Methods for reducing asphalt pavement thickness

Abstract

Methods for reducing asphalt pavement thickness are provided. A method for producing thin asphalt pavement includes combining a base asphalt, an oxidized polyolefin, and an aggregate to form an asphalt paving material. A layer of the asphalt paving material is deposited on a substrate layer and compacted to a thickness.

Claims

1. A method for producing thin asphalt pavement, the method comprising the steps of: combining a base asphalt, an oxidized polyolefin, and an aggregate to form an asphalt paving material; establishing, at a predetermined thickness, a high temperature rutting measurement of a comparative compacted asphalt paving material comprising the aggregate and the base asphalt with no oxidized polyolefin; and depositing a layer of the asphalt paving material on a substrate layer and compacting the asphalt paving material to a thickness that is less than the predetermined thickness of the comparative compacted asphalt paving material while achieving the same amount or less of high temperature rutting than the high temperature rutting measurement of the comparative compacted asphalt paving material.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the oxidized polyolefin has a molecular weight of from about 1000 to about 30,000 Daltons.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the oxidized polyolefin comprises oxidized polyethylene.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the oxidized polyolefin is an oxidized polyethylene homopolymer.

5. The method of claim 4, wherein the oxidized polyethylene homopolymer is an oxidized high density polyethylene homopolymer having a density in the range of about 0.93 to about 1 g/cc.

6. The method of claim 4, wherein combining comprises mixing the base asphalt with the oxidized polyethylene homopolymer to form an asphalt binder with the oxidized polyethylene homopolymer present in an amount of about 0.25 to about 10 wt. % based on a total weight of the asphalt binder.

7. The method of claim 6, wherein combining comprises mixing the base asphalt with the oxidized polyethylene homopolymer to form an asphalt binder with the oxidized polyethylene homopolymer present in an amount of about 1 to about 4 wt. % based on a total weight of the asphalt binder.

8. The method of claim 4, wherein combining comprises mixing the base asphalt with the oxidized polyethylene homopolymer to form an asphalt binder with the oxidized polyethylene homopolymer present in an amount of about 0.5 to about 2 wt. % and SBS present in an amount of about 2 wt. % SBS based on a total weight of the asphalt binder.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein combining comprises mixing the base asphalt with the oxidized polyolefin to form an asphalt binder that comprises substantially no anti-stripping agent.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein depositing comprises depositing the layer of the asphalt paving material on the substrate layer and compacting to a thickness that is less than a thickness of the comparative compacted asphalt paving material while achieving less than 25% alligator cracking.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The various embodiments will hereinafter be described in conjunction with the following drawing figures, wherein like numerals denote like elements, and wherein:

(2) FIG. 1 is a graph illustrating the effect of oxidized polyolefin on the relationship between thermal stress and temperature of asphalt paving materials in accordance with exemplary embodiments;

(3) FIG. 2 is a graph showing the relationship between glass transition temperature (Tg), coefficient of thermal expansion/contraction (.sub.1) above the transition region, and coefficient of thermal expansion/contraction (.sub.g) below the transition region for a conventional asphalt paving material;

(4) FIG. 3 is two graphs illustrating the effect of oxidized polyolefin on the Tg and .sub.1 of asphalt paving materials in accordance with exemplary embodiments;

(5) FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating the effect of oxidized polyolefin on the number of aggregate-to-aggregate contact points of asphalt paving materials in accordance with exemplary embodiments;

(6) FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating the relationship between .sub.1 and the number of aggregate-to-aggregate contact points of asphalt paving materials in accordance with exemplary embodiments;

(7) FIG. 6 is a graph showing the effect of oxidized polyolefin on the rutting of asphalt paving materials in accordance with exemplary embodiments; and

(8) FIG. 7 is a graph showing the effect of oxidized polyolefin on the alligator cracking of asphalt paving materials in accordance with exemplary embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(9) The following detailed description is merely exemplary in nature and is not intended to limit the various embodiments or the application and uses thereof. Furthermore, there is no intention to be bound by any theory presented in the preceding background or the following detailed description.

(10) The various embodiments contemplated herein relate to methods for reducing the thickness of asphalt paving material. In addition, various embodiments relate to methods for fabricating asphalt paving material with an increased number of aggregate-to-aggregate contact points. Further, methods are provided to fabricate asphalt paving materials with improved low temperature cracking performance. In an embodiment, the asphalt pavement thickness is reduced by utilizing an oxidized polyolefin with an asphalt to form a modified asphalt binder. The asphalt binder is combined with aggregate to form a hot asphalt paving material that is deposited overlying a substrate layer and compacted. The inventors have discovered that the oxidized polyolefin facilitates more efficient packing of the aggregates such that there are more aggregate-to-aggregate contact points, as characterized by either total number of contact points or total length of contact points per unit area. The good aggregate connectivity can improve both high temperature rutting and low temperature cracking properties of asphalt paving materials, as aggregatesthe strongest components of the asphalt mixturecan better carry and distribute traffic load. As a result of the increased number of aggregate-to-aggregate contact points, the thickness of the layers, either base, binder, or wearing course, can be reduced substantially. The base course, being the thickest and thus most expensive, is especially suited for reduction of thickness. In addition, with increased aggregate-to-aggregate contact points, good thermal cracking performance is observed.

(11) Asphalt is defined by the ASTM as a dark brown to black cementitious material in which the predominant constituents are bitumens that occur in nature or are obtained in petroleum processing. Asphalts characteristically contain saturates, aromatics, resins and asphaltenes. All types of asphalt, naturally occurring, synthetically manufactured and modified, may be used in accordance with the asphalt paving materials contemplated herein. Naturally occurring asphalt is inclusive of native rock asphalt, lake asphalt, and the like. Synthetically manufactured asphalt is often a byproduct of petroleum refining or post refining operations and includes air-blown asphalt, blended asphalt, cracked or residual asphalt, petroleum asphalt, propane asphalt, straight-run asphalt, thermal asphalt, and the like. Modified asphalt includes neat asphalt (e.g., unmodified asphalt that can be naturally occurring or synthetically manufactured) modified with elastomers, phosphoric acid, polyphosphoric acid, plastomers, ethylene/vinyl acetate copolymer, and the like, or various combinations of these modifiers. Non-limiting examples of elastomers suitable for modifying the neat asphalt include natural or synthetic rubbers including ground tire rubber, butyl rubber, styrene/butadiene rubber (SBR), styrene/ethylene/butadiene/styrene terpolymers (SEBS), polybutadiene, polyisoprene, ethylene/propylene/diene (EPDM) terpolymers, ethylene/n-butyl acrylate/glycidyl methacrylate terpolymers, and styrene/conjugated diene block or random copolymers, such as, for example, styrene/butadiene including styrene/butadiene/styrene copolymer (SBS), styrene/isoprene, and styrene/isoprene-butadiene block copolymer. The block copolymers may be branched or linear and may be a diblock, triblock, tetrablock or multiblock.

(12) In an embodiment, the oxidized polyolefin is an oxidized polyethylene. The polyethylene can be a low density polyethylene (defined as polyethylene with a density of about 0.91 to about 0.935 gm/cm.sup.3), a linear low density polyethylene (defined as polyethylene with a density of about 0.91 to about 0.93 gm/cm.sup.3), a high density polyethylene (defined as polyethylene with a density of about 0.94 to about 0.97 gm/cm.sup.3), a medium density polyethylene (defined as polyethylene with a density of about 0.925 to about 0.94 gm/cm.sup.3), and the like. In one example, the oxidized polyolefin is an oxidized polyethylene homopolymer. In another example, the oxidized polyolefin is an oxidized high density polyethylene having a density of from about 0.93 to about 1 g/cc. A suitable oxidized polyolefin is Honeywell Titan 7686 oxidized high-density polyethylene homopolymer, manufactured by Honeywell International Inc., which is headquartered in Morristown, N.J. In an embodiment, the oxidized polyolefin is present in an asphalt binder in an amount of about 0.25 to about 10 weight percent (wt. %), for example, about 1 to about 4 wt. % based on the total weight of the asphalt binder. In another embodiment, the oxidized polyolefin is present in an asphalt binder in an amount of about 0.5 to about 2 wt. % and SBS is present in the asphalt binder in an amount of about 2 wt. % based on the total weight of the asphalt binder.

(13) In an exemplary embodiment, the oxidized polyolefin has a weight average molecular weight (Mw) of from about 1000 to about 30,000 Daltons, such as from about 1000 to about 10,000 Daltons. Further, the degree of oxidation, e.g., carboxyl group content, of the oxidized polyolefin may be characterized by titrating a hot xylenes solution of the oxidized polymer with a 0.1 N alcoholic potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution to a visual pink end point using phenolphthalein as an indicator to determine the total acid content or acid number of the oxidized polyolefin. The oxidized polyolefin, for example, has an acid number of from about 5 to about 50 (e.g. acid value of about 5 to about 50 mg KOH/g), such as from about 15 to about 40 (e.g. acid value of about 15 to about 40 mg KOH/g).

(14) The asphalt paving material also comprises aggregate. Aggregate is a collective term for mineral materials, such as, for example, sand, gravel, or crushed stone that are combined with the asphalt binder to form the asphalt paving material. The aggregate may comprise natural aggregate, manufactured aggregate, or a combination thereof. Natural aggregate is typically extracted rock from an open excavation (e.g. a quarry) that is reduced to usable sizes by mechanical crushing. Manufactured aggregate is typically a byproduct of other manufacturing processes such as slag from metallurgical processing (e.g. steel, tin, and copper production). Manufactured aggregate also includes specialty materials that are produced to have a particular physical characteristic not found in natural rock, such as, for example, low density. The gradation of the aggregates is carefully controlled in a hot mix design to optimize its performance Hot mix designs can be categorized in dense graded, Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA), Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC) and the like based on the relative proportions of the aggregate sized. In an exemplary embodiment, about 3 to about 8 wt. % of the asphalt binder is mixed with about 92 to about 97 wt. % aggregate to form an asphalt paving material.

(15) In an exemplary embodiment, the asphalt paving material consists essentially of asphalt binder and aggregate, and the asphalt binder consists essentially of base asphalt and oxidized polyolefin with substantially no typical anti-stripping agent. The term substantially no anti-stripping agent as used herein means the anti-stripping agent, if present, is not used in an amount that will meet industry standards resistance to moisture damage. Two such suitable tests for determining the resistance of an asphalt paving material to moisture damage are specified in AASHTO T-283 and ASTM D 4867 standard procedures. Various types of typical anti-stripping agents include amines such as polyamines and polyalkylenepolyamine, modified amines such as polyamines reacted with fatty acids, lime (CaO) including hydrated lime (Ca(OH).sub.2), phosphoric acid, acrylic polymer including styrene-acrylic polymer, or combinations and/or derivatives thereof. In an alternative embodiment, the asphalt binder may include additional anti-rutting polymers and/or additives and/or elastomers, such as, for example, SBS present in an amount of from about 0.5 to about 5 wt. % of the base asphalt.

(16) In an exemplary embodiment, a method for preparing asphalt paving material as discussed in the foregoing paragraphs is provided. The method includes heating and drying aggregate at a temperature of from about 120 to about 190 C. In one example, the aggregate is heated and dried by conventional means, continuous or batch, such as, for example, in a drum-mixer by hot gases. Neat or modified asphalt (referred to as a base asphalt) is heated separately from the aggregate to a liquid state at a temperature of from about 120 to about 190 C.

(17) In one embodiment, oxidized polyolefin is added to the hot liquid base asphalt to form a hot liquid asphalt binder. The hot asphalt binder is then combined with the heated aggregate in the conventional continuous or batch operation where the asphalt binder and the aggregate are mixed at a temperature of from about 120 to about 190 C. to form a hot asphalt paving material. In an alternative embodiment, the oxidized polyolefin and the hot liquid base asphalt are added simultaneously, as separate streams, to the aggregate in a hot drum mixer and the components are mixed at a temperature of from about 120 to about 190 C. to form a hot asphalt paving material.

(18) In another embodiment, the oxidized polyolefin is initially combined with the heated aggregate in the drum-mixer where the heated aggregate melts the oxidized polyolefin. In this embodiment, the conventional continuous or batch operation mixes the hot aggregate with the melting oxidized polyolefin such that the oxidized polyolefin coats the surface of the aggregate. The hot liquid asphalt is then combined with the oxidized polyolefin-coated aggregate in the drum-mixer and the combined ingredients are mixed at a temperature of from about 120 to about 190 C. to form a hot asphalt paving material. During the mixing process, the oxidized polyolefin transfers and/or diffuses from the aggregate into the hot liquid asphalt to form a continuous hot liquid asphalt binder phase. Alternatively, the oxidized polyolefin is added to the aggregates after the asphalt has been added to the aggregates. Other materials, such as cellulosic fiber, may optionally be added during or after the various mixing regimes described above. Next, the hot asphalt paving material is deposited on a substrate layer and compacted to the appropriate government authority's specification, typically about 3 to about 8% air voids, which translates to a predetermined thickness, discussed in more detail below. The substrate layer can be an aggregate layer, such as when the asphalt paving material is to be deposited as a base course, or the substrate layer can be a base course or a binder course, such as when the asphalt paving material is to be deposited as a binder course or a wearing course, respectively.

(19) FIG. 1 illustrates the results of a low temperature cracking performance study of various asphalt paving materials. The effects of an oxidized polyolefin, in particular, an oxidized polyethylene, more particularly Honeywell Titan 7686 oxidized high-density polyethylene homopolymer (manufactured by Honeywell International Inc. headquartered in Morristown, N.J.), on thermal cracking of asphalt mixtures were evaluated in this study. A PG64-22 asphalt was used as the control asphalt and the base asphalt. The aggregate used to form the asphalt paving mixtures was granite aggregate from a prominent aggregate source in North Central Wisconsin. The amount of binder and gradation of the aggregates was that for a Wisconsin E-10 design; i.e., the road pavement was designed to withstand 10,000,000 Equivalent Single Axle Loads (ESALs) The maximum nominal aggregate size was 19.0 mm. In addition to the control asphalt binder, three modified binders were tested. The level of modification of the base asphalt was obtained by targeting a high temperature True Grade of 77+1 C. The levels of modification that met the criteria for the True Grade are: (a) base asphalt+3.5 wt. % linear SBS=True Grade of 77.8 C.; (b) base asphalt+4.0 wt. % Honeywell Titan 7686=True Grade of 76.6 C.; (c) base asphalt+2.0 wt. % Honeywell Titan 7686+2.0 wt. % linear SBS=True Grade of 78.2 C.
The amount of SBS used in this hybrid formulation was determined by targeting an Elastic Recovery (ER) value (ASTM D-6084) using ductility bath of approximately 70%. To establish the level of SBS modification of the hybrid formulation, elastic recovery tests were performed on the base asphalt modified with different levels of SBS. As indicated in Table 1, to meet the criteria of approximately ER=70%, a minimum SBS content of 2 wt. % by total binder weight is needed. Additional Honeywell Titan 7686 was then added to obtain a True Grade of 77+1 C.

(20) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Elastic Recovery (%) Neat Average of A Binder Additive Replicate and B PG 64-22 2% SBS A 68.8 69.1 B 69.5 1% SBS A 55.0 53.8 B 52.5

(21) An Asphalt Thermal Cracking Analyzer (ATCA) was used to measure the low temperature cracking performance of restrained and unrestrained samples. A summary of the cracking temperature and tensile strength in the restrained beams of a Thermal Stress Restrained Specimen Test is presented in Table 2. As illustrated in Table 2, Honeywell Titan 7686 mixtures have significantly higher tensile strength with respect to other mixtures. The cracking temperature is very similar for all mixtures (i.e., maximum difference is 1.8 C.). FIG. 1 shows typical thermal stress curves for the modified mixtures, where the x-axis 10 indicates the temperature in ( C.) and the y-axis 12 indicates the thermal stress in megapascals (MPa). The thermal stress curve for the paving material formed from the PG64-22 asphalt binder is represented by curve 14, the thermal stress curve of the asphalt paving material formed from the asphalt binder modified by SBS is represented by curve 16, the thermal stress curve of the asphalt paving material formed by the asphalt binder modified by Honeywell Titan 7686 is represented by curve 18, and the thermal stress curve of the asphalt paving material formed by the hybrid asphalt binder, that is, the binder modified by both SBS and Honeywell Titan 7686, is represented by curve 20.

(22) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Average Tensile Cracking Strength Temperature Mix (MPa) St. Dev. CV (%) ( C.) St. Dev. CV (%) Control 1.85 0.01 0.5 26.6 2.74 10.3 SBS 2.10 0.09 4.2 24.8 1.57 6.3 7686 2.71 0.03 1.2 24.7 0.10 0.4 Hybrid 2.13 0.10 4.7 26.0 1.63 6.3

(23) A typical thermo-volumetric response (i.e., glass transition (Tg) 23 and coefficients of thermal contraction/expansion) of asphalt mixtures is presented in FIG. 2, where the x-axis 26 indicates temperature in ( C.) and the y-axis 28 indicates thermal strain in millimeters/millimeters (mm/mm) The three parameters obtained in this test were: (a) the glass transition temperature (Tg) 23, which indicates the temperature where the asphalt mixture transitions from a liquid or rubber to a glassy state; (b) The coefficient of thermal expansion/contraction (.sub.1) 22 above the transition region, and (c) The coefficient of thermal expansion/contraction (.sub.g) 24 below the transition region.

(24) Table 3 includes the summary of the Tg tests conducted on two replicates for each asphalt mixture. Generally, good thermal cracking performance is observed for mixes with low Tg and .sub.1.

(25) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 T.sub.g .sub.1 .sub.g CV CV CV Ave # of Sample Mean (%) Mean (%) Mean (%) Contacts Control 22 2.8 5.84E05 7.1 1.46E05 24.5 2532 7686 21 4.3 5.42E05 6.5 1.18E05 7.9 2819 SBS 20 3.6 5.63E05 7.7 1.42E05 9.2 2608 Hybrid 27 9.4 4.75E05 14.5 1.27E05 16.1 3265

(26) FIG. 3 illustrates the average for Tg 23 and .sub.1 22 for all mixes, where the x-axis indicates asphalt paving material with binders PG64-22 14, SBS 16, Honeywell Titan 7686 18, and the hybrid binder 20. It can be seen that generally paving materials with the control binder, and the binders with Honeywell Titan 7686 and SBS have very similar thermo-volumetric properties. However, the hybrid sample with SBS and Honeywell Titan 7686 has different Tg and .sub.1. Table 3 indicates that the hybrid mix has significantly higher number of contact points between aggregates and thus has the lowest .sub.1.

(27) FIG. 4 illustrates the results of a study to determine the effects of oxidized polyolefin on the number of aggregate-to-aggregate contact points of asphalt paving materials. The same control and three samples identified above were used in this study. The number of aggregate-to-aggregate contact points was calculated using digital images of the samples and iPas.sup.2 software developed at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. FIG. 4, where the y-axis 30 represents the number of aggregate-to-aggregate contact points, demonstrates that the hybrid sample 20 had the highest average number of contact points. FIG. 5 shows that as the number of aggregate-to-aggregate contact points 30 increases, the .sub.1 22 of the asphalt paving materials decreases.

(28) A further analysis was conducted to determine the effect of the oxidized polyolefin on asphalt paving material thickness. The comparison was conducted so as to result in the same rutting and alligator cracking amongst the samples. Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) software, available from the National Cooperative Highway Research Program, was used to simulate pavement performance based on Level 1 analysis with input of previously measured material properties (Dynamic Modulus [E*] and binder G* and phase angle at three temperatures from DSR measurements). The pavement project location was selected as Clemson, S.C. with an average annual daily truck traffic (AADTT) of 4500 and a design life of 10 years. A total of 16 simulations were performed. The following parameters were used in the simulations:

(29) Layer 1: Asphalt Concrete height: 7.62 cm (3.0 inches), 10.16 cm (4.0 inches), 12.7 cm (5.0 inches), 15.24 cm (6.0 inches)

(30) Layer 2: A-1-a, 15.24 cm (6 inches) Resilient Modulus (Mr)=2812.9 kg/cm.sup.2 (40000 psi)

(31) Layer 3: A-2-5, 22.86 cm (9 inches) Mr=1969.1 kg/cm.sup.2 (28000 psi)

(32) Layer 4: A-7-6, last layer (indefinite thickness) Mr=703.23 kg/cm.sup.2 (10000 psi)

(33) Table 4 and FIG. 6 show the results of the sensitivity analysis of rutting to thickness using MEPDG and different modified paving materials. In FIG. 6, the x-axis 32 represents the thickness of the asphalt paving materials in centimeters and the y-axis 34 represents the asphalt paving material rutting in centimeters. It can be seen that the thickness of the asphalt paving materials with Honeywell Titan 7686, hybrid and SBS can be reduced by 6.86, 5.08 and 3.18 centimeters, respectively, if the asphalt paving materials rutting for the control sample at height of 15.24 centimeters is selected as the base value.

(34) TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 AC Rutting (cm) Thickness (cm) Control 7687 Hybrid SBS 7.62 1.25 0.960 1.059 1.151 10.16 1.092 0.775 0.899 0.991 12.7 0.970 0.640 0.777 0.871 15.24 0.902 0.569 0.709 0.800

(35) By reducing the asphalt paving material thickness for modified mixtures to match asphalt paving material rutting performance of the control sample, alligator cracking (i.e., fatigue cracking) can be affected. Table 5 and FIG. 7 illustrate the results for the thickness sensitivity analysis for alligator cracking. In FIG. 7, the x-axis represents the asphalt paving material thickness 32 in centimeters and the y-axis represents the percent of alligator cracking 36. MEPDG protocol considers fatigue failure when alligator cracking is greater than 25%. Therefore, even though by reducing the asphalt mixture thickness for the modified asphalt paving material, alligator cracking increases slightly, the magnitude for this distress is well below the limit and changes with respect to thicknesses analyzed are not significant.

(36) TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5 Alligator Cracking (%) Thickness (cm) Control 7686 Hybrid SBS 7.62 3.75 3.45 3.51 3.74 10.16 4.34 3.65 4.01 4.30 12.7 2.02 1.58 1.83 1.98 15.24 1.01 0.76 0.90 0.98

(37) The amount of oxidized polyolefin can be reduced in the hybrid (SBS+oxidized polyolefin) formulations and still produce higher contact point/contact lengths versus SBS only. This is demonstrated in the Table 6, where the addition of only 0.5 wt. % of the oxidized polyolefin to 2% SBS in the binder provides more contact points/lengths in the hot mix than the formulation containing only 3% SBS. The table also demonstrates that only 2 wt. % of the oxidized polyolefin produces similar contact points/lengths than 3.5% in the SBS formulation.

(38) TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 6 Normalized Normalized No. of Total Contact Points Contact Length Mix Ave. Std. Dev. Ave. Std. Dev. Control (PG 64-22) 3368 192 1893 128 PG 64-22 + 1% Honeywell 3177 110 2474 248 Titan 7686 PG 64-22 + 2% Honeywell 3747 299 2712 197 Titan 7686 PG 64-22 + 4% Honeywell 4394 65 3112 174 Titan 7686 PG 64-22 + 2% SBS + 0.5% 5218 254 3374 254 Honeywell Titan 7686 PG 64-22 + 2% SBS + 1% 5955 226 4132 115 Honeywell Titan 7686 PG 64-22 + 2% SBS + 2% 5946 191 4417 215 Honeywell Titan 7686 PG 64-22 + 3.5% SBS 4108 355 2700 239

(39) Accordingly, methods for reducing the thickness of asphalt pavement, methods for fabricating asphalt paving material with increased aggregate-to-aggregate contact points, and methods for fabricating asphalt paving materials with improved low temperature cracking performance have been described. In an embodiment, an asphalt is combined with an oxidized polyolefin forming an asphalt binder, which in turn is combined with aggregates. The oxidized polyolefin facilitates more efficient packing of the aggregates such that more aggregate-to-aggregate contact points are achieved. The good aggregate connectivity improves both high temperature rutting and low temperature cracking properties of asphalt paving materials. In addition, as a result of this increased aggregate-to-aggregate contact points, the thickness of the asphalt paving material can be reduced substantially and good thermal cracking performance is observed.

(40) While at least one exemplary embodiment has been presented in the foregoing detailed description of the invention, it should be appreciated that a vast number of variations exist. It should also be appreciated that the exemplary embodiment or exemplary embodiments are only examples, and are not intended to limit the scope, applicability, or configuration of the invention in any way. Rather, the foregoing detailed description will provide those skilled in the art with a convenient road map for implementing an exemplary embodiment of the invention. It being understood that various changes may be made in the function and arrangement of elements described in an exemplary embodiment without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims.