Method for catalytic conversion of ketoacids and hydrotreament to hydrocarbons

Abstract

A method for the catalytic conversion of ketoacids, including methods for increasing the molecular weight of ketoacids, the method comprising the steps of providing in a reactor a feedstock comprising at least one ketoacid. The feedstock is then subjected to one or more CC coupling reaction(s) in the presence of hydrogen, and in the presence of a catalyst system having both hydrogenation activity and CC coupling activity.

Claims

1. A method for increasing the molecular weight of ketoacids, the method comprising: a) providing in a reactor a feedstock having at least one ketoacid; and b) subjecting the feedstock to one or more CC coupling reaction(s), wherein the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted in a presence of hydrogen, and wherein the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted in a presence of a catalyst system having both hydrogenation activity and CC coupling activity at a temperature between 200-500 C. and at a pressure of between 5-150 bar, and wherein the catalyst system includes 70-90% by weight of a metal oxide catalyst and 10-30% by weight of a noble metal catalyst and/or a transition metal catalyst, and wherein the catalyst system is in a same bed in the reactor.

2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the feedstock is introduced into the reactor in liquid phase.

3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted in a single reactor.

4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the catalyst system is a mixture of one or more catalyst(s) having hydrogenation activity and one or more catalyst(s) having CC coupling activity.

5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the feedstock being subjected to the one or more CC coupling reaction(s) has a watercontent of 15 wt % or less.

6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the catalyst system comprises a metal oxide catalyst having CC coupling activity, and wherein the metal of the metal oxide catalyst comprises at least one or more of the following metals: Na, Mg, K, Ca, Sc, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sr, Ti, Y, Zr, Mo, Rh, Cd, Sn, La, Pb, Bi, Ti, V, or a rare earth metal.

7. The method according to claim 1, wherein the catalyst system comprises a noble metal catalyst and/or a transition metal catalyst having hydrogenation activity and wherein the noble metal catalyst and/or the transition metal catalyst is selected from the group consisting of: Fe, Pd, Pt, Ni, Mo, Co, Ru, Rh, W, and a combination thereof.

8. The method according to claim 1, wherein the catalyst system comprises K.sub.2O/TiO.sub.2 and NiMo/Al.sub.2O.sub.3.

9. The method according to claim 1, wherein the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted at a temperature between 240-400 C.

10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted at a pressure of between 10-60 bar.

11. The method according to claim 1, wherein the feedstock comprises levulinic acid.

12. The method according to claim 1, wherein at least 60 wt-% of the feedstock comprises a ketoacid.

13. The method according to claim 1, wherein the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted at a hydrogen-to-feedstock ratio from 100 to 600 NI/I.

14. A CC coupling reaction product obtained by the method of claim 1.

15. The method according to claim 1, wherein the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted at a temperature between 250-350 C.

16. The method according to claim 1, wherein the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted at a pressure of between 15-45 bar.

17. The method according to claim 2, wherein the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted in a single reactor.

18. The method according to claim 2, wherein the catalyst system is a mixture of one or more catalyst(s) having hydrogenation activity and one or more catalyst(s) having CC coupling activity.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) Other exemplary features and exemplary advantages of the present disclosure will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon reading the detailed description of the embodiments in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein:

(2) FIG. 1 shows a scheme illustrating conversion of lignocellulosic material to levulinic acid, according to an exemplary aspect.

(3) FIG. 2 shows a scheme illustrating some reaction products of levulinic acid, including potential coke precursors and potential CC-coupling precursors, according to an exemplary aspect. The figure is not intended to cover all reaction products of levulinic acid, nor is it intended to show all types of coke precursors. FIG. 2 illustrates one possible mechanism for reducing the angelica lactone coke precursors by hydrogenation, and also illustrates that the intermolecular ester of 4-hydroxypentanoic acid, GVL, may be in equilibrium with 4-hydroxypentanoic acid itself.

(4) FIG. 3 shows an overview of a possible process scheme for further upgrading the products from the CC-coupling reactions, according to an exemplary aspect.

(5) FIG. 4 shows an overview of a possible process scheme for preparing and upgrading the products from the CC-coupling reactions, according to an exemplary aspect.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(6) In describing the exemplary embodiments of the disclosure, specific terminology will be resorted to for the sake of clarity. However, the disclosure is not intended to be limited to the specific terms so selected, and it is understood that each specific term includes all technical equivalents which operate in a similar manner to accomplish a similar purpose.

(7) One of the challenges in increasing the molecular weight of ketoacids by CC-coupling reactions is the high reactivity product intermediates, which result in too high degree of oligomerization of the starting components.

(8) The inventors have found that the oligomerization of levulinic acid in gaseous phase in the presence of a typical ketonization catalyst results in high formation of coke and eventually plugging of the reactor. This is suggested to occur due to polymerization reactions, including reactions of levulinic acid to more reactive precursors such as angelica lactones, which are known to have a high tendency to polymerize under typical ketonization conditions.

(9) It was attempted to reduce the unwanted polymerization reactions and control the ketonization reactions and coking by addition of steam to the reactor. The addition of water to suppress coking reactions was, however, found also to decrease the performance of the ketonization catalyst resulting in low yields of the condensation products.

(10) An exemplary aspect of the disclosure is based on the finding that the molecular weight of ketoacids can be selectively increased by subjecting the ketoacids to CC-coupling reactions in the presence of a dual function catalyst system, which suppresses the coking tendency of the reaction intermediates and simultaneously catalyzes multiple types of CC-coupling reactions resulting in formation of new carbon-carbon bonds between the reactants.

(11) Accordingly, in one exemplary aspect of the present disclosure, a method for increasing the molecular weight of ketoacids is provided, the method comprising the steps of providing in a reactor a feedstock comprising at least one ketoacid; and subjecting the feedstock to one or more CC-coupling reaction(s); wherein the CC-coupling reaction(s) are conducted in the presence of hydrogen; and in the presence of a catalyst system having both hydrogenation activity and CC-coupling activity.

(12) The present disclosure relates to a method for increasing the molecular weight of ketoacids and/or derivatives of ketoacids.

(13) Ketoacids are organic molecules that have both a keto function (>CO) as well as a carboxylic acid (COOH) or carboxylate (COO.sup.) function. According to an exemplary aspect, special forms of ketoacids include embodiments where the keto function is an aldehyde (CHO), and in some embodiments the keto functionality may not be an aldehyde.

(14) In some embodiments, the ketoacid is an alpha-ketoacid (such as pyruvic acid, oxaloacetic acid and alpha-ketoglutaric acid), beta-ketoacid (such as acetoacetic acid), gamma-ketoacid (such as levulinic acid), or delta-ketoacid. The ketoacid may have more than one keto functionality, and more than one carboxylic acid function. In some embodiments the ketoacid only has one keto functionality and one carboxylic acid functionality.

(15) ##STR00001##

(16) Scheme 1 illustrates exemplary ketoacids according to the present disclosure, for example where n and m are integers each selected independently of each other from the list consisting of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, for example, in exemplary embodiments where the ketoacid is levulinic acid (m=2, n=0).

(17) In some embodiments, the ketoacid derivatives may be selected from gamma-valerolactone, angelica lactones and hydroxypentanoic acid.

(18) The feedstock may comprise as the major component one or more ketoacids, for example, in some embodiments at least 30% such as at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, at least 95% or 100% of the feedstock comprises a ketoacid or a derivative of a ketoacid. The feedstock may be obtained from processing of lignocellulosic material, and such processed material may be used directly, or purified to varying degrees before being used as a feedstock in the method of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the feedstock comprises levulinic acid, and in some embodiments the levulinic acid may be combined with one or more other ketoacids. In other embodiments the feedstock comprises a mixture of levulinic acid in combination with gamma-valerolactone, such as at least 10% of levulinic acid and at least 10% of gamma-valerolactone.

(19) In addition to ketoacids and ketoacid derivatives, the feedstock may also contain aldehydes, such as furfural or hydroxymethylfurfural.

(20) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the feedstock comprises levulinic acid.

(21) The feedstock may contain water, and in some embodiments the feedstock has a water content of 15 wt % or less. In some embodiments, the water content is as low as possible, for example, a water content of 10 wt % or less, such as 5 wt % or less, or 1 wt % or less, for example, no water is present. In some embodiments, no external water is added during the CC-coupling reaction(s), although internal water is produced in some condensation reactions.

(22) In some embodiments, external water is added in an amount of 0.1 wt % to 10 wt % either to the feedstock and/or during the reactions, as, for example, steam.

(23) In some embodiments, the feedstock is fed into in a single reactor, or single reactor bed. The reactor can be able to be pressurized, and to accommodate the feedstock and the catalyst system. The reactor can have means, such as one or more inlets and/or outlets, for supplying hydrogen and adding/withdrawing feedstock. Means for controlling the pressure and temperature can also be present.

(24) The catalyst system may be provided as a mixture of two or more catalysts in the same bed in the reactor.

(25) In some embodiments, the feedstock is introduced into the reactor in liquid phase, as opposed to for example the gaseous phase. An exemplary advantage of introducing the feedstock into the reactor in the liquid phase is that it is not required to heat the product to prepare a gaseous stream. In some embodiments, the CC-coupling reaction(s) are conducted predominantly in the liquid phase, as opposed to the gaseous phase, meaning that the reaction is at least predominantly taking place on the catalyst in the liquid phase. In some embodiments, the CC-coupling reaction(s) are conducted entirely in the liquid phase.

(26) In some embodiments, the molecular weight of the ketoacids in the feedstock are increased at least 100% or more. In some embodiments, the molecular weight is increased to between 200 and 1500 g/mol, such as 200 and 500 g/mol. In some embodiments where the ketoacid is a C.sub.4-C.sub.7-ketoacid, the molecular weight is increased to corresponding molecules having a C.sub.13-C.sub.50 carbon chain, such as a C.sub.13-C.sub.30 carbon chain. For example, in some embodiments, more than 50 wt % of the reaction product may be determined to belong to the group containing trimerization, tetramerization, pentamerization, and hexamerization products. By trimerization, tetramerization, pentamerization and hexamerization products is meant reaction products relating to three, four, five and six molecules of one or more of ketoacids and derivatives thereof being coupled together. In the case of a feedstock comprising derivatives of ketoacids in addition to ketoacids, the trimerization, tetramerization, pentamerization, and hexamerization products may additionally contain mixed CC-coupling products comprising one or more ketoacids and/or derivatives thereof. The trimerization, tetramerization, pentamerization, and hexamerization products are derived from at least one ketoacid, such as at least two ketoacids, at least three ketoacids, at least four ketoacid, at least five ketoacids, at least six ketoacids.

(27) In the present disclosure, the molecular weight of the keto acids are increased through one or more CC-coupling reaction(s). Many CC-coupling reactions are known in the art, and the skilled person would be able to identify such CC-coupling reactions based on the reaction conditions provided. For example, the CC-coupling reactions may be ketonization reactions or reactions proceeding through an enol or enolate intermediate. In some embodiments, CC-coupling reactions are selected from the list comprising: aldol-type reactions and condensations, ketonizations, reactions where the CC-coupling involves an alkene, as well as other oligomerization reactions. The CC-coupling reactions may proceed with two identical molecules or may be a crossed reaction between two different molecules.

(28) For example, the CC coupling reaction(s) proceeds in the presence of a catalyst system. It was found that subjecting the feedstock of the present disclosure to CC-coupling reactions in the presence of a dual function catalyst, can suppress the coking tendency of the reaction intermediates and can simultaneously catalyze multiple types of CC-coupling reactions resulting in formation of new carbon-carbon bonds between the reactants. The catalyst system can have both hydrogenation activity and CC-coupling activity.

(29) The inventors found that the problems related to the formation of coke during the CC-coupling reactions of ketoacids such as levulinic acid and the low yield of the condensation products can be solved by using a dual function catalyst system comprising a first part having hydrogenation activity and a second part having CC-coupling activity. Without wanting to be being bound to any theory, it is considered that the first part having hydrogenation activity inhibits the polymerization reactions of intermediates and the second part catalyzes the CC coupling reactions responsible for increasing the molecular weight of the ketoacid.

(30) In some embodiments, the catalyst system according to the present disclosure comprises at least two different catalysts, where one has predominantly hydrogenation activity, and the other predominantly CC-coupling activity, and in other embodiments the catalyst system comprises a single catalyst having both hydrogenation activity and CC-coupling activity. In some embodiments, the catalyst system is a mixture of one or more catalyst(s) having a hydrogenation activity and one or more catalyst(s) having a CC-coupling activity, which for example may be prepared by mixing together one or more catalyst(s) having a hydrogenation activity with one or more catalyst(s) having a CC-coupling activity (see, for example, the materials section of the examples). Additionally, the catalysts may be supported, such as, for example, on alumina, silica or active carbon support. Additionally, one or more of the catalysts may be sulfided. The catalysts may be prepared on a common support, or may be prepared on individual supports.

(31) While both acids and bases may catalyse a number of CC-coupling reactions, including the aldol reaction/condensation, such catalysts may be present in the feedstock, but are not intended to be comprised in the term catalyst system, in the context of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the catalyst system is in the solid phase.

(32) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the catalyst system comprises a noble metal catalyst and/or a transition metal catalyst having hydrogenation activity. In some embodiments, the noble metal catalyst and/or the transition metal catalyst is selected from a group consisting of: Fe, Pd, Pt, Ni, Mo, Co, Ru, Rh, W, or combinations thereof.

(33) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the catalyst system contains 5-50% by weight, for example, 10-30% by weight of the noble metal catalyst and/or the transition metal catalyst.

(34) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the catalyst system comprises a metal oxide catalyst having CC-coupling activity, and in some embodiments the metal of the metal oxide catalyst is selected from the group consisting of oxides of one or more of the following metals: Na, Mg, K, Ca, Sc, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sr, Ti, Y, Zr, Mo, Rh, Cd, Sn, La, Pb, Bi, Ti, V, and other rare earth metals.

(35) In some embodiments the metal of the metal oxide catalyst is K and/or Ti.

(36) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the catalyst system contains 50-95% by weight, for example, 70-90% by weight of the metal oxide catalyst.

(37) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the catalyst system comprises 70-90% by weight of the metal oxide catalyst and 10-30% by weight of the noble metal catalyst and/or the transition metal catalyst; with the proviso that the catalyst system does not add up to more than 100%.

(38) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the catalyst system comprises K.sub.2O/TiO.sub.2 and NiMo/Al.sub.2O.sub.3, such as 70-90% by weight of K.sub.2O/TiO.sub.2 (for example, 80 wt %) and 10-30% by weight of NiMo/Al.sub.2O.sub.3 (for example, 20 wt %).

(39) The CC coupling reaction(s) may proceed in the presence of hydrogen. The hydrogen may be mixed with one or more other gasses, for example, an inert gas such as helium or another of the noble gasses, or gas behaving inertly to the reaction conditions of the present disclosure. By behaving inertly is considered that the gas does not to a major extent participate as a reaction member, for example, the inert gas participates as little as possible, such as not participate at all.

(40) The inventors found that the CC coupling reaction(s) can be controlled by adjusting several parameters, including selection of a suitable ratio of the catalysts in the catalyst system, and by careful selection of reaction conditions such as: temperature, hydrogen-to-hydrocarbon ration (H:HC), pressure, weight hourly space velocity (WHSV) and time.

(41) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted at a temperature between 200-500 C., for example, between 240-400 C., for example, between 250-350 C.

(42) In some embodiments the hydrogen-to-hydrocarbon ratio (H:HC) is from 100 to 600 NI/I in the CC coupling reactions, such as for example from 100 to 400 NI/I, from 200 to 450 NI/I, or from 200 to 400 NI/I.

(43) In some embodiments, the weight hourly space velocity (WHSV) is from 0.5 to 1.5 h.sup.1, such as 0.8 to 1.2 h.sup.1 in the CC-coupling reactions.

(44) In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the CC coupling reaction(s) are conducted at a pressure of between 5-100 bar, for example, between 10-60 bar, for example, between 15-45 bar.

(45) In another aspect of the present disclosure, a CC-coupling reaction product obtainable by the method according to the present disclosure is provided. This product may be used as fuel or heavy oil components or chemicals or as intermediate components in production of fuel or heavy oil components or chemicals.

(46) In another aspect of the present disclosure, a pressurizable vessel for CC-coupling reaction(s) having a volume of at least 10 litres, comprising a catalyst system, which in one or more beds has a catalyst system, which is a mixture of catalyst(s) having both hydrogenation activity and CC-coupling activity, a feedstock comprising a ketoacid and hydrogen is provided.

(47) The CC-coupling reaction product obtainable by the methods of the present disclosure may, if desired, be further subjected to a hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) step to remove oxygen, which in some embodiments produce completely deoxygenated material. The produced hydrocarbons may be used as fuel or heavy oil components or chemicals or as starting components in the production of fuel or heavy oil components or chemicals. The hydrodeoxygenated products may also be further isomerized to isoparaffins in the presence of hydrogen.

(48) An exemplary advantage of the present disclosure is that ketoacids produced from renewable materials can be upgraded to higher molecular weight compounds, which may be used as fuel or heavy oil components or chemicals or as starting components in the production of fuel or heavy oil components or chemicals.

(49) The CC-coupling reaction products may be fractionated to remove potential unreacted ketoacid monomers and other light components such as water and CO.sub.2 formed in the CC-coupling reactions from the reaction product as illustrated in FIG. 3. The fractionation can be conducted by any suitable means such as distillation. The unreacted ketoacid monomer may optionally be recycled and combined with the feed of the first reactor.

(50) Accordingly, in another aspect of the present disclosure, a method for production of hydrocarbons is provided, the method comprising subjecting the CC-coupling reaction products obtained to a hydrodeoxygenation step in the presence of a hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) catalyst. In some embodiments, the HDO catalyst comprises a hydrogenation metal on a support, such as for example a HDO catalyst selected from a group consisting of Pd, Pt, Ni, Co, or any combination of these. The hydrodeoxygenation step may, for example, be conducted at a temperature of 100-500 C. and at a pressure of 10-150 bar.

(51) In another aspect of the present disclosure, a kerosene product composition is provided comprising a mixture of CC-coupling products of levulinic acid, having a boiling point range (10% and 90% fraction as determined by ASTMD2887) from 170 C. to 300 C.; a carbon and a hydrogen content (as determined by ASTMD5291) of more than 80 wt % and more than 10%, respectively; where an aromatic content (as determined by ASTMD6379) is between 10-20 vol %; where a sulphur content (as determined by ASTMD7039) is lower than 7 ppmw, preferably lower than 3 ppmw.

(52) In some embodiments, the kerosene product composition additionally has one or more characteristics selected from one or more of the list consisting of: a cloud point (as determined by ASTMD7689) lower than 90 C.; a heat value (as determined by ASTMD3338) of more than 40 MJ/kg; a density (as determined by ENISO12185) is between 830-850 kg/m.sup.3 at 15 C. and between 805-835 kg/m.sup.3 at 50 C.; and a viscosity between 9-11 mm.sup.2/s at 20 C.

(53) Water and light gases may be separated from the HDO product with any conventional means such as distillation. After the removal of water and light gases, the HDO product may be fractionated to one or more fractions suitable for use as gasoline, aviation fuel, diesel or heavy oil components. The fractionation may be conducted by any suitable means, such as distillation. Optionally, part of the product of the HDO step may be recycled and combined to the feed of the HDO reactor.

(54) The product of the hydrodeoxygenation step may also be subjected to an isomerization step in the presence of an isomerization catalyst and hydrogen. Both the hydrodeoxygenation step and isomerisation step may be conducted in the same reactor. In some embodiments, the isomerisation catalyst is a noble metal bifunctional catalyst, for example Pt-SAPO or Pt-ZSM-catalyst. The isomerization step may, for example, be conducted at a temperature of 200-400 C. and at a pressure of 20-150 bar.

(55) It is exemplary that only a part of the HDO product is subjected to an isomerization step, for example, the part of HDO product which is subjected to isomerization may be the heavy oil fraction boiling at or above temperature of 300 C.

(56) The hydrocarbon product obtainable from the hydrodeoxygenation and/or the isomerisation step may be used as fuel or heavy oil components or chemicals or as intermediate components in production of fuel or heavy oil components or chemicals.

(57) For example, the choice of subjecting HDO product to isomeration is highly dependable of the desired properties of the end products. For example, aromatic compounds are desirable if the end product is aviation fuel since the Jet fuel standard may require a certain amount of aromatic compounds to be present in aviation fuel. For example, since the isomerization is known to decompose aromatic and cyclized compounds, the HDO product would not necessarily be subjected to isomerization step if the object is to produce aviation fuel. On the other hand, it can be advantageous to minimize the amount of aromatic compounds in diesel fuel since the aromatics decrease the cetane number of diesel.

(58) When describing the embodiments of the present disclosure, the combinations and permutations of all possible embodiments have not been explicitly described. Nevertheless, the mere fact that certain measures are recited in mutually different dependent claims or described in different embodiments does not indicate that a combination of these measures cannot be used to advantage. The present disclosure envisages all possible combinations and permutations of the described embodiments.

(59) The terms comprising, comprise and comprises herein are intended by the inventors to be optionally substitutable with the terms consisting of, consist of and consists of, respectively, in every instance.

EXAMPLES

(60) The examples show that it is possible to increase the molecular weight of levulinic acid by CC-coupling reactions conducted in the presence of hydrogen and a dual function catalyst system comprising a metal oxide catalyst and a hydrotreatment catalyst. The examples also show that the CC-coupling reaction product of levulinic acid can be further processed to hydrocarbons having a boiling point range of typical fuel or heavy oil components such as naphta, kerosene and diesel and heavy oil components by subjecting the CC-coupling reaction product of levulinic acid to hydrodeoxygenation reactions in the presence of a typical HDO catalyst and hydrogen.

(61) The examples also show that the hydrocarbon products having a boiling point range of typical fuel or heavy oil components such as naphta, kerosene and diesel produced in the experiments have excellent cold properties without further isomerization treatment.

(62) Materials

(63) Preparation of 80/20 wt % K.sub.2O/TiO.sub.2NiMo/Al.sub.2O.sub.3 Catalyst System

(64) As a hydrogenation catalyst, a pre-sulfided NiMo/Al.sub.2O.sub.3 catalyst (obtained from Albemarle) with the composition given in table 1 was used.

(65) As a CC coupling catalyst, a K.sub.2O/TiO.sub.2 catalyst (obtained from BASF) with the composition given in table 1 was used.

(66) The K.sub.2O/TiO.sub.2NiMo/Al.sub.2O.sub.3 catalyst system was prepared by crushing both catalysts, sieving them to a particle size of 0.15-0.35 mm before thoroughly mixing the two together to prepare the catalyst system.

(67) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Composition of K.sub.2O/TiO.sub.2 and NiMo/Al.sub.2O.sub.3 catalyst K.sub.2O/TiO.sub.2 catalyst NiMo/Al.sub.2O.sub.3 catalyst Amount, % Amount, % TiO.sub.2 96.7 NiO 3.4 SiO.sub.2 0.0 MoO.sub.3 13.2 MnO.sub.2 0.0 K.sub.2O 0 K.sub.2O 2.4 Al 44 Nb.sub.2O 0.1 Mo 8.7 CaO 0.0 Ni 2.6 FeO 0.0 Fe 0.0 MgO 0.0 Na 0.0 CeO.sub.3 0.3

Example 1

(68) Increasing the Molecular Weight of Levulinic Acid by CC Coupling Reactions

(69) Levulic acid with a purity of >99.9% was introduced in a trickle bed reactor to CC coupling reactions in the presence of the 80/20 wt % K.sub.2O/TiO.sub.2NiMo/Al.sub.2O.sub.3 catalyst system prepared above.

(70) The CC coupling reactions were conducted at temperature ranging from about 250 to about 350 C. and under a pressure of about 20 bar to 40 bar, using a hydrogen to hydrocarbon (H.sub.2/HC) ratio of about 200 to 400 NI/I and weight hourly space velocity (WHSV) of about 1.0 h.sup.1. WHSV and hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratio was calculated from the amount of levulic acid fed in vessel.

(71) The complete catalytic reaction was conducted with the same catalyst over the course of 5 weeks. Each experiment (EX 1-12) was performed over a period of 2-5 days.

(72) The process conditions and yields are presented in Table 2. Oil product distributions are presented in Table 3. Oil product distribution was obtained by gel permeation chromatography using refractive index as the detector and tetrahydrofuran as eluent. A peak is present where levulinic acid eluted. Elution times after levulinic acid was ascribed to monomers, i.e., non-CC-coupled products, which could be smaller molecular weight compounds compared to levulinic acid. For products eluting earlier than the levulinic acid, two peaks could be seen, one which could be ascribed to dimers of levulinic acid based on GC-MS, and a broader peak, which could be ascribed to oligomers derived from three or more molecules of levulinic acid. The Monomer, Levulinic acid, Dimer and Oligomer columns in table 3 are based on the area under the peaks in the GPC chromatogram.

(73) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Process conditions and process yields. Process conditions Process yields Tem- Pres- H.sub.2O Gas Oil perature sure H:HC WHSV yield yield yield C. bar liter/liter h.sup.1 % % % Experiment 251 19 210 1 0 12 88 EX 1 274 21 215 1 0 9 91 EX 2 299 20 231 1 0 20 80 EX 3 299 21 426 1 0 12 88 EX 4 299 42 390 1 10 16 74 EX 5 326 41 391 1 15 22 64 EX 6 350 40 400 1 21 24 55 EX 7 349 40 213 1 20 27 53 EX 8 349 22 205 1 24 26 50 EX 9 324 21 204 1 18 25 57 EX 10 324 41 214 1 17 24 59 EX 11 298 19 209 1 0 17 83 EX 12

(74) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Oil product distributions. Oil composition Levulic Monomer acid Dimer Oligomer area-% area-% area-% area-% Experiment 12 48 30 11 EX 1 10 38 28 24 EX 2 5 10 16 70 EX 3 7 12 18 63 EX 4 13 17 27 43 EX 5 14 5 34 47 EX 6 6 17 21 56 EX 7 4 11 18 68 EX 8 3 10 16 72 EX 9 3 8 16 74 EX 10 6 9 21 65 EX 11 3 12 18 68 EX 12

(75) The products obtained from experiments 1 to 12 were fractionated in a distillation apparatus. Each sample was fractionated with cut point of 200 C. Water obtained in distillate was separated with a tap funnel. Yields from the fractional destillation are presented in Table 4.

(76) TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 Oil product fractions from experiments 1-12. H.sub.2O <200 C. >200 C. % % % Experiment 11 1 88 EX 1 16 2 82 EX 2 25 2 74 EX 3 24 2 74 EX 4 17 3 79 EX 5 13 13 74 EX 6 20 8 72 EX 7 9 9 82 EX 8 10 6 84 EX 9 13 5 82 EX 10 13 6 81 EX 11 19 2 79 EX 12

Example 2

(77) Hydrodeoxygenation of the CC Coupling Reaction Product Fractions

(78) This example uses the higher boiling fractions (>200 C.) in table 4, which were subjected to hydrodeoxygenation step to remove heteroatoms and to stabilize the oil product.

(79) The fractionated oil product (>200 C.) from Experiment 5 of Example 1 represented a HDO oil product feed with moderate conversion (CC-coupling reactions conducted at a temperature of 300 C.).

(80) The fractionated oil products (>200 C.) from Experiments 1 and 2 of Example 1 were pooled to represent a HDO oil product feed with low conversion (CC-coupling reactions conducted at temperatures of 250-275 C.).

(81) The fractionated oil products (>200 C.) from Experiments 7, 8 and 9 of Example 1 were pooled to represent a HDO oil product feed with moderately high conversion (CC coupling reactions conducted at a temperature of 325 C.).

(82) The fractionated oil products (>200 C.) from Experiments 6, 10 and 11 of Example 1 were pooled to represent a HDO oil product feed with high conversion (CC coupling reactions conducted at a temperature of 350 C.).

(83) These four oil product fractions described above were subjected to hydrodeoxygenating reactions (HDO) to remove heteroatoms and to stabilize oil product. Hydrodeoxygenation was carried out in presence sulfided NiMo on alumina carrier catalyst at temperature of 310 C. and under a pressure of 50 bar using hydrogen to hydrocarbon (H.sub.2/HC) ratio of 3000 NI/I and weight hourly space velocity (WHSV) of 0.3 h.sup.1. WHSV and hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratio is calculated from the amount of tested oil fed in vessel. Process conditions and process yields are presented in Table 5, and the HDO oil product distribution is presented in Table 6. The HDO oil product boiling point distribution was obtained by GC-distillation (ASTMD 2887).

(84) TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 5 HDO process conditions and process yields. Tem- Pres- H.sub.2O Gas Oil perature sure H:HC WHSV yield yield yield C. bar liter/liter h.sup.1 % % % Experiment 308 53 3061 0.3 16 39 45 EX 13 309 55 2770 0.3 27 39 34 EX 14 307 53 3353 0.3 9 28 64 EX 15 309 52 3220 0.3 8 26 66 EX 16

(85) TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 6 HDO Oil product boiling point distribution. Bp: <180 C. Bp: 180-360 C. Bp: >360 C. Experiment 22% 53% 25% EX 13 27% 48% 25% EX 14 13% 51% 36% EX 15 13% 44% 44% EX 16

Example 3

(86) Physical Properties of Hydrodeoxygenated CC Coupling Reaction Products

(87) The HDO oil product of Experiment 13 of Example 2 was distilled in reduced pressure to fuel and heavy oil fractions, and some of the properties measured. Properties of the distilled fractions are shown in Table 7. The properties of the kerosene product in table 7 makes it suitable for a use as a Jet fuel.

(88) TABLE-US-00007 TABLE 7 Properties of distilled HDO product fractions of Experiment 13. Naphta/ Heavy kerosene Kerosene Diesel Diesel oil ENISO12185 Density 15 C. kg/m.sup.3 784.2 845.1 898.6 865.6 ENISO12185 Density 50 C. kg/m.sup.3 753.0 820 875 841.4 ASTMD7689 Cloud point C. Below Below Below 95 95 95 ASTMD7346 M Pour point C. ENISO3104 Viscosity 20 C. mm.sup.2/s 9.809 ENISO3104 Viscosity 80 C. mm.sup.2/s ENISO3104 Viscosity mm.sup.2/s 100 C. ASTMD7039 Sulfur mg/kg 1 5 ASTMD6379 Aromates vol-% 14.3 ASTMD5291 Carbon wt-% 85.9 ASTMD5291 Hydrogen wt-% 13.4 ASTMD3338 Heat value MJ/kg 45.746 ASTMD2887 Bp C. 10% 141 170 285 188 378 ASTMD2887 Bp C. 20% 146 200 298 220 405 ASTMD2887 Bp C. 30% 149 218 306 237 427 ASTMD2887 Bp C. 40% 149 229 314 251 450 ASTMD2887 Bp C. 50% 150 240 321 270 474 ASTMD2887 Bp C. 60% 153 248 329 292 500 ASTMD2887 Bp C. 70% 162 259 338 312 529 ASTMD2887 Bp C. 80% 170 275 349 333 564 ASTMD2887 Bp C. 90% 187 297 366 364 614

(89) It will therefore be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the present invention can be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The presently disclosed embodiments are therefore considered in all respects to be illustrative and not restricted. The scope of the invention is indicated by the appended claims rather than the foregoing description and all changes that come within the meaning and range and equivalence thereof are intended to be embraced therein.