Group III nitride substrate, method of making, and method of use

Abstract

Embodiments of the present disclosure include techniques related to techniques for processing materials for manufacture of group-III metal nitride and gallium based substrates. More specifically, embodiments of the disclosure include techniques for growing large area substrates using a combination of processing techniques. Merely by way of example, the disclosure can be applied to growing crystals of GaN, AlN, InN, InGaN, AlGaN, and AlInGaN, and others for manufacture of bulk or patterned substrates. Such bulk or patterned substrates can be used for a variety of applications including optoelectronic and electronic devices, lasers, light emitting diodes, solar cells, photo electrochemical water splitting and hydrogen generation, photodetectors, integrated circuits, and transistors, and others.

Claims

1. A free-standing crystal, comprising a group III metal and nitrogen, wherein the free-standing crystal comprises: a wurtzite crystal structure; a first surface having a maximum dimension greater than 40 millimeters in a first direction; an average concentration of stacking faults below 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1; an average concentration of threading dislocations between 10.sup.1 cm.sup.−2 and 10.sup.6 cm.sup.−2, wherein the average concentration of threading dislocations on the first surface varies periodically by at least a factor of two in the first direction, a period of the variation in the first direction being between 5 micrometers and 20 millimeters; and a miscut angle that varies by 0.1 degree or less along the first direction and by 0.1 degree or less along a second direction orthogonal to the first direction in the central 80% of an area of the first surface of the free-standing crystal, wherein the first surface comprises a plurality of first regions, each of the plurality of first regions having a locally-approximately-linear array of threading dislocations with a concentration between 5 cm.sup.−1 and 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−1, the first surface further comprises a plurality of second regions, each of the plurality of second regions being disposed between an adjacent pair of the plurality of first regions and having a concentration of threading dislocations below 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2 and a concentration of stacking faults below 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1, and the first surface further comprises a plurality of third regions, each of the plurality of third regions being disposed within one of the plurality of second regions or between an adjacent pair of second regions and having a minimum dimension between 10 micrometers and 500 micrometers and threading dislocations with a concentration between 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2 and 10.sup.8 cm.sup.−2.

2. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein the first surface of the free-standing crystal further comprises an impurity concentration of H greater than 10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3, and an impurity concentration of at least one of Li, Na, K, F, Cl, Br, and I greater than 10.sup.15 cm.sup.−3, as quantified by calibrated secondary ion mass spectrometry.

3. The free-standing crystal of claim 2, wherein the first surface is characterized by impurity concentrations of oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), and at least one of fluorine (F) and chlorine (CI) between 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, between 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 2×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, and between 1×10.sup.15 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, respectively.

4. The free-standing crystal of claim 2, wherein the first surface is characterized by impurity concentrations of oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), and at least one of sodium (Na) and potassium (K) between 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, between 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 2×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, and between 3×10.sup.15 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, respectively.

5. The free-standing crystal of claim 2, wherein a ratio of the impurity concentration of H to an impurity concentration of O is between about 0.3 and about 100.

6. The free-standing crystal of claim 5, wherein the ratio of the impurity concentration of H to the impurity concentration of O is between about 0.4 and about 10.

7. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein the first surface is characterized by a symmetric x-ray rocking curve full width at half maximum less than 50 arcsec, as measured by an x-ray diffractometer with a slit height of 1 millimeter.

8. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein a pitch dimension between adjacent pairs of first regions is between 400 micrometers and 5 millimeters.

9. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein the first surface is characterized by a crystallographic orientation within 5 degrees of the {10-10} m-plane.

10. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein the first surface is characterized by a crystallographic orientation within 5 degrees of the (0001)+c-plane or within 5 degrees of the (000-1)−c-plane.

11. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein the first surface is characterized by a crystallographic orientation within 5 degrees of a semipolar orientation selected from {6 0 −6 ±1}, {5 0 −5 ±1}, {4 0 −4 ±1}, {3 0 −3 ±1}, {5 0 −5 ±2}, {7 0 −7 ±3}, {2 0 −2 ±1}, {3 0 −3 ±2}, {4 0 −4 ±3}, {5 0 −5 ±4}, {1 0 −1 ±1}, {1 0 −1 ±2}, {1 0 −1 ±3}, {2 1 −3 ±1}, and {3 0 −3 ±4}.

12. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein the locally-approximately-linear arrays of the plurality of first regions are oriented within 5 degrees of a crystallographic plane selected from {1 0 −1 0}, {1 1 −2 0}, and (0 0 0 ±1), and a projection of the crystallographic plane on the first surface.

13. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, further comprising a second surface, wherein the second surface is substantially parallel to the first surface; and the free-standing crystal is characterized by a thickness between the first surface and the second surface between about 0.1 millimeter and about 1 millimeter, by a total thickness variation of less than about 10 micrometers, and by a macroscopic bow less than about 50 micrometers.

14. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein the first surface has a maximum dimension greater than 50 millimeters in the first direction.

15. The free-standing crystal of claim 14, wherein the first surface has a maximum dimension greater than 75 millimeters in the first direction.

16. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein the period of the variation in the first direction is between 200 micrometers and 5 millimeters.

17. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein the plurality of third regions are characterized by threading dislocations with a concentration between 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2 and 10.sup.6 cm.sup.−2.

18. The free-standing crystal of claim 17, wherein the plurality of third regions are characterized by threading dislocations with a concentration between 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2 and 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2.

19. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein a ratio between the concentration of threading dislocations within the third regions divided by the concentration of threading dislocations within the second regions is between 2 and 10.sup.4.

20. The free-standing crystal of claim 19, wherein the ratio between the concentration of threading dislocations within the third regions divided by the concentration of threading dislocations within the second regions is between 2 and 3000.

21. The free-standing crystal of claim 20, wherein the ratio between the concentration of threading dislocations within the third regions divided by the concentration of threading dislocations within the second regions is between 3 and 1000.

22. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, wherein the first surface has a concentration of macro defects, each macro defect being characterized by a diameter or characteristic dimension greater than about 100 micrometers, of less than about 1 cm.sup.−2.

23. The free-standing crystal of claim 1, characterized by an optical absorption coefficient at a wavelength of 400 nanometers that is less than about 10 cm.sup.−1.

24. A free-standing crystal, comprising a group III metal and nitrogen, wherein the free-standing crystal comprises: a wurtzite crystal structure; a first surface having a maximum dimension greater than 40 millimeters in a first direction; an average concentration of stacking faults below 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1; an impurity concentration, at the first surface, of H greater than 10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 and an impurity concentration of at least one of Li, Na, K, F, Cl, Br, and I greater than 10.sup.15 cm.sup.−3, as quantified by calibrated secondary ion mass spectrometry; an average concentration of threading dislocations between 10.sup.1 cm.sup.−2 and 10.sup.6 cm.sup.−2, wherein the average concentration of threading dislocations on the first surface varies periodically by at least a factor of two in the first direction, a period of the variation in the first direction being between 5 micrometers and 20 millimeters; and a miscut angle that varies by 0.2 degree or less along the first direction and by 0.2 degree or less in the central 80% of an area of the first surface of the free-standing crystal, wherein the first surface comprises a plurality of first regions, each of the plurality of first regions having a locally-approximately-linear array of threading dislocations with a concentration between 5 cm.sup.−1 and 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−1, the first surface further comprises a plurality of second regions, each of the plurality of second regions being disposed between an adjacent pair of the plurality of first regions and having a concentration of threading dislocations below 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2 and a concentration of stacking faults below 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1, and the first surface further comprises a plurality of third regions, each of the plurality of third regions being disposed within one of the plurality of second regions or between an adjacent pair of second regions and having a minimum dimension between 10 micrometers and 500 micrometers and threading dislocations with a concentration between 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2 and 10.sup.8 cm.sup.−2.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) So that the manner in which the above recited features of the present disclosure can be understood in detail, a more particular description of the disclosure, briefly summarized above, may be had by reference to embodiments, some of which are illustrated in the appended drawings. It is to be noted, however, that the appended drawings illustrate only exemplary embodiments and are therefore not to be considered limiting of its scope, may admit to other equally effective embodiments.

(2) FIGS. 1A, 1B, and 1C are simplified diagrams illustrating different stages of a method of forming a patterned photoresist layer on a seed crystal or a substrate according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(3) FIGS. 1D and 1E are simplified diagrams illustrating a method of forming a patterned mask layer on a seed crystal or a substrate, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(4) FIGS. 1F, 1G, 1H, 1I, and 1J are top views of arrangements of openings in a patterned mask layer on a seed crystal or a substrate according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(5) FIGS. 1K and 1L are top views of arrangements of openings in a patterned mask layer on a seed crystal or a substrate according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(6) FIGS. 1M and 1N are simplified diagrams illustrating different stages of a method of forming a patterned photoresist layer on a seed crystal or a substrate according to an alternate embodiment of the present disclosure.

(7) FIGS. 1O and 1P are simplified diagrams illustrating a method of forming a patterned mask layer on a seed crystal or a substrate, according to an alternate embodiment of the present disclosure.

(8) FIG. 1Q is a simplified diagram illustrating a method of forming patterned trenches within a seed crystal or a substrate, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(9) FIGS. 1R, 1S, and 1T are simplified diagrams illustrating an alternative method of forming patterned trenches within a seed crystal or a substrate, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

(10) FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2C are simplified diagrams illustrating an epitaxial lateral overgrowth process for forming a large area group III metal nitride crystal, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(11) FIGS. 3A, 3B, and 3C are simplified diagrams illustrating an improved epitaxial lateral overgrowth process for forming a large area group III metal nitride crystal, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(12) FIGS. 3D, 3E, and 3F are simplified diagrams illustrating an improved epitaxial lateral overgrowth process for forming a large area group III metal nitride crystal, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(13) FIGS. 4A and 4B are simplified diagrams illustrating a method of forming a free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule and free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafers.

(14) FIGS. 5A-5E are simplified diagrams illustrating threading dislocation patterns and regions on a free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(15) FIGS. 6A, 6B, 7A, and 7B are cross-sectional diagrams illustrating methods and resulting optical, opto-electronic, or electronic devices according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

(16) FIG. 8 is a top view (plan view) of a free-standing laterally-grown GaN boule or wafer formed by ammonothermal lateral epitaxial growth using a mask layer having openings arranged in a two-dimensional square array.

(17) FIGS. 9A, 9B, and 9C are top views of a device structure, for example, of LEDs, according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

(18) FIG. 10 is an optical micrograph of a polished cross section of a trench in a c-plane GaN substrate that has been prepared according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(19) FIGS. 11A and 11B are optical micrographs of a cross section of a c-plane ammonothermal GaN layer that has formed according to an embodiment of the present disclosure, together with a close-up image from the same cross section.

(20) FIGS. 12A and 12B are plan-view optical micrographs of c-plane ammonothermal GaN layers that have been subjected to defect-selective etching, showing a low concentration of etch pits in the window region above slit-shaped mask openings oriented along a <10-10> direction and a linear array of etch pits (threading dislocations) at coalescence fronts formed approximately midway between two window regions, according to two embodiments of the present disclosure.

(21) FIG. 13 is a summary of x-ray diffraction measurements comparing the miscut variation across a 50 mm wafer fabricated according to one embodiment of the present disclosure with that of a commercially-available 50 mm wafer.

(22) FIG. 14 is a summary of x-ray rocking-curve measurements comparing the full-width-at-half-maximum values of two reflections from a 50 mm wafer fabricated according to one embodiment of the present disclosure with that of a commercially-available 50 mm wafer.

(23) FIG. 15 is an optical micrograph of a laser-cut cross section of a trench in a c-plane GaN substrate that has been prepared according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(24) FIG. 16 is a plan-view optical micrograph of a c-plane ammonothermal GaN layer that has been subjected to defect-selective etching, showing a low concentration of etch pits in the window region above slit-shaped mask openings oriented along a <10-10> direction and a linear array of etch pits (threading dislocations) at coalescence fronts formed approximately midway between two window regions, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

(25) To facilitate understanding, identical reference numerals have been used, where possible, to designate identical elements that are common to the figures. It is contemplated that elements and features of one embodiment may be beneficially incorporated in other embodiments without further recitation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(26) According to the present disclosure, techniques related to techniques for processing materials for manufacture of group-III metal nitride and gallium based substrates are provided. More specifically, embodiments of the disclosure include techniques for growing large area substrates using a combination of processing techniques. Merely by way of example, the disclosure can be applied to growing crystals of GaN, AlN, InN, InGaN, AlGaN, and AlInGaN, and others for manufacture of bulk or patterned substrates. Such bulk or patterned substrates can be used for a variety of applications including optoelectronic devices, lasers, light emitting diodes, solar cells, photo electrochemical water splitting and hydrogen generation, photodetectors, integrated circuits, and transistors, and others.

(27) Threading dislocations in GaN are known to act as strong non-radiative recombination centers which can severely limit the efficiency of GaN-based LEDs and laser diodes. Non-radiative recombination generates local heating which may lead to faster device degradation (Cao et al., Microelectronics Reliability, 2003, 43(12), 1987-1991). In high-power applications, GaN-based devices suffer from decreased efficiency with increasing current density, known as droop. There is evidence suggesting a correlation between dislocation density and the magnitude of droop in LEDs (Schubert et al., Applied Physics Letters, 2007, 91(23), 231114). For GaN-based laser diodes there is a well-documented negative correlation between dislocation density and mean time to failure (MTTF) (Tom iya et al., IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 2004, 10(6), 1277-1286), which appears to be due to impurity diffusion along the dislocations (Orita et al., IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium Proceedings, 2009, 736-740). For electronic devices, dislocations have been shown to markedly increase the leakage current (Kaun et al., Applied Physics Express, 2011, 4(2), 024101) and reduce the device lifetime (Tapajna et al., Applied Physics Letters, 2011, 99(22), 223501-223503) in HEMT structures. One of the primary advantages of using bulk GaN as a substrate material for epitaxial thin film growth is a large reduction in the concentration of threading dislocations in the film. Therefore, the dislocation density in the bulk GaN substrate will have a significant impact on the device efficiency and the reliability.

(28) As noted above, lateral epitaxial overgrowth (LEO) is a method that has been widely applied to improvement in the crystallographic quality of films grown by vapor-phase methods. For example, methods whereby GaN layers were nucleated on a sapphire substrate, a SiO.sub.2 mask with a periodic array of openings was deposited on the GaN layer, and then GaN was grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) through the openings in the SiO.sub.2 mask layer, grew laterally over the mask, and coalesced. The dislocation density in the areas above the openings in the mask were very high, similar to the layer below the mask, but the dislocation density in the laterally-overgrown regions was orders of magnitude less. This method is attractive because it can be applied to large area substrates, significantly reducing their dislocation density. Similar methods, with variations, have been applied by a number of groups to vapor-phase growth of GaN layers. These methods are variously referred to as LEO, epitaxial lateral overgrowth (ELO or ELOG), selective area growth (SAG), and dislocation elimination by epitaxial growth with inverse pyramidal pits (DEEP), or the like. In the case of essentially all variations of this method, it is believed that a thin heteroepitaxial GaN layer is grown on a non-GaN substrate, a patterned mask is deposited on the GaN layer, and growth is re-initiated in a one-dimensional or two-dimensional array of openings in the mask. The period or pitch of the growth locations defined by the openings in the mask is typically between 2 and 100 micrometers, typically between about 5 and 20 micrometers. The individual GaN crystallites or regions grow and then coalesce. Epitaxial growth may then be continued on top of the coalesced GaN material to produce a thick film or “ingot.” A relatively thick GaN layer may be deposited on the coalesced GaN material by HVPE. The LEO process is capable of large reductions in the concentration of dislocations, particularly in the regions above the mask, typically to levels of about 10.sup.5-10.sup.7 cm.sup.−2. However, very often the laterally-grown wings of the formed LEO layer are crystallographically tilted from the underlying substrate (“wing tilt”), by as much as several degrees, which may be acceptable for a thin-film process but may not be acceptable for a bulk crystal growth process, as it may give rise to stresses and cracking as well as unacceptable variation in surface crystallographic orientation.

(29) Several factors limit the capability of the LEO method, as conventionally applied, to reduce the average dislocation density below about 10.sup.5 to 10.sup.7 cm.sup.−2, or to reduce the miscut variation across a 50 or 100 mm wafer to below about 0.1 degree. First, the pitch of the pattern of openings formed in the mask layer tends to be modest, but larger pitches may be desirable for certain applications. Second, c-plane LEO growth is generally performed in the (0001), or Ga-face direction, which creates at least two limitations. One limitation is that M-direction growth rates tend to be lower than those of (0001)-direction growth rates and semipolar (10-11) facets often form, with the consequence that the overall crystal diameter decreases with increasing thickness and making coalescence of large-pitch patterns difficult. In addition, another limitation is that growth in the (0001) direction tends to exclude oxygen, in contrast to growth in other crystallographic directions. As a consequence, there may be a significant lattice mismatch between a (0001)-grown HVPE crystal used as a seed and the crystal grown upon it by another technique. In addition, if semipolar facets form during the LEO process there may be a significant variation in oxygen (or other dopant) level, giving rise to lateral variations in the lattice constant and stresses that can cause cracking in the LEO crystal itself or in a crystal grown on the latter, used as a seed.

(30) Variations of the LEO method have been disclosed for other group III metal nitride growth techniques besides HVPE. In a first example, Jiang, et al. (U.S. No. 2014/0147650, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,589,792) disclosed a process for ammonothermal LEO growth of group-III metal nitrides, replacing the mask layer in typical vapor-phase LEO-type processes (SiO.sub.2 or SiN.sub.x) by a combination of an adhesion layer, a diffusion-barrier layer, and an inert layer. In a second example, Mori, et al. (U.S. No. 2014/0328742, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,834,859) disclosed a process for LEO growth of group-III metal nitrides in a sodium-gallium flux. However, in this method the coalescing crystallites typically have prominent semipolar facets, leading to significant lateral variation in the impurity content of coalesced crystals, and the thermal expansion mismatch between the coalesced nitride layer and a hetero-substrate, which includes a different material than the coalesced nitride layer, may cause uncontrolled cracking.

(31) Several authors, for example, Linthicum et al. (Applied Physics Letters, 75, 196, (1999)), Chen et al. (Applied Physics Letters 75, 2062 (1999)), and Wang, et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,500,257) have noted that threading dislocations in growing GaN normally propagate predominantly in the growth direction and showed that the dislocation density can be reduced even more than in the conventional LEO method by growing from the sidewalls of trenches in thin, highly-defective c-plane GaN layers rather than vertically through windows in a patterned mask. These methods have been extended to nonpolar- and semipolar-oriented thin GaN films by other authors, for example, Chen et al. (Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 42, L818 (2003)) and Imer et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 7,361,576). However, to the best of the inventors' knowledge, sidewall LEO methods have not yet been extended to growth of bulk GaN, nor to the growth of N-sector GaN. In particular, we have found that different methods that those used in the thin film studies work best to form trenches several hundred microns deep with pitches on the millimeter scale and produce some unexpected benefits.

(32) FIGS. 1A-1E are schematic cross-sectional views of a seed crystal or a substrate during various stages of a method for forming a patterned mask seed layer for ammonothermal sidewall lateral epitaxial overgrowth. Referring to FIG. 1A, a substrate 101 is provided with a photoresist layer 103 disposed thereon. In certain embodiments, substrate 101 consists of or includes a substrate material that is a single-crystalline group-III metal nitride, gallium-containing nitride, or gallium nitride. The substrate 101 may be grown by HVPE, ammonothermally, or by a flux method. One or both large area surfaces of substrate 101 may be polished and/or chemical-mechanically polished. A large-area surface 102 of substrate 101 may have a crystallographic orientation within 5 degrees, within 2 degrees, within 1 degree, or within 0.5 degree of (0001)+c-plane, (000-1)−c-plane, {10−10} m-plane, {11−2±2}, {60−6±1}, {50−5±1}, {40−4±1}, {30−3±1}, {50−5±2}, {70−7±3}, {20−2±1}, {30−3±2}, {40−4±3}, {50−5±4}, {10−1±1}, {1 0−1±2}, {1 0−1±3}, {2 1−3±1}, or {3 0−3±4}. It will be understood that plane {3 0−3±4} means the {3 0−3 4} plane and the {3 0−3 −4} plane. Large-area surface 102 may have an (h k i l) semipolar orientation, where i=−(h+k) and l and at least one of h and k are nonzero. Large-area surface 102 may have a maximum lateral dimension between about 5 millimeters and about 600 millimeters and a minimum lateral dimension between about 1 millimeter and about 600 millimeters and substrate 101 may have a thickness between about 10 micrometers and about 10 millimeters, or between about 100 micrometers and about 2 millimeters.

(33) Substrate 101 may have a surface threading dislocation density less than about 10.sup.7 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.6 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2, or less than about 10.sup.2 cm.sup.−2. Substrate 101 may have a stacking-fault concentration below about 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−1, below about 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1, below about 10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1, below about 10 cm.sup.−1 or below about 1 cm.sup.−1. Substrate 101 may have a symmetric x-ray rocking curve full width at half maximum (FWHM) less than about 500 arcsec, less than about 300 arcsec, less than about 200 arcsec, less than about 100 arcsec, less than about 50 arcsec, less than about 35 arcsec, less than about 25 arcsec, or less than about 15 arcsec. Substrate 101 may have a crystallographic radius of curvature greater than 0.1 meter, greater than 1 meter, greater than 10 meters, greater than 100 meters, or greater than 1000 meters, in at least one, at least two, or in three independent or orthogonal directions.

(34) Substrate 101 may comprise regions having a relatively high concentration of threading dislocations separated by regions having a relatively low concentration of threading dislocations. The concentration of threading dislocations in the relatively high concentration regions may be greater than about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2, greater than about 10.sup.6 cm.sup.−2, greater than about 10.sup.7 cm.sup.−2, or greater than about 10.sup.8 cm.sup.−2. The concentration of threading dislocations in the relatively low concentration regions may be less than about 10.sup.6 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2, or less than about 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−2. Substrate 101 may comprise regions having a relatively high electrical conductivity separated by regions having a relatively low electrical conductivity. Substrate 101 may have a thickness between about 10 microns and about 100 millimeters, or between about 0.1 millimeter and about 10 millimeters. Substrate 101 may have a dimension, including a diameter, of at least about 5 millimeters, at least about 10 millimeters, at least about 25 millimeters, at least about 50 millimeters, at least about 75 millimeters, at least about 100 millimeters, at least about 150 millimeters, at least about 200 millimeters, at least about 300 millimeters, at least about 400 millimeters, or at least about 600 millimeters.

(35) Large-area surface 102 (FIG. 1A) may have a crystallographic orientation within about 5 degrees of the (000-1) N-face, c-plane orientation, may have an x-ray diffraction w-scan rocking curve full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM) less than about 200 arcsec less than about 100 arcsec, less than about 50 arcsec, or less than about 30 arcsec for the (002) and/or the (102) reflections and may have a dislocation density less than about 10.sup.7 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.6 cm.sup.−2, or less than about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2. In some embodiments, the threading dislocations in large-area surface 102 are approximately uniformly distributed. In other embodiments, the threading dislocations in large-area surface 102 are arranged inhomogeneously as a one-dimensional array of rows of relatively high- and relatively low-concentration regions or as a two-dimensional array of high-dislocation-density regions within a matrix of low-dislocation-density regions. The crystallographic orientation of large-area surface 102 may be constant to less than about 5 degrees, less than about 2 degrees, less than about 1 degree, less than about 0.5 degree, less than about 0.2 degree, less than about 0.1 degree, or less than about 0.05 degree. In certain embodiments, large-area surface 102 is roughened to enhance adhesion of a mask layer, for example, by wet-etching, to form a frosted morphology.

(36) Referring again to FIG. 1A, a photoresist layer 103 may be deposited on the large-area surface 102 by methods that are known in the art. For example, in a certain embodiment of a lift-off process, a liquid solution of a negative photoresist is first applied to large-area surface 102. Substrate 101 is then spun at a high speed (for example, between 1000 to 6000 revolutions per minute for 30 to 60 seconds), resulting in a uniform photoresist layer 103 on large-area surface 102. Photoresist layer 103 may then be baked (for example, between about 90 and about 120 degrees Celsius) to remove excess photoresist solvent. After baking, the photoresist layer 103 may then be exposed to UV light through a photomask (not shown) to form a patterned photoresist layer 104 (FIG. 1B) having a pre-determined pattern of cross-linked photoresist, such as regions 104A, formed within the unexposed regions 104B. The regions 104B of the patterned photoresist may form stripes or dots having characteristic width or diameter W and pitch L. The patterned photoresist layer 104 may then be developed to remove non-cross linked material found in regions 104B and leave regions 104A, such as illustrated in FIG. 1C.

(37) Referring to FIG. 1D, one or more mask layers 111 may be deposited on large-area surface 102 and regions 104A of the patterned photoresist layer 104. The one or more mask layers 111 may comprise an adhesion layer 105 that is deposited on the large-area surface 102, a diffusion-barrier layer 107 deposited over the adhesion layer 105, and an inert layer 109 deposited over the diffusion-barrier layer 107. The adhesion layer 105 may comprise one or more of Ti, TiN, TiN.sub.y, TiSi.sub.2, Ta, TaN.sub.y, Al, Ge, Al.sub.xGe.sub.y, Cu, Si, Cr, V, Ni, W, TiW.sub.x, TiW.sub.xN.sub.y, or the like and may have a thickness between about 1 nanometer and about 1 micrometer. The diffusion-barrier layer 107 may comprise one or more of TiN, TiN.sub.y, TiSi.sub.2, W, TiW.sub.x, TiN.sub.y, WN.sub.y, TaN.sub.y, TiW.sub.xN.sub.y, TiW.sub.xSi.sub.zN.sub.y, TiC, TiCN, Pd, Rh, Cr, or the like, and have a thickness between about 1 nanometer and about 10 micrometers. The inert layer 109 may comprise one or more of Au, Ag, Pt, Pd, Rh, Ru, Ir, Ni, Cr, V, Ti, or Ta and may have a thickness between about 10 nanometers and about 100 micrometers. The one or more mask layers 111 may be deposited by sputter deposition, thermal evaporation, electron-beam evaporation, or the like. After deposition of the patterned mask layer(s) 111, the portions of the mask layer(s) 111 residing above the regions 104A of the patterned photoresist layer 104 are not in direct contact with the substrate 101, as shown in FIG. 1D. The regions 104A and portions of the mask layer(s) 111 disposed thereon are then lifted off by methods that are known in the art to form the openings 112 in the mask layer(s) 111, as shown in FIG. 1E. In certain embodiments, a relatively thin inert layer, for example, 10 to 500 nanometers thick, is deposited prior to the lift-off process. After performing the lift-off process, an additional, thicker inert layer, for example, 5 to 100 micrometers thick, may be deposited over the already-patterned inert layer by electroplating, electroless deposition, or the like.

(38) Other methods besides the lift-off procedure described above may be used to form the patterned mask layer 111, including shadow masking, positive resist reactive ion etching, wet chemical etching, ion milling, and nanoimprint lithography, plus variations of the negative resist lift-off procedure described above.

(39) In certain embodiments, patterned mask layer(s) 111 are deposited on both the front and back surfaces of substrate 101.

(40) FIGS. 1F-1L are top views of arrangements of exposed regions 120 on the substrate 101 formed by one or more of the processes described above. The exposed regions 120 (or also referred to herein as growth centers), which are illustrated, for example, in FIGS. 1F-1L, may be defined by the openings 112 formed in patterned mask layer(s) 111 shown in FIG. 1E. In certain embodiments, the exposed regions 120 are arranged in a one-dimensional (1D) array in the y-direction, such as a single column of exposed regions 120 as shown in FIG. 11. In certain embodiments, the exposed regions 120 are arranged in a two-dimensional (2D) array in x- and y-directions, such as illustrated in FIGS. 1F-1H and 1J-1L. The openings 112, and thus exposed regions 120, may be round, square, rectangular, triangular, hexagonal, or the like, and may have an opening dimension or diameter W between about 1 micrometer and about 5 millimeters, or between about 10 micrometers and about 500 micrometers such as illustrated in FIGS. 1F-1I. The exposed regions 120 may be arranged in a 2D hexagonal or square array with a pitch dimension L between about 5 micrometers and about 20 millimeters, between about 200 micrometers and about 15 millimeters, or between about 500 micrometers and about 10 millimeters, or between about 0.8 millimeter and about 5 millimeters, such as illustrated in FIGS. 1F and 1G. The exposed regions 120 may be arranged in a 2D array, in which the pitch dimension L.sub.1 in the y-direction and pitch dimension L.sub.2 in the x-direction may be different from one another, as illustrated in FIGS. 1H and 1J-1L. The exposed regions 120 may be arranged in a rectangular, parallelogram, hexagonal, or trapezoidal array (not shown), in which the pitch dimensions L.sub.1 in the y-direction and L.sub.2 in the x-direction may be different from one another, as illustrated in FIGS. 1H and 1J-1L). The array of exposed regions 120 may also be linear or irregular shaped. The exposed regions 120 in patterned mask layer(s) 111 may be placed in registry with the structure of substrate 101. For example, in certain embodiments, large-area surface 102 is hexagonal, e.g., a (0001) or (000-1) crystallographic orientation, and the openings in patterned mask layer(s) 111 comprise a 2D hexagonal array such that the separations between nearest-neighbor openings are parallel to <11-20> or <10-10> directions in large-area surface 102. In certain embodiments, large-area surface 102 of the substrate is nonpolar or semipolar and the exposed regions 120 comprise a 2D square or rectangular array such that the separations between nearest-neighbor openings are parallel to the projections of two of the c-axis, an m-axis, and an a-axis on large-area surface 102 of substrate 101. In certain embodiments, the pattern of exposed regions 120 is obliquely oriented with respect to the structure of substrate 101, for example, wherein the exposed regions 120 are rotated by between about 1 degree and about 44 degrees with respect to a high-symmetry axis of the substrate, such as a projection of the c-axis, an m-axis, or an a-axis on large-area surface 102 of substrate 101 that has a hexagonal crystal structure, such as a Wurtzite crystal structure. In certain embodiments, the exposed regions 120 are substantially linear rather than substantially round. In certain embodiments, the exposed regions 120 are slits having a width W and period L that run across the entire length of substrate 101, as illustrated in FIG. 11. In certain embodiments, the exposed regions 120 are slits that have a width W.sub.1 in the y-direction and a predetermined length W.sub.2 in the x-direction that is less than the length of substrate 101 and may be arranged in a 2D linear array with period L.sub.1 in the y-direction and period L.sub.2 in the x-direction, as illustrated in FIGS. 1J-1L. In some embodiments, adjacent rows of exposed regions 120 (e.g., slits) may be offset in the x-direction from one another rather than arranged directly adjacent, as shown in FIG. 1K. In certain embodiments, the adjacent rows of exposed regions 120 (e.g., slits) may be offset in the longitudinal y-direction from one another. In certain embodiments, the exposed regions 120 include slits that extend in two or more different directions, for example, the x-direction and the y-direction, as shown in FIG. 1L. In certain embodiments, the exposed regions 120 (e.g., slits) may be arranged in a way that reflects the hexagonal symmetry of the substrate. In certain embodiments, the exposed regions 120 (e.g., slits) may extend to the edge of the substrate 101.

(41) In an alternative embodiment, as shown in FIG. 1M, large-area surface 102 of substrate 101 is covered with a blanket mask 116, comprising one, two, or more of adhesion layer 105, diffusion-barrier layer 107, and inert layer 109, followed by a positive photoresist layer 113. The photoresist layer is exposed to UV light through a photomask (not shown), forming solubilizable, exposed regions 106B and unexposed regions 106A, as shown in FIG. 1N (essentially the negative of the pattern shown in FIG. 1B). Exposed regions 106B are then removed by developing. As shown in FIG. 1O, openings 112 in the blanket mask 116 (comprising adhesion layer 105, diffusion-barrier layer 107, and inert layer 109) may then be formed by wet or dry etching through the openings in patterned photoresist layer 113A, to form the patterned mask layer 111. After forming the openings 112 the photoresist layer 113 is removed, as shown in FIG. 1P, producing a structure that is similar or identical to that shown in FIG. 1E.

(42) Trenches 115 are then formed in exposed regions 120 of the substrate 101 through the openings 112 (or “windows”) formed in patterned mask layer 111, as shown in FIG. 1Q. In certain embodiments, the depth of the trenches 115 is between 50 micrometers and about 1 millimeter or between about 100 micrometers and about 300 micrometers. In certain embodiments the trenches 115 penetrate the entire thickness of substrate 101, forming patterned holes or slits that extend from the rear side 118 of the substrate 101 and through the openings 112 of the patterned mask layer 111. The width of an individual trench may be between about 10 micrometers and about 500 micrometers, or between about 20 micrometers and about 200 micrometers. Individual trenches 115 may be linear or curved and may have a length in the X-direction and/or Y-direction between about 100 micrometers and about 50 millimeters, or between about 200 micrometers and about 10 millimeters, or between about 500 micrometers and about 5 millimeters. In a specific embodiment, large-area surface 102 of substrate 101 has a (000-1), N-face orientation and trench 115 is formed by wet etching. In a specific embodiment, an etchant composition or solution comprises a solution of 85% phosphoric acid (H.sub.3PO.sub.4) and sulfuric (H.sub.2SO.sub.4) acids with a H.sub.2SO.sub.4/H.sub.3PO.sub.4 ratio between 0 and about 1:1. In certain embodiments, a phosphoric acid solution is conditioned to form polyphosphoric acid, increasing its boiling point. For example, reagent-grade (85%) H.sub.3PO.sub.4 may be conditioned by stirring and heating in a beaker at a temperature between about 200 degrees Celsius and about 450 degrees Celsius for between about 5 minutes and about five hours. In a specific embodiment, trench 115 is formed by heating masked substrate 101 in one of the aforementioned etch solutions at a temperature between about 200 degrees Celsius and about 350 degrees Celsius for a time between about 15 minutes and about 6 hours. In another embodiment, trench 115 is formed by electrochemical wet etching.

(43) FIGS. 1R-1T show an alternative approach to forming an array of patterned, masked trenches in substrate 101. A blanket mask 116 (comprising adhesion layer 105, diffusion-barrier layer 107, and inert layer 109) may be deposited on large-area surface 102 of substrate 101 as shown in FIG. 1R. Nascent trenches 114 may be formed by laser ablation, as shown in FIG. 1S, to form a patterned mask layer 111. The laser ablation process is also known as or referred to as laser machining or laser beam machining processes. Laser ablation may be performed by a watt-level laser, such as a neodymium-doped yttrium-aluminum-garnet (Nd:YAG) laser, a CO.sub.2 laser, an excimer laser, a Ti:sapphire laser, or the like. The laser may emit pulses with a pulse length in the nanosecond, picosecond, or femtosecond range. In certain embodiments the frequency of the output light of the laser may be doubled, tripled, or quadrupled using an appropriate nonlinear optic. The beam width, power, and scan rate of the laser over the surface of substrate 101 with patterned mask layer 111 may be varied to adjust the width, depth, and aspect ratio of nascent trenches 114. The laser may be scanned repetitively over a single trench or repetitively over the whole array of trenches.

(44) The surfaces and sidewalls of the nascent trenches 114 may contain damage left over from the laser ablation process. In certain embodiments, substrate 101, containing nascent trenches 114, is further processed by wet etching, dry etching, or photoelectrochemical etching in order to remove residual damage in nascent trenches 114. In a specific embodiment, large-area surface 102 of substrate 101 has a (000-1), N-face orientation and a trench 115 is formed from nascent trench 114 by wet etching as shown in FIG. 1T. In a specific embodiment, an etchant composition or solution comprises a solution of 85% phosphoric acid (H.sub.3PO.sub.4) and sulfuric (H.sub.2SO.sub.4) acids with a H.sub.2SO.sub.4/H.sub.3PO.sub.4 ratio between 0 and about 1:1. In certain embodiments, a phosphoric acid solution is conditioned to form polyphosphoric acid, increasing its boiling point. For example, reagent-grade (85%) H.sub.3PO.sub.4 may be conditioned by stirring and heating in a beaker at a temperature between about 200 degrees Celsius and about 450 degrees Celsius for between about 5 minutes and about five hours. In a specific embodiment, trench 115 is formed by heating substrate 101 in one of the aforementioned etch solutions at a temperature between about 200 degrees Celsius and about 350 degrees Celsius for a time between about 15 minutes and about 6 hours.

(45) The substrate 101 with the masked, patterned trenches 115 is then used as a substrate for bulk crystal growth, for example, comprising ammonothermal growth, HVPE growth, or flux growth. In the discussion below the grown GaN layer will be referred to as an ammonothermal layer, even though other bulk growth methods, such as HVPE or flux growth, may be used instead. In certain embodiments, comprising ammonothermal bulk growth, patterned substrate 101 may then be suspended on a seed rack and placed in a sealable container, such as a capsule, an autoclave, or a liner within an autoclave. In certain embodiments, one or more pairs of patterned substrates are suspended back to back, with the patterned large area surfaces facing outward. A group III metal source, such as polycrystalline group III metal nitride, at least one mineralizer composition, and ammonia (or other nitrogen containing solvent) are then added to the sealable container and the sealable container is sealed. The mineralizer composition may comprise an alkali metal such as Li, Na, K, Rb, or Cs, an alkaline earth metal, such as Mg, Ca, Sr, or Ba, or an alkali or alkaline earth hydride, amide, imide, amido-imide, nitride, or azide. The mineralizer may comprise an ammonium halide, such as NH.sub.4F, NH.sub.4Cl, NH.sub.4Br, or NH.sub.4I, a gallium halide, such as GaF.sub.3, GaCl.sub.3, GaBr.sub.3, GaI.sub.3, or any compound that may be formed by reaction of one or more of F, Cl, Br, I, HF, HCl, HBr, HI, Ga, GaN, and NH.sub.3. The mineralizer may comprise other alkali, alkaline earth, or ammonium salts, other halides, urea, sulfur or a sulfide salt, or phosphorus or a phosphorus-containing salt. The sealable container (e.g., capsule) may then be placed in a high pressure apparatus, such as an internally heated high pressure apparatus or an autoclave, and the high pressure apparatus sealed. The sealable container, containing patterned substrate 101, is then heated to a temperature above about 400 degrees Celsius and pressurized above about 50 megapascal to perform ammonothermal crystal growth.

(46) As a point of reference, FIGS. 2A-2C illustrate bulk crystal growth by a conventional LEO process with no trenches below mask openings. During a bulk crystal growth process, group III metal nitride layer 213 grows through the openings 112 of patterned mask layer 111, grows outward through the openings, as shown in FIG. 2B, grows laterally over patterned mask layer 111, and coalesces, as shown in FIG. 2C. After coalescence, group III metal nitride layer 213 comprises window regions 215, which have grown vertically with respect to the openings in patterned mask layer 111, wing regions 217, which have grown laterally over patterned mask layer 111, and coalescence fronts 219, which form at the boundaries between wings growing from adjacent openings in patterned mask layer 111. Threading dislocations 214 may be present in window regions 215, originating from threading dislocations that were present at the surface of the substrate 101.

(47) FIGS. 3A-3C illustrate a bulk group III nitride sidewall LEO process. FIG. 3A illustrates a substrate that includes a patterned, masked trench 115, formed by one of the processes described herein. In a sidewall LEO process, a group III metal nitride material 221 grows on the sides and bottoms of the patterned, masked trenches 115 as shown in FIG. 3B. As group III metal nitride material 221 on the sidewalls of trenches 115 grow inward, it becomes progressively more difficult for group III nitride nutrient material to reach the bottom of the trenches, whether the nutrient material comprises an ammonothermal complex of a group III metal (in the case of ammonothermal growth), a group III metal halide (in the case of HVPE), or a group III metal alloy or inorganic complex (in the case of flux growth). Eventually group III metal nitride material 221 pinches off the lower regions of the trenches, forming voids 225 as shown in FIG. 3C. It has been found that the concentration of threading dislocations in group III metal nitride material 221, which has grown laterally, is lower than that in substrate 101. Many threading dislocations 223, originating from substrate 101, terminate on the surfaces of voids 225. Concomitantly, the group III metal nitride layer 213 grows upward through openings 112 (or windows) in patterned mask layer 111. However, since laterally-grown group III metal nitride material 221 has a lower concentration of threading dislocations than substrate 101 and many dislocations from substrate 101 have terminated at surfaces of voids 225, the dislocation density in the vertically grown group III metal nitride layer 213 is considerably reduced, relative to a conventional LEO process, as described above in conjunction with FIG. 2A-2C.

(48) FIGS. 3D-3F illustrate the continuation of the sidewall LEO growth process. As in the conventional LEO process (FIGS. 2A-2C), group III metal nitride layer 213 grows within the openings 112 of patterned mask layer 111, grows outward through the openings as shown in FIG. 3D, grows laterally over patterned mask layer 111, and coalesces, as shown in FIG. 3E. After coalescence, group III metal nitride layer 213 comprises window regions 215, which have grown vertically with respect to the openings in patterned mask layer 111, wing regions 217, which have grown laterally over patterned mask layer 111, and coalescence fronts 219, which form at the boundaries between wings growing from adjacent openings in patterned mask layer 111, as shown in FIG. 3F. Since laterally-grown group III metal nitride material 221 has a lower concentration of threading dislocations than substrate 101 and many threading dislocations from substrate 101 have terminated in voids 225, the concentration of threading dislocations in window regions 215 is significantly lower than in the case of conventional LEO.

(49) Ammonothermal group III metal nitride layer 213 may have a thickness between about 10 micrometers and about 100 millimeters, or between about 100 micrometers and about 20 millimeters.

(50) In certain embodiments, ammonothermal group III metal nitride layer 213 is subjected to one or more processes, such as at least one of sawing, lapping, grinding, polishing, chemical-mechanical polishing, or etching.

(51) In certain embodiments, the concentration of extended defects, such as threading dislocations and stacking faults, in the ammonothermal group III metal nitride layer 213 may be quantified by defect selective etching. Defect-selective etching may be performed, for example, using a solution comprising one or more of H.sub.3PO.sub.4, H.sub.3PO.sub.4 that has been conditioned by prolonged heat treatment to form polyphosphoric acid, and H.sub.2SO.sub.4, or a molten flux comprising one or more of NaOH and KOH. Defect-selective etching may be performed at a temperature between about 100 degrees Celsius and about 500 degrees Celsius for a time between about 5 minutes and about 5 hours, wherein the processing temperature and time are selected so as to cause formation of etch pits with diameters between about 1 micrometer and about 25 micrometers, then removing the ammonothermal group III metal nitride layer, crystal, or wafer from the etchant solution.

(52) The concentration of threading dislocations in the surface of the window regions 215 may be less than that in the underlying substrate 101 by a factor between about 10 and about 10.sup.4. The concentration of threading dislocations in the surface of the window regions 215 may be less than about 10.sup.8 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.7 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.6 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2, or less than about 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−2. The concentration of threading dislocations in the surface of wing regions 217 may be lower, by about one to about three orders of magnitude, than the concentration of threading dislocations in the surface of the window regions 215, and may be below about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.2 cm.sup.−2, or below about 10 cm.sup.−2. Some stacking faults, for example, at a concentration between about 1 cm.sup.−1 and about 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−1, may be present at the surface of the window regions 215. The concentration of stacking faults in the surface of wing regions 217 may be lower, by about one to about three orders of magnitude, than the concentration of stacking faults in the surface of the window regions 215, and may be below about 10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1, below about 10 cm.sup.−1, below about 1 cm.sup.−1, or below about 0.1 cm.sup.−1, or may be undetectable. Threading dislocations, for example, edge dislocations, may be present at coalescence fronts 219, for example, with a line density that is less than about 1×10.sup.5 cm.sup.−1, less than about 3×10.sup.4 cm.sup.−1, less than about 1×10.sup.4 cm.sup.−1, less than about 3×10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1, less than about 1×10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1, less than about 3×10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1, or less than 1×10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1. The density of dislocations along the coalescence fronts may be greater than 5 cm.sup.−1, greater than 10 cm.sup.−1, greater than 20 cm.sup.−1, greater than 50 cm.sup.−1, greater than 100 cm.sup.−1, greater than 200 cm.sup.−1, or greater than 500 cm.sup.−1.

(53) In certain embodiments, the process of masking and bulk group III nitride crystal growth is repeated one, two, three, or more times. In some embodiments, these operations are performed while the first bulk group III metal nitride layer remains coupled to substrate 101. In other embodiments, substrate 101 is removed prior to a subsequent masking and bulk crystal growth operation, for example, by sawing, lapping, grinding, and/or etching.

(54) FIGS. 4A and 4B are simplified diagrams illustrating a method of forming a free-standing group III metal nitride boule and free-standing group III metal nitride wafers. In certain embodiments, substrate 101 is removed from ammonothermal group III metal nitride layer 213 (FIG. 3F), or the last such layer deposited, to form free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule 413. Removal of substrate 101 may be accomplished by one or more of sawing, grinding, lapping, polishing, laser lift-off, self-separation, and etching to form a processed free-standing laterally-grown group III metal nitride boule 413. The processed free-standing laterally-grown group III metal nitride boule 413 may include a similar or essentially identical composition as the ammonothermal group III metal nitride layer and etching may be performed under conditions where the etch rate of the back side of substrate 101 is much faster than the etch rate of the front surface of the ammonothermal group III metal nitride layer. In certain embodiments a portion of ammonothermal group III metal nitride layer 213, or the last such layer deposited, may be protected from attack by the etchant by deposition of a mask layer, wrapping the portion of the layer with Teflon, clamping the portion of the layer against Teflon, painting with Teflon paint, or the like. In a specific embodiment, substrate 101 comprises single crystal gallium nitride, large-area surface 102 of substrate 101 has a crystallographic orientation within about 5 degrees of a (0001) crystallographic orientation, and substrate 101 is preferentially etched by heating in a solution comprising one or more of H.sub.3PO.sub.4, H.sub.3PO.sub.4 that has been conditioned by prolonged heat treatment to form polyphosphoric acid, and H.sub.2SO.sub.4 at a temperature between about 150 degrees Celsius and about 500 degrees Celsius for a time between about 30 minutes and about 5 hours, or by heating in a molten flux comprising one or more of NaOH and KOH. Surprisingly, patterned mask layer(s) 111 may facilitate preferential removal of substrate 101 by acting as an etch stop. The processed free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule 413 may include one or more window regions 415 that were formed above exposed regions 120, such as openings 112 in patterned mask layer(s) 111, on a substrate 101. The processed free-standing laterally-grown group III metal nitride boule 413 may also include one or more wing regions 417 that were formed above non-open regions in patterned mask layer(s) 111, and a pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations, as shown in FIG. 4A. One or more of front surface 421 and back surface 423 of free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule 413 may be lapped, polished, etched, and chemical-mechanically polished. As similarly discussed above, the coalescence fronts 419 may include a coalescence front region that includes a “sharp boundary” that has a width less than about 25 micrometers or less than about 10 micrometers that is disposed between the adjacent wing regions 417, or an “extended boundary” that has a width between about 25 micrometers and about 1000 micrometers or between about 30 micrometers and about 250 micrometers that is disposed between the adjacent wing regions 417, depending on the growth conditions.

(55) In certain embodiments, the edge of free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule 413 is ground to form a cylindrically-shaped ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule. In certain embodiments, one or more flats is ground into the side of free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule 413. In certain embodiments, free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule 413 is sliced into one or more free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafers 431, as shown in FIG. 4B. The slicing may be performed by multi-wire sawing, multi-wire slurry sawing, slicing, inner-diameter sawing, outer-diameter sawing, cleaving, ion implantation followed by exfoliation, laser cutting, or the like. One or more large-area surface of free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafers 431 may be lapped, polished, etched, electrochemically polished, photoelectrochemically polished, reactive-ion-etched, and/or chemical-mechanically polished according to methods that are known in the art. In certain embodiments, a chamfer, bevel, or rounded edge is ground into the edges of free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafers 431. The free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafers may have a diameter of at least about 5 millimeters, at least about 10 millimeters, at least about 25 millimeters, at least about 50 millimeters, at least about 75 millimeters, at least about 100 millimeters, at least about 150 millimeters, at least about 200 millimeters, at least about 300 millimeters, at least about 400 millimeters, or at least about 600 millimeters and may have a thickness between about 50 micrometers and about 10 millimeters or between about 150 micrometers and about 1 millimeter. One or more large-area surface of free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafers 431 may be used as a substrate for group III metal nitride growth by chemical vapor deposition, metalorganic chemical vapor deposition, hydride vapor phase epitaxy, molecular beam epitaxy, flux growth, solution growth, ammonothermal growth, among others, or the like.

(56) FIGS. 5A-5E are simplified diagrams illustrating threading dislocation patterns formed in a free-standing group III metal nitride boule 413 or wafer 431. The large-area surfaces of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule 413 or wafers 431 may be characterized by a pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations that propagated from coalescence fronts 219 formed during the epitaxial lateral overgrowth process, as discussed above in conjunction with FIGS. 3A-3F. The pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays of threading dislocations may be 2D hexagonal, square, rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular, 1D linear, or an irregular pattern that is formed at least partially due to the pattern of the exposed regions 120 (FIGS. 1F-1L) used during the process to form free-standing laterally-grown group III metal nitride boule 413. One or more window regions 415 are formed above the exposed regions 120 (FIGS. 1F-1L), and one or more wing regions 417 are formed on portions that are not above the exposed regions 120, that is, were formed by lateral growth. As discussed above, the formed coalescence fronts 219 or 419 may include coalescence front regions that have a lateral width (i.e., measured parallel to the surface of the page containing FIGS. 5A-5E) that can vary depending on the growth conditions.

(57) More complex patterns are also possible and may be advantageous, for example, in being more resistant to cracking or cleaving. The pattern 419 may be elongated in one direction compared to another orthogonal direction, for example, due to the free-standing laterally-grown group III metal nitride boule 413 being sliced at an inclined angle relative to the large-area surface of a free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule 413. The pattern 419 of locally-approximately-linear arrays of threading dislocations may be characterized by a linear array of threading dislocations (FIG. 5D) that have a pitch dimension L between about 5 micrometers and about 20 millimeters or between about 200 micrometers and about 5 millimeters. The pattern 419 of locally-approximately-linear arrays of threading dislocations may be characterized by a pitch dimension L (FIGS. 5A, 5B), or by pitch dimensions L.sub.1 and L.sub.2 in two orthogonal directions (FIGS. 5C and 5E), between about 5 micrometers and about 20 millimeters or between about 200 micrometers and about 5 millimeters, or between about 500 micrometers and about 2 millimeters. In certain embodiments, the pattern 419 of locally-approximately-linear arrays of threading dislocations is approximately aligned with the underlying crystal structure of the group III metal nitride, for example, with the locally-approximately-linear arrays lying within about 5 degrees, within about 2 degrees, or within about 1 degree of one or more of <1 0 −1 0>, <1 1 −2 0>, or [0 0 0 ±1] or their projections in the plane of the surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule 413 or wafer 431. The linear concentration of threading dislocations in the pattern may be less than about 1×10.sup.5 cm.sup.−1, less than about 3×10.sup.4 cm.sup.−1, less than about 1×10.sup.4 cm.sup.−1, less than about 3×10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1, less than about 1×10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1, less than about 3×10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1, or less than about 1×10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1. The linear concentration of threading dislocations in the pattern 419 may be greater than 5 cm.sup.−1, greater than 10 cm.sup.−1, greater than 20 cm.sup.−1, greater than 50 cm.sup.−1, greater than 100 cm.sup.−1, greater than 200 cm.sup.−1, or greater than 500 cm.sup.−1.

(58) Referring again to FIGS. 5A-5E, the large-area surfaces of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer may further be characterized by an array of wing regions 417 and by an array of window regions 415. Each wing region 417 may be positioned between adjacent locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations. Each window region 415 may be positioned within a single wing region 417 or may be positioned between two adjacent wing regions 417 and may have a minimum dimension between 10 micrometers and 500 micrometers and be characterized by concentration of threading dislocations between 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2 and 10.sup.8 cm.sup.−2, resulting from residual threading dislocations that propagated vertically from window regions during the bulk crystal growth process, and by a concentration of stacking faults below 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1. In some embodiments the boundary between the window regions and the wing regions may be decorated with dislocations, for example, with a line density between about 5 cm.sup.−1 and 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−1.

(59) The arrays may be elongated in one direction compared to another orthogonal direction, for example, due to the boule being sliced at an inclined angle relative to the large-area surface of a free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule. The pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations may be characterized by a pitch dimension L, or by pitch dimensions L.sub.1 and L.sub.2 in two orthogonal directions, between about 5 micrometers and about 20 millimeters or between about 200 micrometers and about 5 millimeters. In certain embodiments, the pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations is approximately aligned with the underlying crystal structure of the group III metal nitride, for example, with the locally-approximately-linear arrays lying within about 5 degrees, within about 2 degrees, or within about 1 degree of one or more of <1 0-1 0>, <1 1-2 0>, or [0 0 0±1] or their projections in the plane of the surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III nitride boule or wafer. The linear concentration of threading dislocations in the pattern may be less than about 1×10.sup.5 cm.sup.−1, less than about 3×10.sup.4 cm.sup.−1, less than about 1×10.sup.4 cm.sup.−1, less than about 3×10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1, less than about 1×10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1, less than about 3×10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1, or less than about 1×10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1. The linear concentration of threading dislocations in the pattern may be greater than 5 cm.sup.−1, greater than 10 cm.sup.−1, greater than 20 cm.sup.−1, greater than 50 cm.sup.−1, greater than 100 cm.sup.−1, greater than 200 cm.sup.−1, or greater than 500 cm.sup.−1.

(60) The concentration of threading dislocations in the wing regions 417 between the locally-approximately-linear arrays of threading dislocations may be below about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1, or below about 10 cm.sup.−2. The concentration of threading dislocations in the surface of the window regions 415 may be less than about 10.sup.8 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.7 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.6 cm.sup.−2, less than about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2, or less than about 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−2. The concentration of threading dislocations in the surface of the window regions may be higher than the concentration of threading dislocations in the surface of the wing regions by at least a factor of two, by at least a factor of three, by at least a factor of ten, by at least a factor of 30, or by at least a factor of 100. The concentration of threading dislocations in the surface of the window regions may be higher than concentration of threading dislocations in the surface of the wing regions by less than a factor of 10.sup.4, by less than a factor of 3000, by less than a factor of 1000, by less than a factor of 300, by less than a factor of 100, or by less than a factor of 30. In some embodiments the boundary between the window regions 415 and the wing regions 417 may be decorated with dislocations, for example, with a line density between about 5 cm.sup.−1 and 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−1. The concentration of threading dislocations, averaged over a large area surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III nitride boule or wafer, may be below about 10.sup.7 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.6 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2, or below about 10.sup.2 cm.sup.−2. The concentration of stacking faults, averaged over a large area surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III nitride boule or wafer, may be below about 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1, below about 10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1, below about 10 cm.sup.−1, below about 1 cm.sup.−1, or below about 0.1 cm.sup.−1, or may be undetectable. In some embodiments, for example, after repeated re-growth on a seed crystal with a patterned array of dislocations and/or growth to a thickness greater than 2 millimeters, greater than 3 millimeters, greater than 5 millimeters, or greater than 10 millimeters, the positions of the threading dislocations may be displaced laterally to some extent with respect to the pattern on the seed crystal. In such a case the regions with a higher concentration of threading dislocations may be somewhat more diffuse than the relatively sharp lines illustrated schematically in FIGS. 5A-5E. However, the concentration of threading dislocations as a function of lateral position along a line on the surface will vary periodically, with a period between about 5 micrometers and about 20 millimeters or between about 200 micrometers and about 5 millimeters. The concentration of threading dislocations within the periodically-varying region may vary by at least a factor of two, at least a factor of 5, at least a factor of 10, at least a factor of 30, at least a factor of 100, at least a factor of 300, or at least a factor of 1000.

(61) The free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer may have a large-area crystallographic orientation within 5 degrees, within 2 degrees, within 1 degree, within 0.5 degree, within 0.2 degree, within 0.1 degree, within 0.05 degree, within 0.02 degree, or within 0.01 degree of (0001)+c-plane, (000-1)−c-plane, {10-10} m-plane, {1 1−2 0} a-plane, {11−2±2}, {60−6±1}, {50−5±1}, {40−4±1}, {30−3±1}, {50−5±2}, {70−7±3}, {20−2±1}, {30−3±2}, {40−4±3}, {50−5±4}, {10−1±1}, {1 0−1±2}, {1 0−1±3}, {2 1 −3±1}, or {3 0-3±4}. The free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer may have an (h k i l) semipolar large-area surface orientation, where i=−(h+k) and l and at least one of h and k are nonzero.

(62) In certain embodiments, a large-area surface of a free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride crystal or wafer has a crystallographic orientation that is miscut from {10-10} m-plane by between about −60 degrees and about +60 degrees toward [0001]+c-direction and by up to about 10 degrees toward an orthogonal <1-210> a-direction. In certain embodiments, a large-area surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride crystal or wafer has a crystallographic orientation that is miscut from {10-10} m-plane by between about −30 degrees and about +30 degrees toward [0001]+c-direction and by up to about 5 degrees toward an orthogonal <1-210> a-direction. In certain embodiments, a large-area surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride crystal or wafer has a crystallographic orientation that is miscut from {10-10} m-plane by between about −5 degrees and about +5 degrees toward [0001]+c-direction and by up to about 1 degree toward an orthogonal <1-210> a-direction. The free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride crystal or wafer may have a stacking fault concentration below 10.sup.2 cm.sup.−1, below 10 cm.sup.−1, or below 1 cm.sup.−1, and a very low dislocation density, below about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2, below about 10.sup.2 cm.sup.−2, or below about 10 cm.sup.−2 on one or both of the two large area surfaces.

(63) The free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer may have a symmetric x-ray rocking curve full width at half maximum (FWHM) less than about 200 arcsec, less than about 100 arcsec, less than about 50 arcsec, less than about 35 arcsec, less than about 25 arcsec, or less than about 15 arcsec. The free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer may have a crystallographic radius of curvature greater than 0.1 meter, greater than 1 meter, greater than 10 meters, greater than 100 meters, or greater than 1000 meters, in at least one, at least two, or in three independent or orthogonal directions.

(64) In certain embodiments, at least one surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer has atomic impurity concentrations of at least one of oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H) above about 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3, above about 1×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3, or above about 1×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3. In certain embodiments, a ratio of the atomic impurity concentration of H to the atomic impurity concentration of 0 is between about 0.3 and about 1000, between about 0.4 and about 10, or between about 10 and about 100. In certain embodiments, at least one surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer has impurity concentrations of at least one of lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), fluorine (F), chlorine (CI), bromine (Br), or iodine (I) above about 1×10.sup.15 cm.sup.−3, above about 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3, or above about 1×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3, above about 1×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3. In certain embodiments, the top and bottom surfaces of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer may have impurity concentrations of O, H, carbon (C), Na, and K between about 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, between about 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 2×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, below 1×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3, below 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3, and below 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3, respectively, as quantified by calibrated secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). In another embodiment, the top and bottom surfaces of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer may have impurity concentrations of O, H, C, and at least one of Na and K between about 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, between about 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 2×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, below 1×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3, and between about 3×10.sup.15 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.18 cm.sup.−3, respectively, as quantified by calibrated secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). In still another embodiment, the top and bottom surfaces of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer may have impurity concentrations of O, H, C, and at least one of F and CI between about 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, between about 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 2×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, below 1×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3, and between about 1×10.sup.15 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, respectively, as quantified by calibrated secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). In some embodiments, the top and bottom surfaces of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer may have impurity concentrations of H between about 5×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3, as quantified by calibrated secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). In certain embodiments, at least one surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer has an impurity concentration of copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe) between about 1×10.sup.16 cm.sup.−3 and 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3. In a specific embodiment, the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride boule or wafer has an infrared absorption peak at about 3175 cm.sup.−1, with an absorbance per unit thickness of greater than about 0.01 cm.sup.−1.

(65) The free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride crystal or wafer may be characterized by a wurtzite structure substantially free from any cubic entities or other crystal structures, the other structures being less than about 0.1% in volume in reference to the substantially wurtzite structure.

(66) Surprisingly, given the lattice mismatch between HVPE GaN and ammonothermal GaN, results of use of the herein-disclosed techniques show that ammonothermal lateral epitaxial overgrowth is capable of producing thick, large-area GaN layers that are free of cracks. In certain embodiments, the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride crystal or wafer has a diameter larger than about 25 millimeters, larger than about 50 millimeters, larger than about 75 millimeters, larger than about 100 millimeters, larger than about 150 millimeters, larger than about 200 millimeters, larger than about 300 millimeters, or larger than about 600 millimeters, and a thickness greater than about 0.1 millimeter, greater than about 0.2 millimeter, greater than about 0.3 millimeter, greater than about 0.5 millimeter, greater than about 1 millimeter, greater than about 2 millimeters, greater than about 3 millimeters, greater than about 5 millimeters, greater than about 10 millimeters, or greater than about 20 millimeters, and is substantially free of cracks. By contrast, we find that ammonothermal growth on large-area, un-patterned HVPE GaN seed crystals leads to cracking if the layers are thicker than a few hundred microns, even if a patterning process had been used to form the HVPE GaN seed crystal.

(67) A free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafer may be characterized by a total thickness variation (TTV) of less than about 25 micrometers, less than about 10 micrometers, less than about 5 micrometers, less than about 2 micrometers, or less than about 1 micrometer, and by a macroscopic bow that is less than about 200 micrometers, less than about 100 micrometers, less than about 50 micrometers, less than about 25 micrometers, or less than about 10 micrometers. A large-area surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafer may have a concentration of macro defects, with a diameter or characteristic dimension greater than about 100 micrometers, of less than about 2 cm.sup.−2, less than about 1 cm.sup.−2, less than about 0.5 cm.sup.−2, less than about 0.25 cm.sup.−2, or less than about 0.1 cm.sup.−2. The variation in miscut angle across a large-area surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride crystal or wafer may be less than about 5 degrees, less than about 2 degrees, less than about 1 degree, less than about 0.5 degree, less than about 0.2 degree, less than about 0.1 degree, less than about 0.05 degree, or less than about 0.025 degree in each of two orthogonal crystallographic directions. The root-mean-square surface roughness of a large-area surface of the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafer, as measured over an area of at least 10 μm×10 μm, may be less than about 0.5 nanometer, less than about 0.2 nanometer, less than about 0.15 nanometer, less than about 0.1 nanometer, or less than about 0.10 nanometer. The free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafer may be characterized by n-type electrical conductivity, with a carrier concentration between about 1×10.sup.17 cm.sup.−3 and about 3×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3 and a carrier mobility greater than about 100 cm.sup.2/V-s. In alternative embodiments, the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafer is characterized by p-type electrical conductivity, with a carrier concentration between about 1×10.sup.15 cm.sup.−3 and about 1×10.sup.19 cm.sup.−3. In still other embodiments, the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafer is characterized by semi-insulating electrical behavior, with a room-temperature resistivity greater than about 10.sup.7 ohm-centimeter, greater than about 10.sup.8 ohm-centimeter, greater than about 10.sup.9 ohm-centimeter, greater than about 10.sup.10 ohm-centimeter, or greater than about 10.sup.11 ohm-centimeter. In certain embodiments, the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafer is highly transparent, with an optical absorption coefficient at a wavelength of 400 nanometers that is less than about 10 cm.sup.−1, less than about 5 cm.sup.−1, less than about 2 cm.sup.−1, less than about 1 cm.sup.−1, less than about 0.5 cm.sup.−1, less than about 0.2 cm.sup.−1, or less than about 0.1 cm.sup.−1.

(68) In some embodiments, the free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride crystal or wafer is used as a seed crystal for further bulk growth. In one specific embodiment, the further bulk growth comprises ammonothermal bulk crystal growth. In another specific embodiment, the further bulk growth comprises high temperature solution crystal growth, also known as flux crystal growth. In yet another specific embodiment, the further bulk growth comprises HVPE. The further-grown crystal may be sliced, lapped, polished, etched, and/or chemically-mechanically polished into wafers by methods that are known in the art. The surface of the wafers may be characterized by a root-mean-square surface roughness measured over a 10-micrometer by 10-micrometer area that is less than about 1 nanometer or less than about 0.2 nanometers.

(69) A wafer may be incorporated into a semiconductor structure. The semiconductor structure may comprise at least one Al.sub.xIn.sub.yGa.sub.(1-x-y)N epitaxial layer, where 0≤x, y, x+y≤1. The epitaxial layer may be deposited on the wafer, for example, by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) or by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), according to methods that are known in the art. At least a portion of the semiconductor structure may form a portion of a gallium-nitride-based electronic device or optoelectronic device, such as a light emitting diode, a laser diode, a photodetector, an avalanche photodiode, a photovoltaic, a solar cell, a cell for photoelectrochemical splitting of water, a transistor, a rectifier, and a thyristor; one of a transistor, a rectifier, a Schottky rectifier, a thyristor, a p-i-n diode, a metal-semiconductor-metal diode, high-electron mobility transistor, a metal semiconductor field effect transistor, a metal oxide field effect transistor, a power metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor, a power metal insulator semiconductor field effect transistor, a bipolar junction transistor, a metal insulator field effect transistor, a heterojunction bipolar transistor, a power insulated gate bipolar transistor, a power vertical junction field effect transistor, a cascode switch, an inner sub-band emitter, a quantum well infrared photodetector, a quantum dot infrared photodetector, and combinations thereof. The gallium-nitride-based electronic device or optoelectronic device may be incorporated into a lamp or a fixture, such as a luminaire. The gallium-nitride-based electronic device or optoelectronic device, after singulation, may have lateral dimensions of at least 0.1 millimeter by 0.1 millimeter. The gallium-nitride-based electronic or optoelectronic device may have a maximum dimension of at least 8 millimeters and, for example, may comprise a laser diode. The gallium-nitride-based electronic or optoelectronic device may be entirely free of dislocations throughout its volume. For example, at a dislocation density of 10.sup.4 cm.sup.−2, a substantial fraction of 0.1×0.1 mm.sup.2 devices could be expected to be free of dislocations. At a dislocation density of 10.sup.2 cm.sup.−2, a substantial fraction of 1×1 mm.sup.2 devices could be expected to be free of dislocations. The gallium-nitride-based electronic or optoelectronic device may be entirely free of stacking faults throughout its volume. For example, at a stacking fault density of 1 cm.sup.−1, a substantial fraction of 10×1 mm.sup.2 stripe-shaped devices, such as laser diodes with nonpolar or semipolar large area surfaces and c-plane facets, could be expected to be free of stacking faults.

(70) FIGS. 6A, 6B, 7A, and 7B are cross-sectional diagrams illustrating methods and resulting opto-electronic and electronic devices according to embodiments of the present disclosure. A two- or three-terminal device, such as an opto-electronic or electronic device, may be formed by a sequence of steps, including the step of epitaxial layer deposition atop a free-standing ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafer 431 or substrate having a pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations and comprising at least one AlInGaN active layer 631, e.g., by MOCVD as shown in FIG. 6B. In certain embodiments, the deposited layers include an n-type or n+ layer 633, a doped or unintentionally doped single quantum well (SQW), a multiple quantum well (MQVV) structure or double-heterostructure (DH structure), or an n-drift layer, and a p-type layer 635, as shown. The device structures may be vertical, as illustrated schematically in FIG. 6B, or lateral, as illustrated schematically in FIG. 7A. The device may be electrically connected to an external circuit to provide a potential between an n-type contact 639 and a p-type contact 637. Additional layers may be deposited, such as separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) layers, cladding layers, an AlGaN electron-blocking layer, and a p+ contact layer, among others. In many cases, threading dislocations in the substrates, such as coalescence fronts 419, will propagate into the deposited layers and potentially impact device performance.

(71) In a specific embodiment, the method also deposits an n-type contact 639, and a p-type contact 637 as shown in FIGS. 6B and 7A. In some embodiments, at least one of the set of n-type and p-type contacts is placed in specific registry respect to the coalescence fronts, wing regions, and/or window regions. A light emission portion may be centered over the coalescence front, or between coalescence fronts. In one specific embodiment, transparent p-type contacts are deposited and are placed in such a way that they avoid contact with coalescence fronts, which may have an elevated concentration of threading dislocations. In this way a light-emitting structure may be formed has a relatively low concentration of threading dislocations. In this way a light-emitting structure, PN diode, or Schottky barrier diode may be formed has a relatively low concentration of threading dislocations. In preferred embodiments, regions of light emission and/or maximum electric fields are designed to overlie wing regions 417 and to avoid coalescence front regions 419. In certain embodiments, a defective region associated with a coalescence front or a window region is utilized as a shunt path for reducing series resistance. In certain embodiments, n-type contacts are placed above coalescence fronts or window regions, with an edge dislocation density above 10.sup.3 cm.sup.−1 and/or a threading dislocation density greater than about 10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2.

(72) Referring now to FIG. 7A, in some embodiments, e.g., a laser diode, a PN diode, or a Schottky barrier diode, the p-contact may be placed in a region substantially free of coalescence fronts. In certain embodiments, such as a laser diode, a laser ridge or stripe structure 740 may be placed in a region substantially free of coalescence fronts. A mesa may be formed by conventional lithography and an n-type contact placed in electrical contact with the n-type layer and/or the substrate. Additional structures may be placed in registry with the coalescence fronts, such as sidewall passivation, an ion implanted region, field plates, and the like.

(73) Referring now to FIG. 7B, in some embodiments, for example, a current aperture vertical electron transistor (CAVET), an n-drift layer 731 is deposited over an n+ contact layer 730, which in turn is deposited on free-standing, merged ammonothermal group III metal nitride wafer 431. P-type layer 735 is formed above n-drift layer 731 with aperture 732. Following regrowth of the balance of n-drift layer 733, an AlGaN 2D electron gas layer 736 is deposited. Finally, source contacts 737, drain contact 739, dielectric layer 741, and gate contact 743 are deposited. In preferred embodiments, aperture 732 is positioned away from coalescence fronts 419. In preferred embodiments, aperture 732 is positioned away from window regions 415. In preferred embodiments, aperture 732 is positioned over wing regions 417. Other types of three-terminal devices, such as trench CAVETs, MOSFETs, and the like are positioned so that the regions of maximum electric fields are located within wing regions 417.

(74) FIG. 8 shows a top view (plan view) of a free-standing GaN substrate formed by ammonothermal lateral epitaxial growth using a mask in the form of a two-dimensional array. The GaN layer grew through the two-dimensional array of openings in the original mask layer to form window regions 415. Coalescence of the GaN layer may form a two-dimensional grid of the pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations.

(75) FIG. 9A shows a top view of a device structure 900, for example, of LEDs, where transparent p-contacts 970 have been aligned with respect and placed so as not to be in contact with either the window regions 415 or the pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations. FIG. 9B shows a top view of an alternative embodiment of a device structure 902, for example, of LEDs, where electrical contacts 980 are again aligned with respect to window regions 415 and pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations but now are positioned above pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations. FIG. 9C shows a top view of an alternative embodiment of a device structure 904, for example, of a flip-chip LED, where n-type electrical contacts 990 are aligned with respect to window regions 415 and p-type electrical contacts 995 are aligned between window regions 415.

(76) Individual die, for example, light emitting diodes or laser diodes, may be formed by sawing, cleaving, slicing, singulating, or the like, between adjacent sets of electrical contacts. Referring again to FIG. 9A, slicing may be performed along the pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations. Slicing may also be performed through window regions 415. Referring now to FIG. 9B, in certain embodiments, slicing may be performed through window regions 415 but not along the pattern of locally-approximately-linear arrays 419 of threading dislocations. Referring again to FIG. 9C, in certain embodiments slicing is performed neither through the seed regions nor along all coalescence fronts. Depending on the arrangement of the one- or two-dimensional array of seed regions, the singulated die may have three corners, four corners, or six corners.

(77) The methods described herein provide means for fabricating large-area group III metal nitride substrates, albeit having some potentially defective regions. The methods described herein provide means for fabricating high-performance light emitting diodes and/or laser diodes that avoid potential issues associated with defective regions in the large-area group III metal nitride substrates.

(78) The above sequence of steps provides a method according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. In a specific embodiment, the present disclosure provides a method and resulting crystalline material provided by a high pressure apparatus having structured support members. Other alternatives can also be provided where steps are added, one or more steps are removed, or one or more steps are provided in a different sequence without departing from the scope of the claims herein.

EXAMPLES

(79) Embodiments provided by the present disclosure are further illustrated by reference to the following examples. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that many modifications, both to materials, and methods, may be practiced without departing from the scope of the disclosure.

Example 1

(80) A c-plane oriented bulk GaN crystal grown by HVPE, approximately 0.3 millimeters thick, was provided for use as a substrate 101 for patterning and ammonothermal crystal growth. A 100-nanometer-thick layer of TiW was sputter-deposited as an adhesion layer on the (000-1) N-face of the substrate, followed by a 780-nanometer-thick inert layer comprising Au. A 6-micrometer-thick Au layer was then electroplated on the sputtered layer, increasing the thickness of the inert layer (e.g., blanket mask 116). Using AZ-4300 as a photoresist (e.g., photoresist layer 103), a pattern comprising linear arrays of 3-micrometer-wide by 1-centimeter-long slits (e.g., openings 112), with a pitch diameter of 1200 micrometers was defined. A wet-etch process was performed, using a commercial TFA gold etching solution at room temperature, as shown schematically in FIGS. 1M-1P, to obtain a substrate with patterned mask layer 111. The mask pattern comprised domains of m-stripes, with linear openings oriented approximately 30-40 micrometers wide and parallel to <10-10>. The substrate with patterned mask layer 111 was then placed in a stirred beaker with concentrated H.sub.3PO.sub.4. The beaker was heated to approximately 280 degrees Celsius over approximately 30 minutes, held at this temperature for approximately 90 minutes, and cooled. A cross section of a trench 115 formed by this procedure, having a depth of approximately 162 micrometers and a width at the top of approximately 105 micrometers, is shown in FIG. 10. The sidewalls of the trench 115, remarkably, are nearly vertical.

Example 2

(81) A patterned, trenched c-plane-oriented bulk GaN substrate 101 was prepared by a similar procedure as that described in Example 1. The patterned substrate was placed in a silver capsule along with a 15%-open-area baffle, polycrystalline GaN nutrient, NH.sub.4F mineralizer, and ammonia, and the capsule was sealed. The ratios of GaN nutrient and NH.sub.4F mineralizer to ammonia were approximately 1.69 and 0.099 respectively, by weight. The capsule was placed in an internally-heated high pressure apparatus and heated to temperatures of approximately 666 degrees Celsius for the upper, nutrient zone and approximately 681 degrees Celsius for the lower, crystal growth zone, maintained at these temperatures for approximately 215 hours, and then cooled and removed. Ammonothermal GaN filled in most of the volume in the trenches, grew through the linear openings in the patterned mask on the HVPE GaN substrate, grew laterally, and coalesced fully, forming an ammonothermal GaN layer approximately 1200 micrometers thick with a smooth top surface. Two parallel cuts were made in the ammonothermal GaN layer, perpendicular to both the surface and the patterns, resulting in a bar-shaped test specimen with m-plane surfaces. One m-plane surface of the test specimen was polished and examined by optical microscopy, as shown in FIGS. 11A and 11B. An interface is visible between the substrate 101 and laterally-grown group III metal nitride material 221, as illustrated by the dotted line in the expanded view on the right side of FIG. 11B. Patterned mask layer 111 and void 225 both appear as black in the images and underlie ammonothermal group III metal nitride layer 213.

Example 3

(82) A patterned, trenched c-plane-oriented bulk GaN substrate was prepared by a similar procedure as that described in Examples 1 and 2, and the final group III metal nitride layer 213 is shown in FIG. 12B (i.e., right side figures). A second patterned substrate was prepared by a similar procedure except that no trenches were prepared below the mask openings, and the final group III metal nitride layer is shown in FIG. 12A (i.e., left side figures). The patterned substrates were placed in a silver capsule along with a 15%-open-area baffle, polycrystalline GaN nutrient, NH.sub.4F mineralizer, and ammonia, and the capsule was sealed. The ratios of GaN nutrient and NH.sub.4F mineralizer to ammonia were approximately 2.05 and 0.099 respectively, by weight. The capsule was placed in an internally-heated high pressure apparatus and heated to temperatures of approximately 666 degrees Celsius for the upper, nutrient zone and approximately 678 degrees Celsius for the lower, crystal growth zone, maintained at these temperatures for approximately 427 hours, and then cooled and removed. Ammonothermal GaN filled in most of the volume in the trenches of the trenched substrate (FIG. 12B), grew through the linear openings in the patterned mask on the HVPE GaN substrate, grew laterally, and coalesced fully, forming an ammonothermal GaN layer approximately 2100 micrometers thick with a smooth top surface. Ammonothermal GaN layer similarly grew through the linear openings in the patterned mask on the patterned, untrenched HVPE GaN substrate (FIG. 12A), grew laterally, and coalesced fully, forming an ammonothermal GaN layer approximately 2100 micrometers thick with a smooth top surface. The surface of both ammonothermal GaN layers were lightly etched and were examined by optical microscopy. Differential interference contrast (Nomaraki) micrographs and transmission micrographs of both layers are shown in FIGS. 12A-12B. The average etch pit density, which is believed to accurately represent the threading dislocation density, of the ammonothermal GaN layer grown on the patterned substrate without trenches (FIG. 12A), was approximately 1.0×10.sup.5 cm.sup.−2. The average etch pit density of the ammonothermal GaN layer grown on the patterned, trenched substrate (FIG. 12B), was approximately 1.0×10.sup.4 cm.sup.−2, a full order-of-magnitude improvement.

Example 4

(83) A patterned, trenched c-plane-oriented bulk GaN substrate was prepared by a similar procedure as that described in Examples 1 and 2 but with a pitch of 800 micrometers. The patterned, trenched substrate was placed in a silver capsule along with a 15%-open-area baffle, polycrystalline GaN nutrient, NH.sub.4F mineralizer, and ammonia, and the capsule was sealed. The ratios of GaN nutrient and NH.sub.4F mineralizer to ammonia were approximately 1.71 and 0.099 respectively, by weight. The capsule was placed in an internally-heated high pressure apparatus and heated to temperatures of approximately 668 degrees Celsius for the upper, nutrient zone and approximately 678 degrees Celsius for the lower, crystal growth zone, maintained at these temperatures for approximately 485 hours, and then cooled and removed. Ammonothermal GaN filled in most of the volume in the trenches of the trenched substrate, grew through the linear openings in the patterned mask on the HVPE GaN substrate, grew laterally, and coalesced fully, forming an ammonothermal GaN layer approximately 980 micrometers thick with a smooth top surface. The HVPE GaN substrate was removed by grinding, and the resulting free-standing ammonothermal GaN substrate was polished and chemical-mechanical polished. The free-standing ammonothermal GaN substrate was then characterized by x-ray diffraction, using a PANalytical X'Pert PRO diffractometer using an electron energy of 45 kV with a 40 mA line focus, a 0.0002 degree step, a 1 sec dwell time, an Ge(220) mirror, a slit height of 1.0 mm and a slit width of 1.0 mm, at nine different locations across the substrate. The results of an analysis of the formed GaN substrate are summarized in FIG. 13. The range of miscut along [1-100] was measured to be 0.078 degrees over the central 80% of the large area surface of the crystal, and the range of miscut along [11-20] was measured to be 0.063 degrees over the central 80% of the large area surface of the crystal. Thus, in some embodiments, a free standing crystal having a miscut angle that varies by 0.1 degree or less in the central 80% of the large area surface of the crystal along a first direction and a miscut angle that varies by 0.1 degree or less in the central 80% of the large area surface of the crystal along a second direction orthogonal to the first direction. By contrast, an identical measurement on a commercial HVPE wafer resulted in a range of miscut along [1-100] of 0.224 degrees and a range of miscut along [11-20] of 0.236 degrees. The full width at half maximum of the rocking-curve for the (002) reflection was measured as 36 arc seconds, while that of the (201) reflection was measured as 32 arc seconds, as summarized in the tables and graphs shown FIG. 14. By contrast, identical measurements on a 50 mm diameter, commercial HVPE substrate produced values of 48 and 53 arc seconds, respectively, and identical measurements on a 100 mm diameter, commercial HVPE substrate produced values of 78 and 93 arc seconds, respectively.

Example 5

(84) A c-plane oriented bulk GaN crystal grown by HVPE, approximately 0.3 millimeters thick, was provided for use as a substrate for patterning and ammonothermal crystal growth. A 100-nanometer-thick layer of TiW was sputter-deposited as an adhesion layer on the (000-1) N-face of the substrate, followed by a 780-nanometer-thick inert layer comprising Au. A 6-micrometer-thick Au layer was then electroplated on the sputtered layer, increasing the thickness of the inert layer. A pattern was formed on the N-face of the substrate using a frequency-doubled YAG laser with nano-second pulses. The pattern comprised domains of m-trenches, with linear openings oriented approximately 50-60 micrometers wide and parallel to <10-10>, with a pitch of 1200 micrometers. The patterned substrate was then placed in a stirred beaker with concentrated H.sub.3PO.sub.4. The beaker was heated to approximately 280 degrees Celsius over approximately 30 minutes, held at this temperature for approximately 60 minutes, and cooled. A cross section of a trench formed by this procedure, having a depth of approximately 200 micrometers and a width at the top of approximately 80 micrometers, is shown in FIG. 15. The sidewalls of the trench, remarkably, are nearly vertical.

Example 6

(85) A patterned, trenched c-plane-oriented bulk GaN substrate was prepared by a similar procedure as that described in Example 5, except that a higher power was used for the laser so that slots were formed that fully penetrated the substrate. After etching with concentrated H.sub.3PO.sub.4 at approximately 280 degrees Celsius for approximately 30 minutes, the width of the slots was approximately 115 micrometers. The patterned substrates were placed in a silver capsule along with a 15%-open-area baffle, polycrystalline GaN nutrient, NH.sub.4F mineralizer, and ammonia, and the capsule was sealed. The ratios of GaN nutrient and NH.sub.4F mineralizer to ammonia were approximately 1.74 and 0.099 respectively, by weight. The capsule was placed in an internally-heated high pressure apparatus and heated to temperatures of approximately 667 degrees Celsius for the upper, nutrient zone and approximately 681 degrees Celsius for the lower, crystal growth zone, maintained at these temperatures for approximately 500 hours, and then cooled and removed. Ammonothermal GaN filled in most of the volume in the trenches of the trenched substrate, grew through the linear openings in the patterned mask on the HVPE GaN substrate, grew laterally, and coalesced fully, forming an ammonothermal GaN layer approximately 2010 micrometers thick with a smooth top surface. The surface of the ammonothermal GaN layer was lightly etched and was examined by optical microscopy. An optical micrograph of the layer is shown in FIG. 16. The etch pits in the rectangles A, B, C, D, E, F, and G shown in FIG. 16 were counted, leading to a determination that the average etch pit density, which is believed to accurately represent the threading dislocation density, of the ammonothermal GaN layer grown on the patterned, laser-trenched substrate, was approximately 6.0×10.sup.3 cm.sup.−2.

(86) While the foregoing is directed to embodiments of the present disclosure, other and further embodiments of the disclosure may be devised without departing from the basic scope thereof, and the scope thereof is determined by the claims that follow.