Anti-mitochondrial inhibitors for oncogenic Ras and Myc

Abstract

The present disclosure relates to a Proteomics-to-Genomics approach allows for in silico validation of biomarkers and drug targets. Biomarkers having high prognostic value in predicting cancer patient populations that may benefit from mitochondrial biogenesis inhibitor therapy may be identified under the present approach. Also disclosed are methods for identifying candidates for anti-mitochondrial therapy, and in particular mitochondrial biogenesis inhibitor therapy. Diagnostic kits including reagents for determining transcripts or probes of high prognostic value are also disclosed. Additionally, mitochondrial biogenesis inhibitors may be used as anti-cancer agents for diverse oncogenic stimuli, including for example, c-MYC and H-Ras oncogenes, as well as environmental stimuli such as, for example rotenone.

Claims

1. A method of detecting cancer stem cells in a tissue sample, the method comprising: preparing a plurality of fluorescent antibodies containing an antibody directed against each Myc-based biomarker in a gene signature of HSPD1, COX5B, and TIMM44; administering the prepared plurality of fluorescent antibodies to the sample; sorting cells from the sample based on fluorescence; and detecting cancer stem cells based on the sorted cells.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the Myc-based biomarker consists of HSPD1, COX5B, and TIMM44.

3. A method of isolating cancer stem cells in a tissue sample, the method comprising: preparing a plurality of fluorescent antibodies containing an antibody directed against each Myc-based biomarker in a gene signature of HSPD1, COX5B, and TIMM44; administering the prepared plurality of fluorescent antibodies to the sample; sorting cells from the sample based on fluorescence, and separating cells based on the presence of the fluorescent antibody.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the Myc-based biomarker consists of HSPD1, COX5B, and TIMM44.

5. A method of detecting cancer stem cells in a tissue sample, the method comprising: preparing a plurality of antibodies containing an antibody directed against each Myc-based biomarker in a gene signature of HSPD1, COX5B, and TIMM44; coupling each prepared antibody with a magnetic element, administering the coupled antibodies to the sample, sorting magnetic cells from the sample, and detecting the presence of the magnetic element in the sorted cells.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein the Myc-based biomarker consists of HSPD1, COX5B, and TIMM44.

7. The method of claim 5, wherein the magnetic element comprises magnetic beads.

8. A method of isolating cancer stem cells in a tissue sample, the method comprises: preparing a plurality of antibodies containing an antibody directed against each Myc-based biomarker in a gene signature of HSPD1, COX5B, and TIMM44; coupling each prepared antibody with a magnetic element, administering the coupled antibodies to the sample, sorting magnetic cells from the sample, and detecting the presence of the magnetic element in the sorted cells.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein the Myc-based biomarker consists of HSPD1, COX5B, and TIMM44.

10. The method of claim 8, wherein the magnetic element comprises magnetic beads.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 shows the effects of H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc on mammosphere formation in MCF7 cells.

(2) FIG. 2A shows the effects of H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc on oxygen consumption rate (OCR). FIG. 2B shows the effects of H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc on basal respiration, proton leak, ATP-linked respiration, maximal respiration, and spare respiratory capacity.

(3) FIG. 3A shows the effects of H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc on extracellular acidification rate (ECAR). FIG. 3B shows the effects of H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc on glycolysis, glycolytic reserve, non-glucose derived ECAR, and glycolytic reserve capacity.

(4) FIG. 4 shows the effects of doxycycline treatment on H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc induced mammosphere formation.

(5) FIG. 5A shows the effects of higher dose rotenone treatment on mammosphere formation in MCF7 cells. FIG. 5B shows the effects of lower dose rotenone treatment on mammosphere formation in MCF7 cells.

(6) FIG. 6A shows the effects of Mito-tempo treatment on MCF7 mammospheres pretreated with rotenone. FIG. 6B shows the effects of Mito-tempo and doxycycline treatment on MCF7 mammospheres pretreated with rotenone.

(7) FIG. 7 outlines a general approach to Myc-driven breast cancer biomarker development.

(8) FIG. 8A shows relapse-free survival rates for tumor reoccurrence using the Myc-based Mito-Signature. FIG. 8B shows metastasis-free survival rates for the Myc-based Mito-signatures.

(9) FIG. 9A shows relapse-free survival rates for estrogen receptor (ER)-positive cancers using the Myc-based Mito-signature. FIG. 9B shows relapse-free survival rate for ER-negative/basal cancers using the Myc-based Mito-signature. FIG. 9C shows relapse-free survival rates for all breast cancer subtypes using the Myc-based Mito-signature.

(10) FIG. 10 outlines steps for the development of companion diagnostics.

(11) FIG. 11 outlines steps of a proteomics-to-genomic approach to in silico validation of biomarkers.

(12) FIG. 12 illustrates how analysis using proteomics data first and integrating it with existing transcriptional profiling data allows for more effective biomarker development.

DESCRIPTION

(13) The following description illustrates embodiments of the present approach in sufficient detail to enable practice of the present approach. Although the present approach is described with reference to these specific embodiments, it should be appreciated that the present approach may be embodied in different forms, and this description should not be construed as limiting any appended claims to the specific embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the present approach to those skilled in the art.

(14) Mitochondrial metabolism is an untapped gateway for treating a number of afflictions, ranging from cancer to bacterial and fungal infections to aging. Functional mitochondria are required for the propagation of cancer stem cells. Inhibiting mitochondrial metabolism in cancer cells impedes the propagation of those cells. The present approach explored this gateway through CSC propagation driven by c-Myc and H-Ras.

(15) c-Myc and H-Ras have been shown to be proto-oncogenes that promote cell transformation and tumorigenesis. However, the mechanism by which this occurs is unknown. c-Myc and/or H-Ras transcripts that are implicated in cancer cell transformation and tumorigenesis may be identified through a convergent approach of in vitro and in vivo validation of tumorigenesis and metabolic phenotyping.

(16) Investigation of the mechanism of tumorigenesis may be conducted by transduction of MCF7 cells with c-Myc, H-Ras, or both, and then subjecting the cell lines to phenotypic characterization, such as mammosphere formation. For the mammosphere formation assay inventors employed, a single suspension of MCF7 cells was prepared using enzymatic (lx Trypsin-EDTA, Sigma Aldrich) and manual disaggregation with a 25-gauge needle. Cells were plated at a density of 500 cells/cm.sup.2 in a mammosphere medium (DMEM-F12/B27/20-ng/mlEGF/PenStrep) in non-adherent conditions, in culture dishes coated with 2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate (poly-HEMA, Sigma). Cells were grown for 5 days and maintained in a humidified incubator at 37° C. at an atmospheric pressure in 5% (v/v) carbon dioxide/air. After 5 days in culture, spheres >50 μm were counted using an eye-piece graticule, and the percentage of cells plated which formed spheres was calculated and is referred to as percent mammosphere formation, normalized to vehicle-alone treated controls. Mammosphere assays were performed in triplicate and repeated three times independently.

(17) FIG. 1 shows the effects of H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc on mammosphere formation in MCF7 cells. Mammosphere formation is generally regarded as a measure of CSC activity and/or anchorage-independent growth. H-Ras alone had no effect on mammosphere formation, whereas c-Myc increased mammosphere formation by about 2.3-fold. Co-expression of both c-Myc and H-Ras appeared to synergistically increase mammosphere formation by 3.15-fold. It should be appreciated that those skilled in the art may transduce and assess mammosphere formation in other cancer types, as CSCs show conserved or similar features across most cancer types.

(18) To understand how c-Myc and H-Ras cooperate to fuel CSC propagation, the MCF7 cells may be subjected to metabolic phenotyping using a Seahorse XFe96 metabolic flux analyzer. It should be appreciated that those skilled in the art may investigate metabolic phenotyping by other methods known in the art. For the metabolic assay inventors employed, MCF7 cells were maintained in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS (fetal bovine serum), 2 mM GlutaMAX, and 1% Pen-Strep. 8,000 cells per well were seeded into XF96-well cell culture plates, and incubated overnight at 37° C. in a 5% CO2 humidified atmosphere. The next day, cells were washed in pre-warmed XF assay media (for OCR measurement, XF assay media was supplemented with 10 mM glucose, 1 mM Pyruvate and adjusted at pH 7.4). Cells were then maintained in 175 μL/well of XF assay media at 37° C., in a non-CO.sub.2 incubator for 1 h. During incubation, 25 μL of 80 mM glucose, 9 μM oligomycin, 1M 2-deoxyglucose (for ECAR measurement) and 25 μL of 10 μM oligomycin, 9 μM FCCP, 10 μM rotenone, 10 μM antimycin A (for OCR measurement) in XF assay media was loaded into the injection ports of the XFe-96 sensor cartridge. During the experiment, the instrument injected these inhibitors into the wells at a given time point, while ECAR/OCR was measured continuously. ECAR and OCR measurements were normalized by protein content (using a Sulphorhodamine B assay). Data sets were analyzed by XFe-96 software, using one-way ANOVA and Student's t-test calculations. All experiments were performed in triplicate.

(19) FIG. 2A shows the effects of H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc on oxygen consumption rate (OCR). FIG. 2B shows the effects of H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc on basal respiration, proton leak, ATP-linked respiration, maximal respiration, and spare respiratory capacity. These results show that both c-Myc alone and c-Myc plus H-Ras increase mitochondrial respiration rates.

(20) FIG. 3A shows the effects of H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc on extracellular acidification rate (ECAR). FIG. 3B shows the effects of H-Ras, c-Myc, and H-Ras plus c-Myc on glycolysis, glycolytic reserve, non-glucose derived ECAR, and glycolytic reserve capacity. These results show that H-Ras increase glycolysis in cells containing c-Myc overexpression.

(21) Proteomics analysis of MCF7 cells transduced with c-Myc can be conducted to determine the proteins implicated in c-Myc effects on CSCs. MCF7 cells were maintained in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS (fetal bovine serum), 2 mM GlutaMAX, and 1% Pen-Strep. 8,000 cells per well were seeded into XF96-well cell culture plates, and incubated overnight at 37° C. in a 5% CO.sub.2 humidified atmosphere. The next day, cells were washed in pre-warmed XF assay media (for OCR measurement, XF assay media was supplemented with 10 mM glucose 1 mM Pyruvate and adjusted at pH 7.4). Cells were then maintained in 175 μL/well of XF assay media at 37° C., in a non-CO.sub.2 incubator for 1 h. During incubation, 25 μL of 80 mM glucose, 9 μM oligomycin, 1M 2-deoxyglucose (for ECAR measurement) and 25 μL of 10 μM oligomycin, 9 μM FCCP, 10 μM rotenone, 10 μM antimycin A (for OCR measurement) in XF assay media was loaded into the injection ports of the XFe-96 sensor cartridge. During the experiment, the instrument injected these inhibitors into the wells at a given time point while ECAR/OCR was measured continuously. ECAR and OCR measurements were normalized by protein content (Sulphorhodamine B assay). Data sets were analyzed by XFe-96 software, using one-way ANOVA and Student's t-test calculations. All experiments were performed in triplicate.

(22) About 26 mitochondrial proteins were elevated in MCF7 cells transduced with c-Myc. These proteins are associated with i) OXPHOS (COX5A, ATP5I, COX5B, UQCR11, and NDUFS1), ii) the TCA cycle (MDH2, IDH3A, PDHB, and SUCLG2), iii) mitochondrial biogenesis (IMMT, TIMM44, TRAP1, HSPD1, SLIRP, TUFM, and TOMM7), or iv) mitochondrial oxidative stress (CHCHD2, PRDX3). These results are summarized in Table 1.

(23) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Proteomics analysis of MCF7 cells transduced with c-Myc. Symbol Gene Description Fold-Upregulation CHCHD2 Putative coiled-coil-helix-coiled-coil-helix domain-containing 4.05 protein, mitochondrial PRDX3 Thioredoxin-dependent peroxide reductase, mitochondrial 3.96 COX5A Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 5A, mitochondrial 3.65 IMMT Mitochondrial inner membrane protein 3.54 TRNT1 CCA tRNA nucleotidyltransferase 1, mitochondrial 3.22 TIMM44 Mitochondrial import inner membrane translocase subunit 3.15 TIM44 C21orf33 ES1 protein homolog, mitochondrial (HES1) 3 AKAP1 A kinase anchor protein 1, mitochondrial 2.72 MDH2 Malate dehydrogenase, mitochondrial (EC 1.1.1.37) 2.69 IDH3A Isocitrate dehydrogenase [NAD] subunit alpha, mitochondrial 2.64 TRAP1 Heat shock protein 75 kDa, mitochondrial 2.4 FASN Fatty acid synthase 2.16 HADHB Trifunctional enzyme subunit beta, mitochondrial 2.13 CLUH Clustered mitochondria protein homolog/KIAA0664 2.12 ATP5I ATP synthase subunit e, mitochondrial 1.98 ABAT 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase, mitochondrial 1.97 CLPX ATP-dependent Clp protease ATP-binding subunit clpX-like, 1.94 mitochondrial HSPD1 60 kDa heat shock protein, mitochondrial 1.89 SLIRP SRA stem-loop-interacting RNA-binding protein, 1.81 mitochondrial TUFM Elongation factor Tu, mitochondrial 1.75 COX5B Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 5B, mitochondrial 1.69 PDHB Pyruvate dehydrogenase El component subunit beta, 1.64 mitochondrial UQCR11 Cytochrome b-cl complex subunit 1.64 SUCLG2 Succinyl-CoA ligase [GDP-forming] subunit beta, 1.6 mitochondrial NDUFS1 Mitochondrial NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase 75 kDa 1.51 subunit TOMM7 Mitochondrial import receptor subunit TOM7 homolog 1.49

(24) The inventors hypothesized that mitochondrial inhibitors may target c-Myc amplification in CSCs. To test this hypothesis, inventors tested the effects of doxycycline, an antibiotic that inhibits mitochondrial biogenesis as an off-target effect. It should be appreciated that the present approach may be used with other mitochondrial biogenesis inhibitors. This includes, for example, mitoriboscins as described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application 62/471,688 filed Mar. 15, 2017 and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; antimitoscins as described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application 62/508,702 filed May 19, 2017 and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; and mitoketoscins as described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application 62/524,829 filed Jun. 26, 2017 and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. FIG. 4 shows that c-Myc-H-Ras-induced mammosphere formation is sensitive to doxycycline treatment.

(25) The inventors hypothesized that c-Myc induces “stemness” of CSCs in part by driving and managing the onset of mitochondrial oxidative stress. To test this hypothesis, inventors used a pharmacological approach to stimulate oxidative stress. Rotenone is a naturally occurring isoflavone that behaves as an inhibitor of complex I and strongly induces mitochondrial oxidative stress. During rotenone treatment, mitochondrial complexes I and III are the major sites of electron leakage, resulting in increased superoxide production. The inventors treated MCF7 cells with increasing concentrations of Rotenone. FIG. 5 shows that low-dose Rotenone stimulated mammosphere formation by about 1.6 to 1.8-fold. In contrast, higher dose Rotenone inhibited mammosphere formation due to lethal/toxic levels of oxidative stress.

(26) To further validate that the effects of low-dose Rotenone were due to oxidative stress, the inventors tested the effects of a mitochondrial-specific antioxidant Mito-tempo. Mito-tempo functions as a reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger by targeting superoxide anions generated in mitochondria. FIG. 6 demonstrates Mito-tempo treatment inhibited the stimulatory effects of rotenone on mammosphere formation in MCF7 cells. Identical effects were observed with doxycycline treatment, which functions as a known inhibitor of mitochondrial biogenesis.

(27) Generally, c-Myc and H-Ras, as well as mitochondrial oxidative stress, lead to increases in mitochondrial biogenesis. which in turn furthers CSC propagation. As discussed herein, certain anti-mitochondrial inhibitors therapeutically block the effect of H-Ras, c-Myc, and Rotenone on CSC propagation. Doxycycline, for example, is capable of inhibiting this propagation. Mitoriboscins, mitoketoscins, and antimitoscins (descriptions of which have been incorporated by reference above) also inhibit CSC propagation.

(28) To determine the potential clinical relevance of the findings, the inventors assessed whether the c-Myc mitochondrial targets identified in MCF7 cells were transcriptionally upregulated in human breast cancer cells in vivo. Inventors considered a published clinical data set of breast cancer patients in which their tumor samples were captured via laser-capture micro-dissection. To perform Kaplan-Meier (K-M) analysis of nuclear mitochondrial gene transcripts, inventors used an open-access online survival analysis tool to interrogate publicly available microarray data from up to 3,951 breast cancer patients. Inventors primarily analyzed data from ER-positive patients that were lymph node (LN)-positive at diagnosis, luminal A sub-type, and that were primarily treated with tamoxifen and not other chemotherapies (N=152 patients). In this group, 100% the patients received some form of hormonal therapy and >90% of them received tamoxifen. Biased and outlier array data were excluded from the analysis. Hazard-ratios were calculated, at the best auto-selected cut-off, and p-values were calculated using the log-rank test and plotted in R. K-M curves were also generated online using the K-M-plotter (as high-resolution TIFF files), using univariate analysis.

(29) Overall, nearly 80% of the c-Myc mitochondrial targets identified in MCF7 cells in vitro were also transcriptionally elevated in human breast cancer cells in vivo. Table 2 below summarizes these findings. Transcriptional profiling data derived from the analysis of 28 breast cancer patients are shown, high-lighting the levels of fold-upregulation observed in the epithelial cancer cell compartment (relative to the tumor stroma), and corresponding p-values derived from the analysis of these clinical samples. This observation provided a strong indication that the mitochondrial Myc targets identified in both experiments are of high clinical relevance.

(30) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Myc-targets transcriptionally upregulated in human breast in vivo (cancer epithelia vs. tumor stroma) Fold- Symbol Gene Description Upregulation P-value CHCHD2 Putative coiled-coil-helix domain-containing protein, 5.79 1.85E−07 mitochondrial COX5B Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 5B, mitochondrial 5.03 2.86E−06 PRDX3 Thioredoxin-dependent peroxide reductase, mitochondrial 4.99 3.30E−06 IMMT Mitochondrial inner membrane protein 4.71 8.89E−06 PDHB Pyruvate dehydrogenase El component subunit beta, 4.51 1.75E−05 mitochondrial MDH2 Malate dehydrogenase, mitochondrial (EC 1.1.1.37) 4.18 5.32E−05 COX5A Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 5A, mitochondrial 3.62 3.22E−04 C21orf33 ES1 protein homolog, mitochondrial (HES1) 3.6 3.49E−04 UQCR11 Cytochrome b-cl complex subunit (UQCR) 3.43 5.87E−04 HSPD1 60 kDa heat shock protein, mitochondrial 3.42 5.93E−04 TUFM Elongation factor Tu, mitochondrial 3.38 6.74E−04 AKAP1 A kinase anchor protein 1, mitochondrial 3.33 7.75E−04 NDUFS1 Mitochondrial NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase 75 kDa 3.2 1.15E−03 subunit HADHB Trifunctional enzyme subunit beta, mitochondrial 3.06 1.73E−03 SUCLG2 Succinyl-CoA ligase [GDP-forming] subunit beta, 3.03 1.89E−03 mitochondrial TOMM7 Mitochondrial import receptor subunit TOM7 homolog 3.03 1.85E−03 ATP5I ATP synthase subunit e, mitochondrial 3.01 1.97E−03 IDH3A Isocitrate dehydrogenase [NAD] subunit alpha, mitochondrial 2.16 1.78E−02 CLPX ATP-dependent Clp protease ATP-binding subunit clpX-like, 2.11 1.96E−02 mitochondrial ABAT 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase, mitochondrial 2.08 2.14E−02

(31) Inventors next assessed the prognostic significance of the c-Myc-induced mitochondrial targets identified by proteomics analysis. FIG. 7 provides a work-flow diagram illustrating the informatics-based approach to oncogene-driven breast cancer biomarker development. First, proteomics analysis of MCF7 cells harboring c-Myc is performed (S701). The investigator then focuses on the nuclear mitochondrial genes related to mitochondrial biogenesis and OXPHOS (S702). Next, the investigator determines whether mitochondrial-associated protein transcripts have prognostic value through bioinformatics analysis (S703). As an example, breast cancer would involve ER+, Luminal A, LN+, Tamoxifen-treated, and >15-years follow-up. Then short prognostic signatures may be generated (e.g., the intersection of new proteomics data, with transcriptional gene profiling and outcome data) (S704). New targets and predictors of treatment failure and/or drug resistance (tumor recurrence, distant metastasis, and/or companion diagnostics) may be identified (S705). Inventors used publicly available transcriptional profiling data from the tumors of breast cancer patients that were treated with tamoxifen but not any chemotherapy. Inventors selected high-risk patients that were lymph-node positive at diagnosis and focused on luminal A subtype, which represents the most common form of ER-positive breast cancers. Using this approach, the inventors identified 5 gene transcripts and 9 gene probes that showed high prognostic value, as is shown in Table 3 below.

(32) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Prognostic value of individual c-Myc targets in human breast cancer patients (ER-positive, luminal A, LN-positive, treated with anti-estrogen (mostly Tamoxifen); Relapse-free survival (RFS); N = 152). HR P-value Symbol Gene Probe (Hazzard Ratio) (Log Rank Test) HSPD1 200807_s_at 3.46 1.30e−05 HSPD1 200806_s_at 2.34 0.0049 TIMM44 203093_s_at 2.51 0.0042 COX5B 213735_s_at 2.51 0.0012 COX5B 202343_x_at 2.3 0.0032 COX5B 211025_x_at 2.13 0.0077 IDH3A 202069_s_at 2.46 0.0026 IDH3A 202070_s_at 2.25 0.0089 TRAP1 221235_s_at 1.77 0.048

(33) To increase the prognostic power of the mitochondrial biomarkers, the inventors selected the biomarkers with high hazard ratio values and used them to create a c-Myc-based Mito-Signature that contains three genes—HSPD1, COX5B, and TIMM44. This Mito-Signature combines: i) a mitochondrial chaperone (HSPD1) with ii) an OXPHOS subunit (COX5B, from Complex IV) and iii) a marker of mitochondrial biogenesis (TIMM44 or Translocase of Inner Mitochondrial Membrane 44). These results are summarized in Tables 4 and 5 shown below.

(34) TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 Prognostic value of a c-Myc-based Mito-Signature in human breast cancer patients (tumor recurrence) (ER-positive, luminal A, LN-positive, treated with anti-estrogen (mostly Tamoxifen); Relapse-free survival (RFS); N = 152). HR P-value Symbol Gene Probe (Hazzard Ratio) (Log Rank Test) HSPD1 200807_s_at 3.46 1.30e−05 COX5B 213735_s_at 2.51 0.0012 TIMM44 203093_s_at 2.51 0.0042 Combined 4.69  2.4e−08

(35) TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5 Prognostic value of a c-Myc-based Mito-Signature in human breast cancer patients (distant metastasis) (ER-positive, luminal A, LN-positive, treated with anti-estrogen (mostly Tamoxifen); Distant Metastasis Free Survival (DMFS); N = 149). HR P-value Symbol Gene Probe (Hazzard Ratio) (Log Rank Test) HSPD1 200807_s_at 3.5 9.7e−05 COX5B 213735_s_at 3.2 0.00075 TIMM44 203093_s_at 3.06 0.0024  Combined 4.94 2.8e−07

(36) FIG. 8A shows the results of the K-M analysis for relapse-free survival (RFS) for the Myc-based Mito-Signature. Similar results were obtained for distant metastasis-free survival, as shown in FIG. 8B. Therefore, this Myc-based Mito-Signature may be effective at predicting tamoxifen resistance and treatment failure for endocrine therapy.

(37) The inventors also assessed the behavior of the Myc-based Mito-Signature in a larger patient population where the therapy was not restricted to tamoxifen. FIG. 9A-C shows that the Myc Mito-Signature effectively predicted poor clinical outcome (relapse-free survival (RFS)) in ER-positive (FIG. 9A) and ER-negative (FIG. 9B) breast cancer populations and all breast cancer subtypes combined (FIG. 9C). The Myc-based Mito-signature therefore may represent an important prognostic tool for predicting patient outcomes in a wide variety of breast cancer patient populations.

(38) Based on the inventors' findings, inventors developed a strategy for development of companion diagnostics that is outlined in FIG. 10. First, a cell line harboring a genetic, epigenetic, or metabolic change may be generated (S1001). For example, an oncogene may be activated or a tumor suppressor gene may be inactivated. Second, a global unbiased proteomics analysis may be performed. In some embodiments, metabolic genes (e.g., mitochondrial, glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation, pentose phosphate pathway) may be the focus of analysis (S1002). Next, bioinformatics analysis may be used to determine whether metabolism-associated protein transcripts have prognostic value (S1003). This may be done for any cancer type, and may involve patient follow-up data. Next, short prognostic signatures may be generated (S1004). These may intersect new proteomics data with transcriptional gene profiling data and outcome data. It should be appreciated that transcriptional gene profiling data and outcome data may be pre-existing and often is publicly available. Finally, new targets and predictors of treatment failure and/or drug resistance may be identified (S1005).

(39) This simplified strategy may be potentially applied to any cancer type. As described above, generally the first step involves the generation of a novel cellular model, which is interrogated by proteomics analysis. Then, these results are used to establish the prognostic value of these candidate biomarkers, by searching pre-existing human transcriptional profiling data linked to clinical outcome (in silico validation). The prognostic value of these biomarkers may also be enhanced significantly by using more than one marker in combination, thereby forming a short signature.

(40) This “Proteomics-to-Genomics (PTG)” approach efficiently yields new targets and biomarkers, linked to parameters associated with clinical outcome (tumor recurrence, distant metastasis, overall survival, or response to therapy). FIG. 11 outlines the steps of a proteomics-to-genomics approach to in silico validation. Proteomics data from a cellular model is directly used (S1101) to interrogate existing genomics data (transcriptional profiling) from clinical samples (S1102), which may be linked to follow-up data (S1103). This approach directly allows for the in silico validation of i) the prognostic value (of a given candidate biomarker) and ii) helps to generate new targets for drug development, by directly demonstrating their clinical relevance (S1104). Using the PTG approach, an experimental strategy for understanding MYC and RAS cooperativity in human breast CSCs is disclosed herein. This strategy first accepts that c-Myc and H-Ras (G12V) cooperation affects cellular metabolism and CSC propagation. This co-operativity, in turn, allows for the identification of a common metabolic therapy. FIG. 12 shows the advantages of the PTG approach 1203 over traditional approaches 1201 to biomarker development. FIG. 12 illustrates how, in traditional approach 1201, mRNA levels may not necessarily correlate with protein levels, creating a bottle-neck for protein biomarker development. The concordance between mRNA and protein may be quite variable and unpredictable, ranging anywhere between 0 and 100%. This discordance between mRNA and protein expression levels ultimately makes it difficult or impossible to use transcriptional profiling data for the development of new protein biomarkers as companion diagnostics. In contrast, the PTG strategy 1203 described herein provides a simple straightforward solution to this practical problem. By starting out with proteomics data first and then integrating it with existing transcriptional profiling data, one may quickly identify and select a sub-set of genes, with tight correlations, nearing 100%. It essentially allows one to “work-backwards”, providing a much needed systematic “short-cut” to protein biomarker development.

(41) The present approach has a wide range of applications. For example, anti-mitochondrial antibodies directed against biomarkers or Mito-Signatures identified under the present approach may be used to immuno-stain tumor tissue sections. Such embodiments may be used to assess or predict clinical outcome. The HSPD1, COX5B, and/or TIMM44 biomarkers and Mito-Signature discussed in the specific embodiments above are demonstrative. As another example, fluorescent-antibodies directed against biomarkers or Mito-Signatures identified under the present approach (including, e.g., the HSPD1, COX5B, and/or TIMM44 biomarkers and Mito-Signatures described above) may be used to detect and/or isolate CSCs from tumor tissue. Such embodiments may employ fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and flow cytometry techniques as are known in the art. Such fluorescent-antibodies may also be used to detect and/or isolate circulating tumor cells (CTCs) from blood, through, as an example, FACS and flow cytometry. In yet another example, antibodies directed against biomarkers or Mito-Signatures identified under the present approach may be coupled to magnetic beads or other magnetic elements. Magnetized antibodies may then be used to detect and/or isolate CSCs and CTCs. It should be appreciated that these examples are merely representative of the applicability of the present approach, and should not be construed as limiting the present approach.

(42) The terminology used in the description of the invention herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. As used in the description of the invention and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. The invention includes numerous alternatives, modifications, and equivalents as will become apparent from consideration of the following detailed description.

(43) It will be understood that although the terms “first,” “second,” “third,” “a),” “b),” and “c),” etc. may be used herein to describe various elements of the invention should not be limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element of the invention from another. Thus, a first element discussed below could be termed a element aspect, and similarly, a third without departing from the teachings of the present invention. Thus, the terms “first,” “second,” “third,” “a),” “b),” and “c),” etc. are not intended to necessarily convey a sequence or other hierarchy to the associated elements but are used for identification purposes only. The sequence of operations (or steps) is not limited to the order presented in the claims.

(44) Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of the present application and relevant art and should not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. The terminology used in the description of the invention herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. All publications, patent applications, patents and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of a conflict in terminology, the present specification is controlling.

(45) Also as used herein, “and/or” refers to and encompasses any and all possible combinations of one or more of the associated listed items, as well as the lack of combinations when interpreted in the alternative (“or”).

(46) Unless the context indicates otherwise, it is specifically intended that the various features of the invention described herein can be used in any combination. Moreover, the present invention also contemplates that in some embodiments of the invention, any feature or combination of features set forth herein can be excluded or omitted. To illustrate, if the specification states that a complex comprises components A, B and C, it is specifically intended that any of A, B or C, or a combination thereof, can be omitted and disclaimed.

(47) As used herein, the transitional phrase “consisting essentially of” (and grammatical variants) is to be interpreted as encompassing the recited materials or steps “and those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s)” of the claimed invention. Thus, the term “consisting essentially of” as used herein should not be interpreted as equivalent to “comprising.”

(48) The term “about,” as used herein when referring to a measurable value, such as, for example, an amount or concentration and the like, is meant to encompass variations of ±20%, ±10%, ±5%, ±1%, ±0.5%, or even ±0.1% of the specified amount. A range provided herein for a measurable value may include any other range and/or individual value therein.

(49) Having thus described certain embodiments of the present invention, it is to be understood that the invention defined by the appended claims is not to be limited by particular details set forth in the above description as many apparent variations thereof are possible without departing from the spirit or scope thereof as hereinafter claimed.