy layer 23 is a supersaturated composition of aluminum 5083 alloy enriched with 20% zirconium deposited on an aluminum 5083 alloy substrate 2. The figure also includes an interface region. However, it should be appreciated that the present invention is not limited to this particular composition or embodiment. Rather, it should be appreciated that the substrate may be composed of any metal or metal alloy. In particular, aluminum, copper, magnesium, iron, or nickel, either as pure metal or in alloyed form, may constitute the substrate 2. Furthermore, the corrosion resistant alloy layer 23 may be composed of any metal or metal alloy, including, but not limited to, aluminum, copper, magnesium, iron, or nickel, either as pure metal or in alloyed form, deposited with a supersaturated concentration of one or more corrosion resisting materials, wherein one of the one or more corrosion resistant materials may be at a supersaturated concentration individually, the combination of the one or more corrosion resistant materials is supersaturated in combination, or wherein all of the corrosion resistant materials are individually present in a supersaturated concentration. Corrosion resistant materials include, but are not limited to, refractory metals or metalloids. In particular, though not an exhaustive list and in no way limiting, tungsten, niobium, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum, zirconium, nitrogen, boron, phosphorus, vanadium, and yttrium may be used as the corrosion resistant constituent of the corrosion resistant alloy layer 23.

[0084] Still referring to FIG. 5, it should be appreciated that the thickness of the corrosion resistant alloy layer 23 may vary as desired or required by the user. For instance, coating thickness may be in the range of 400 nm, though it may also be thicker or thinner. Corrosion resistant alloy layer 23 thickness may, in an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, be considered as a thin film, which may be defined as a layer that depends on the substrate 2 for rigidity. However, it should be appreciated that any thickness of corrosion resistant alloy layer 23 as required for the particular application regarding properties of cost, ease of manufacture, resilience, toughness, durability, substrate shape, contours or surface area, or service life may be used.

[0085] As an example of an aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, an Al 5083 alloy coating enriched with 20% Zr was applied to a substrate. This composition was selected following a series of trial experiments, which began by establishing the base pressure achievable with the pumping system. Before coating deposition was conducted, the initial enclosure vacuum pressure was approximately 0.1 Pa. The mixture of 8 standard liter/min (slm) He carrier gas flow and 0.3 slm Ar plasma flow was used during the deposition. The coatings were found to contain a metastable Al.sub.3Zr phase. See the AlZr equilibrium phase diagram of FIG. 6.

[0086] FIG. 7 provides a graphical depiction of anodic polarization curves that show the open circuit potential (Eoc) and pitting potential (Epit) for a Zr-5083 coating. Epit occurs at approximately 500 mV in this figure. Epit is the potential where there is an abrupt increase in current density compared to the passive region where the current density increase with potential is very small. Referring to the figure, Epit is designated for the base alloy (Al 5083) as well as the other coatings. The Epit value for the compromised coating is essentially that of the base alloy. Eoc is the potential of the sample without an applied potential. It is marked by the beginning point on the polarization curve in these scans. In this example, there was some variability of coating composition across the surface. The average Eoc value was 856 mV with a range between 869 mV and 873 mV and the average Epit was 553 mV with a range between 509 mV and 597 mV. The increase in Epit compared to the uncoated Al 5083 was 209 mV. This result shows the ability of DVD to produce a supersaturated coating with a higher Epit value than the base metal substrate.

[0087] Still referring to FIG. 7, a polarization curve for a region where the supersaturated coating was compromised is provided. The large current excursions and the Epit value, 763 mV, which is essentially the same as the average Epit of uncoated Al 5083, 762 mV, are indicative of a delaminated or cracked coating. This demonstrates the importance of using process conditions that avoid compromise of the coating.

[0088] FIG. 8 provides a graphical depiction of anodic polarization curves that show Eoc and Epit values for supersaturated tantalum coatings and an untreated Al 5083 sample for comparison. The average of the Eoc value was 500 mV with a range between 541 mV and 459 mV and the average Epit was +24 mV with a range between +8 mV and +35 mV. The increase in Epit compared to the uncoated Al 5083 was 786 mV.

[0089] In another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention, nitrogen doped AA5083 deposition may be performed by adding nitrogen (N.sub.2) to a helium gas flow. Since the neutral vapor atoms are entrapped and carried through the argon plasma by the supersonic He+N.sub.2 gas flow, emitted electrons and argon ions are able to ionize some coating vapor atoms and He+N.sub.2 gas while simultaneously transferring higher thermal energy. The low-vacuum environment of the plasma assist-DVD system provides a high collision rate between coating vapor atoms and nitrogen, which increases the reaction rate.

[0090] An aspect of various embodiments of the present invention may provide a number of novel and nonobvious features, elements and characteristics, such as but not limited thereto, the following: [0091] A coating that protects metal and metal alloys from corrosion whose composition consists of a metal or metal alloy of the same or similar composition as the metal or metal alloy to be protected alloyed with a supersaturated concentration of usually low solubility protective elements such as refractory metals and metalloid elements. [0092] Associated methods and systems utilized for the deposition of such coatings.

[0093] An aspect of various embodiments of the present invention may provide a number of advantages, such as but not limited thereto, the following: outperforming other coatings with less environmental harm than competing coatings.

EXAMPLES

[0094] Practice of an aspect of an embodiment (or embodiments) of the invention will be still more fully understood from the following examples, which are presented herein for illustration only and should not be construed as limiting the invention in any way.

Example 1

[0095] A method for protecting an aluminum substrate or an aluminum alloy substrate from corrosion, wherein the method comprises:

[0096] at least partially enclosing a substrate to be coated in an enclosure; providing a first material source comprising aluminum or aluminum alloy; providing one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources of different composition as the substrate; providing an energy source for vaporizing the first material source and the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources; vaporizing the first material source and the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources with the energy source to create a coating vapor; providing a gas flow for mixing and carrying the coating vapor to the substrate; and coating the sample with an alloy of the first material source and a supersaturated concentration of at least one of the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources.

Example 2

[0097] The method of example 1, wherein the first material source comprises the same composition as the substrate.

Example 3

[0098] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of example 1), wherein the energy source comprises an electron gun.

Example 4

[0099] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-3), wherein the gas flow is high-speed gas flow.

Example 5

[0100] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-4), wherein the gas flow is supersonic.

Example 6

[0101] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-5), wherein the gas flow is through a nozzle.

Example 7

[0102] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-6), wherein the gas flow is through an annular nozzle.

Example 8

[0103] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-7), wherein the gas flow is through a nozzle concentric to the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources.

Example 9

[0104] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-8), wherein the gas flow is configured for adequate mixing and directing of the coating vapor.

Example 10

[0105] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-9), wherein the gas flow is concentric to the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources.

Example 11

[0106] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-10), wherein the gas flow comprises an inert gas.

Example 12

[0107] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-11), wherein the gas flow comprises helium.

Example 13

[0108] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-12), wherein the gas flow comprises a reactive gas.

Example 14

[0109] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-13), wherein the gas flow comprises nitrogen.

Example 15

[0110] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-14), further comprising:

[0111] moving the substrate relative to the gas flow and the coating vapor; or

[0112] moving both the substrate and the gas flow and the coating vapor relative to one another.

Example 16

[0113] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-15), further comprising:

[0114] moving the substrate relative to the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources; or

[0115] moving both the substrate and the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources relative to one another.

Example 17

[0116] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-16), further comprising:

[0117] moving the gas flow and the coating vapor relative to the substrate; or

[0118] moving both the gas flow and the coating vapor and the sample relative to one another.

Example 18

[0119] The method of example 1, further comprising:

[0120] moving the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources relative to the substrate; or

[0121] moving both the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources and the substrate relative to one another.

Example 19

[0122] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-17), further comprising applying a voltage to the substrate.

Example 20

[0123] The method of example 19 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-19), wherein the voltage is positive.

Example 21

[0124] The method of example 19 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-20), wherein the voltage is negative.

Example 22

[0125] The method of example 19 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-21), wherein the voltage is constant.

Example 23

[0126] The method of example 19 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-22), wherein the voltage is alternating.

Example 24

[0127] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-23), further comprising generating a plasma to assist in coating the substrate.

Example 25

[0128] The method of example 24 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-24), wherein the plasma is generated from an inert gas.

Example 26

[0129] The method of example 24 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-25), wherein the plasma is generated from argon.

Example 27

[0130] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-26), further comprising generating a plasma to clean the substrate of any surface oxidation.

Example 28

[0131] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-27), wherein the substrate comprises aluminum metal.

Example 29

[0132] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-28), wherein the substrate comprises an aluminum alloy.

Example 30

[0133] The method of example 1 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-29), wherein the one or more corrosion inhibiting materials sources comprises any one of the following: tungsten, niobium, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum, zirconium, nitrogen, boron, phosphorous, vanadium, or yttrium.

Example 31

[0134] An apparatus for protecting an aluminum substrate or an aluminum alloy substrate from corrosion, wherein the apparatus comprises:

[0135] an enclosure; a crucible for holding at least two material sources; an energy source for vaporizing the at least two material sources; and a nozzle for directing a gas flow onto a sample resulting in a coating of a supersaturated alloy of at least one of the at least two material sources on the aluminum substrate or the aluminum alloy substrate.

Example 32

[0136] The apparatus of example 31, wherein the energy source comprises an electron gun.

Example 33

[0137] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of example 32), wherein the gas flow comprises an inert gas.

Example 34

[0138] The apparatus of example 33 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-33), wherein the inert gas comprises helium.

Example 35

[0139] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-34), wherein the gas flow is a high-speed gas flow.

Example 36

[0140] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-35), wherein the gas flow is supersonic.

Example 37

[0141] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-36), wherein the gas flow comprises a reactive gas.

Example 38

[0142] The apparatus of example 31, wherein the gas flow comprises nitrogen.

Example 39

[0143] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-38), wherein the nozzle is annular.

Example 40

[0144] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-39), wherein the nozzle is concentric to the at least two material sources.

Example 41

[0145] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-40), wherein the nozzle is configured for adequate mixing and directing of the coating vapor.

Example 42

[0146] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-41), wherein the gas flow is concentric to the at least two material sources.

Example 43

[0147] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-42), further comprising a plasma assist comprising:

[0148] a hollow cathode; a working gas flow through the hollow cathode; and an anode disposed across the enclosure in the direction of the working gas flow.

Example 44

[0149] The apparatus of example 43 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-43), wherein the working gas comprises an inert gas.

Example 45

[0150] The apparatus of example 44 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-44), wherein the inert gas is argon.

Example 46

[0151] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-45), wherein: [0152] the crucible and gas flow may be moved relative to the sample; or both the crucible and gas flow and the sample may be moved relative to one another.

Example 47

[0153] The apparatus of example 31 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 32-46), wherein:

[0154] the sample may be moved relative to the crucible and the gas flow; or

[0155] both the sample and the crucible and the gas flow may be moved relative to one another.

Example 48

[0156] A composition for coating an aluminum substrate or an aluminum alloy substrate to protect the substrate from corrosion, wherein the coating of the substrate comprises:

[0157] aluminum or aluminum alloy and one or more corrosion inhibiting materials alloyed and deposited as a coating on the aluminum or aluminum alloy substrate; wherein the alloyed and deposited coating comprises aluminum or aluminum alloy and a supersaturated concentration of at least one of the one or more corrosion inhibiting material.

Example 49

[0158] The composition of example 48, wherein the one or more corrosion inhibiting materials comprises one or more of the following: tungsten, niobium, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum, zirconium, nitrogen, boron, phosphorous, vanadium, or yttrium.

Example 50

[0159] The composition of example 48 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of example 49), wherein the coating is substantially non-porous.

Example 51

[0160] The composition of example 48, wherein the coating is substantially porous.

Example 52

[0161] The composition of example 48 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 49-51), wherein the coating is a thin film.

Example 53

[0162] The composition as in example 52 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 49-52), wherein the thin film is approximately 400 nanometers thick.

Example 54

[0163] A method for protecting a metal substrate or a metal alloy substrate from corrosion, wherein the method comprises:

[0164] at least partially enclosing a substrate to be coated in an enclosure; providing a first material source comprising metal or metal alloy; providing one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources of different composition as the substrate; providing an energy source for vaporizing the first material source and the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources; vaporizing the first material source and the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources with the energy source to create a coating vapor; providing a gas flow for mixing and carrying the coating vapor to the substrate; and coating the sample with an alloy of the first material source and a supersaturated concentration of at least one of the one or more corrosion inhibiting material sources.

Example 55

[0165] The method of example 54 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-30), wherein the first material sources comprises the same composition as the substrate.

Example 56

[0166] The method of example 54 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-30), wherein the first material source comprising metal or metal alloy comprises any one of the following: copper, magnesium, iron, or nickel or alloys thereof.

Example 57

[0167] The method of example 56 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-30), wherein the one or more corrosion inhibiting materials sources comprises any one of the following: tungsten, niobium, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum, zirconium, nitrogen, boron, phosphorous, vanadium, or yttrium.

Example 58

[0168] An apparatus for protecting a metal substrate or a metal alloy substrate from corrosion, wherein the apparatus comprises:

[0169] an enclosure; a crucible for holding at least two material sources; an energy source for vaporizing the at least two material sources; and a nozzle for directing a gas flow onto a sample resulting in a coating of a supersaturated alloy of at least one of the at least two material sources on the metal substrate or the metal alloy substrate.

Example 59

[0170] A composition for coating a metal substrate or metal alloy substrate to protect the substrate from corrosion, wherein the coating of the substrate comprises:

[0171] metal or metal alloy and one or more corrosion inhibiting materials alloyed and deposited as a coating on the metal or metal alloy substrate; wherein the alloyed and deposited coating comprises metal or metal alloy and a supersaturated concentration level of at least one of the one or more corrosion inhibiting materials.

Example 60

[0172] The composition of example 59 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-30), wherein the metal or metal alloy comprises any one of the following: copper, magnesium, iron, or nickel or alloys thereof.

Example 61

[0173] The composition of example 60 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-30), wherein the one or more corrosion inhibiting materials sources comprises any one of the following: tungsten, niobium, chromium, molybdenum, tantalum, zirconium, nitrogen, boron, phosphorous, vanadium, or yttrium.

Example 62

[0174] A method for removing oxidation or contamination from a substrate, the method comprising:

[0175] providing a substrate to be cleaned or etched; generating or providing a plasma source; applying a negative bias to the substrate; and bombarding the substrate with ions of the plasma.

Example 63

[0176] The method of example 62 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-30), further comprising coating the substrate with the method of example 1.

Example 64

[0177] The method of example 62 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-30), further comprising coating the substrate with the method of example 54.

Example 65

[0178] The method of example 62 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-30), further comprising coating the substrate with the apparatus of example 31.

Example 66

[0179] The method of example 62 (as well as subject matter of one or more of any combination of examples 2-30), further comprising coating the substrate with the apparatus of example 58.

Example 67

[0180] A method for forming a synthetic oxide layer on a substrate, the method comprising:

[0181] providing a coated or uncoated substrate to be oxidized; generating or providing a plasma source composed of a material that may oxidize the coated or uncoated substrate;

[0182] applying a negative bias to the substrate; and bombarding the substrate with the ions of the plasma.

Example 68

[0183] The method of example 67, further comprising coating of the substrate with the method of example 1, wherein forming the synthetic oxide is carried after the coating of the substrate.

Example 69

[0184] The method of any one of examples 1, 54, 62 or 67, wherein the substrate comprises:

[0185] a) a portion of a land, sea, air, or space vehicle, craft or robot; or

[0186] b). a portion of a building structure or building exterior.

Example 70

[0187] The apparatus of any one of examples 31 or 58 wherein the substrate comprises:

[0188] a) a portion of a land, sea, air, or space vehicle, craft or robot; or

[0189] b). a portion of a building structure or building exterior.

Example 71

[0190] The coating of any one of examples 48 or 59, wherein the substrate comprises:

[0191] a) a portion of a land, sea, air, or space vehicle, craft or robot; or

[0192] b). a portion of a building structure or building exterior.

REFERENCES

[0193] The following patents, applications and publications as listed below and throughout this document are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety herein. It should be appreciated that various aspects of embodiments of the present method, system, devices, article of manufacture, and compositions may be implemented with the following methods, systems, devices, article of manufacture, and compositions disclosed in the following U.S. patent applications, U.S. patents, Publications, and PCT International Patent Applications and are hereby incorporated by reference herein and co-owned with the assignee (and which are not admitted to be prior art with respect to the present invention by inclusion in this section): [0194] International Patent Application Serial No. PCT/US2011/035581, entitled Spotless Arc Directed Vapor Deposition (SA-DVD) and Related Method Thereof, filed on May 6, 2011. 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[0260] In summary, while the present invention has been described with respect to specific embodiments, many modifications, variations, alterations, substitutions, and equivalents will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The present invention is not to be limited in scope by the specific embodiment described herein. Indeed, various modifications of the present invention, in addition to those described herein, will be apparent to those of skill in the art from the foregoing description and accompanying drawings. Accordingly, the invention is to be considered as limited only by the spirit and scope of the following claims, including all modifications and equivalents.

[0261] Still other embodiments will become readily apparent to those skilled in this art from reading the above-recited detailed description and drawings of certain exemplary embodiments. It should be understood that numerous variations, modifications, and additional embodiments are possible, and accordingly, all such variations, modifications, and embodiments are to be regarded as being within the spirit and scope of this application. For example, regardless of the content of any portion (e.g., title, field, background, summary, abstract, drawing figure, etc.) of this application, unless clearly specified to the contrary, there is no requirement for the inclusion in any claim herein or of any application claiming priority hereto of any particular described or illustrated activity or element, any particular sequence of such activities, or any particular interrelationship of such elements. Moreover, any activity can be repeated, any activity can be performed by multiple entities, and/or any element can be duplicated. Further, any activity or element can be excluded, the sequence of activities can vary, and/or the interrelationship of elements can vary. Unless clearly specified to the contrary, there is no requirement for any particular described or illustrated activity or element, any particular sequence or such activities, any particular size, speed, material, dimension or frequency, or any particular interrelationship of such elements. Accordingly, the descriptions and drawings are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive. Moreover, when any number or range is described herein, unless clearly stated otherwise, that number or range is approximate. When any range is described herein, unless clearly stated otherwise, that range includes all values therein and all sub ranges therein. Any information in any material (e.g., a United States/foreign patent, United States/foreign patent application, book, article, etc.) that has been incorporated by reference herein, is only incorporated by reference to the extent that no conflict exists between such information and the other statements and drawings set forth herein. In the event of such conflict, including a conflict that would render invalid any claim herein or seeking priority hereto, then any such conflicting information in such incorporated by reference material is specifically not incorporated by reference herein.