Lithium recovery via charging of lithium-ion batteries

Abstract

An efficient and green method for selective extraction of Li from end-of-life secondary LIBs of any capacity and size is provided. Electrochemical driven selective lithium deposition is targeted at the anode/separator interface of the end-of-life LIB. The deposited Li is recovered by processing of an opened or dismantled battery using only distilled or de-ionized water. The process not only enables the recovery of the plated lithium at the anode/separator interface, but also extracts the lithium from the organic salts and/or inorganic salts in the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layers and from the electrolyte in the separator. In addition, the method partially strips the cyclable Li from the cathode and concentrates it at the anode/separator interface. The concentrated Li is extracted by using aqueous solution such as distilled or de-ionized water followed by recovery of the Li from aqueous solution. After Li recovery from the anode, the method can also enable the recovery of battery-grade graphite.

Claims

1. A method for selective extraction of Li from an end-of-life secondary LIB, comprising the steps of: electrochemically driving lithium to selectively concentrate Li at the anode/separator interface of the end-of-life LIB, contacting the lithium concentrated at the anode/separator interface with aqueous medium to dissolve Li into aqueous solution, and recovering one or more Li-containing salts from the aqueous solution.

2. The method of claim 1 wherein the anode/separator interface includes the anode surface and adjacent SEI layer(s) at the interface between the anode surface and separator so that deposited metallic Li is dissolved into aqueous solution.

3. The method of claim 1 wherein Li from inorganic salts and/or organic salts of the SEI layer(s) and from the electrolyte in the separator is dissolved in aqueous solution.

4. The method of claim 1 wherein the electrochemical driving strips cyclable Li from the cathode and concentrates it at the anode/separator interface.

5. The method of claim 1 wherein the selective lithium deposition is driven by charging the end-of-life LIB at a charging rate of 1C to 5C.

6. The method of claim 1 wherein the battery is opened and the remaining battery components including the anode, separator, and cathode are contacted with the aqueous medium.

7. The method of claim 1 wherein the battery is opened and then the anode and separator are separated from the cathode before contacting respective aqueous medium.

8. The method of claim 1 wherein the aqueous medium comprises distilled water or de-ionized water.

9. The method of claim 1 including the further step of recovering graphite of the anode from the aqueous solution.

10. The method of claim 9 that includes separating the graphite from metallic anode substrate.

11. The method of claim 6 wherein insoluble metallic battery components including metallic current collectors are recovered from the aqueous solution.

12. The method of claim 1 which is conducted while applying a mechanical compressive load to the end-of-life LIB.

13. The method of claim 1 which is conducted at a sub-ambient temperature.

14. The method of claim 13 wherein the sub-ambient temperature is about 25 degrees C. or less.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0009] FIG. 1: Schematic of lithium extraction and recovery via. electrochemical deposition.

[0010] FIGS. 2a-2d show electrochemical analysis of pouch cells fast charged from 1-6C rates over 10 cycles, where FIG. 2a is Voltage relaxation profile; FIG. 2b is Discharge capacity vs. Cycle; FIG. 2c is Coulombic efficiency vs. Cycles; and FIG. 2d is DCR vs. cycles.

[0011] FIG. 3 shows anode film thickness and mass characterization vs. C-rate.

[0012] FIGS. 4a-4d are FE-SEM micrographs with optical images (subplot) of the anode surface with the film deposition, where FIG. 4a) is for pristine anode; FIG. 4b) is after 1C charging,

[0013] FIG. 4c) is after 3C charging, and FIG. 4d) is after 5C charging.

[0014] FIGS. 5a-5b are extracted lithium salt gravimetric analysis vs. C-rate, where FIG. 5a) is the anode and FIG. 5b) is the cathode.

[0015] FIG. 6 shows XPS deconvolution of lithium salt from the 5C rate batch.

[0016] FIG. 7 is flow diagram of lithium recovery from pouch cells using electrochemical lithium deposition technology.

[0017] FIGS. 8a-8d show Raman spectra, TGS, DSC and other data for recovered graphite before (pre-HT) and after heat treatment (post-HT).

[0018] FIG. 9 shows binding energy versus intensity data as well as atomic % constituents for recovered products Li, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, LiF, and LiPF.sub.4.

[0019] FIG. 10 shows plots of C-rate versus pH and conductivity.

[0020] FIG. 11: contains Table S1.

[0021] FIG. 12: contains Table S2.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0022] The anticipated exponential consumption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) world-wide poses a unique challenge in the availability of critical resource like lithium in the next decade. In practice of certain embodiments of the present invention, a novel green lithium recovery process is presented which utilizes a battery degradation mechanism, i.e., lithium plating, as a tool to concentrate metallic lithium at the anode/separator interface, wherein the anode/separator interface includes the anode surface and the SEI layer(s) formed on the anode surface adjacent to the separator, FIG. 1.

[0023] Certain embodiments of the present invention can be practiced to selectively extract Li from an end-of-life secondary LIBs. End-of-life LIBs are typically considered to be those that typically exhibit over 30%-40% loss in their discharge capacity.

[0024] The green recovery method involves as a first step electrochemically driving by charging the end-of-the-life LIB between 1C-rate to 5C-rate over multiple cycles in a manner to achieve selective concentration of Li at the anode/separator interface as deposited primarily as metallic Li and also possibly as oxidized Li from the electrolyte as SEI layer (lithium salt). In addition, cyclable Li is stripped (removed) from the cathode and concentrated as deposited metallic Li and/or oxidized Li (as lithium salt) at the anode/separator interface. Embodiments of the invention envision enhancing deposition of metallic Li by charging an end-of-life LIB without or with a concurrent applied mechanical (e.g. compressive) load and/or at or below ambient room temperature such as less than about 25 degrees C.

[0025] Then, a next step involves extracting lithium concentrated at the anode/separator interface using aqueous medium. In particular, the deposited metallic Li and any oxidized Li is extracted into an aqueous medium, such as distilled or de-ionized water. For extraction, the battery casing is removed and the remaining battery components including the anode, separator, and cathode are contacted with the aqueous medium, for example, by submerging the components in the distilled or de-ionized water. In certain embodiments, the anode and separator are separated from the cathode before contacting in respective aqueous medium.

[0026] Then, one or more Li-containing salts are recovered from the aqueous solution. In certain embodiments, the Li-containing salts are recovered from aqueous solution by drying (e.g. heating) the aqueous solution, by convective evaporation or otherwise to precipitate the salts.

[0027] The recovered salts can include, but are not limited to, LiOH, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, LiF, Li.sub.3PO.sub.4, and LiOPF.sub.4 for the pouch battery described in the Example below and will depend upon battery materials employed.

[0028] In certain experimental embodiments leading to development of the present invention, electrochemical characterization of fast charged (1C-6C-rates) end-of-life LIBs was conducted and yielded a maximum capacity fade of 50% by the end of ten cycles. The lithium plating was confirmed via voltage plateau analysis, coulombic efficiency, and DC resistance measurements. A maximum lithium plating condition was observed to exist between 4C and 5C-rates, thereby limiting the energy consumption in the extraction process. Post-mortem Li film-type deposit thickness measurement showed an incrementing deposit thickness with a maximum of 35 μm thickness. SEM and XPS analysis confirmed increasing concentration of a dense dendritic metallic lithium deposit at the anode/separator interface with C-rate.

[0029] In other experimental embodiments in which fast charging (1C- 6C-rates) was performed under applied mechanical load described herebelow, a maximum capacity fade of 39% was observed at 4C charging rate. In still other experimental embodiments in which fast charging (1C-6C rates) was performed at a temperature below ambient room temperature sans mechanical load, a maximum capacity fade of 60% was observed at −9 degrees Celsius.

[0030] An illustrative green recovery process to extract the concentrated metallic lithium used only distilled or de-ionized water. The lithium from the plated (deposited) film, SEI layer(s), electrolyte, anode, and cathode, was extracted from aqueous solution as Li-containing salts. A maximum 40% improvement in lithium recoverability was achieved with fast charging. XPS and ICP-OES analysis showed about 92% lithium yield with no residual lithium in the graphite. Finally, battery grade graphite of greater than 96% purity was recovered from the washed anode after drying and heating at 1000 degrees C. Therefore, practice of embodiments of the invention provides a unique method to extract at least 90% by weight of the original lithium as salt(s) from end-of-life LIBs. Moreover, practice of the embodiments can concentrate and recover battery-grade graphite as well as provide an extracted cathode containing critical transitions metals that can be converted to constituent salts by conventional and convenient techniques.

EXAMPLE

Electrochemical Analysis

[0031] Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO)/graphite (C) pouch cells (20 mAh, Powerstream Inc.) were cycled using MTI BST300 8-channel battery charging station. Some cells were cycled without applied mechanical pressure and other cells were cycled with applied mechanical pressure. Also, some cells were cycled at room temperature (RT) without applied mechanical pressure and other cells were cycled at sub-ambient RT down to −18 degrees C. without applied mechanical pressure.

[0032] Some pouch cells were first discharged to 3.0V at RT at a constant current (CC) of C/20 charging rate without mechanical pressure. Some pouch cells were discharged to 3.0V at RT at a CC of C/10 charging rate with applied mechanical pressure. Other pouch cells were first discharged to 3.0V at sub-RT at a constant current (CC) of C/20 charging rate without mechanical pressure.

[0033] A rest period of 30 minutes was introduced after every charge and discharge step to stabilize the electrochemical interactions within the electrodes.

[0034] In the first cycle, some cells were charged to 90% SOC at RT at C/20 rate without mechanical pressure and some at C/10 rate (CC) with mechanical pressure. Some other cells were charged to 90% SOC at sub-RT at C/20 rate (CC). In all instances, this charging was followed by a discharge of respective cells to 3.0V at C/20 rate (CC) without mechanical pressure, at C/10 rate (CC) with mechanical pressure; and at C/20 rate (CC) at sub-RT.

[0035] Proceeding from the slow cycle, fast charging was performed at desired C-rate (1-6C) until 4.2 V, followed by a constant voltage (CV) until approximately 90% SOC. The cells were then discharged at C/2 rate (CC) until 3.0V. The fast charging was repeated over 10 cycles. Finally, the pouch cells were fully discharged until 2.7V at 0.4C rate (CC) and followed by a CV at C/20 rate for cells cycled without mechanical pressure; or C/10 rate for cells cycled with mechanical pressure; and at C/20 rate for cells cycled at sub-RT prior to being dismantled.

Post-Mortem Analysis

[0036] The pouch cells were fully discharged to 2.7V and immediately transferred into a MBraun glovebox (<0.1ppm of H.sub.2O and O .sub.2). The cell casing was removed, and the jelly roll was carefully unfolded to avoid damaging the film deposited on the anode/separator interface. The film thickness measurements were performed using a Mitutoyo digital micrometer (Series 293 MDC-MX). The SEM/EDX was performed on the anode surface with a FEI Teneo field emission scanning electron microscope. The samples were transferred using a vacuum transporter to avoid surface oxidation of the deposited lithium film.

[0037] Lithium Recovery and Characterization

[0038] The anode/separator and cathode were separately stored in separate vials and transferred out of the glovebox. The samples were immediately introduced to 5mL of distilled water (large excess) under a fumehood and allowed to react for 3 h. Afterwards, the solids were carefully extracted from the solution and dried at 80° C. overnight. The solution was centrifuged for 10 mins to precipitate any insoluble electrode contamination. The pH and conductivity of the solution was measured at room temperature. Finally, the solution was dried for 48 h at 80° C. to recover dried Li-containing salts. The dried anode was mechanically shaken to liberate the graphite from the copper foil. The dried lithium salt, graphite and cathode film were analyzed using XPS (Kratos Analytical, AMICUS XPS).

[0039] Results (With No Mechanical Load and at Room Temperature (RT):

[0040] Results indicate that fast charging of LIBs induces a large lithium flux on the anode/separator interface. The large ionic flux causes a considerable spike in the lithium-ion concentration on the anode surface, plummeting the anodic potential below 0V (vs. Li.sub.+/Li). Under such circumstances, the anodic potential range becomes thermodynamically favorable for metallic lithium to deposit over the anode particles. This phenomenon is commonly known as lithium plating. After the charging period, the anodic potential becomes positive causing the metallic lithium to begin stripping off into the electrolyte in its ionic form. The stripped lithium ions either reversibly intercalate into the anode, causing a plateau in the relaxation voltage profile, or irreversibly react with the solvent in the electrolyte to form an SEI layer over the deposited metallic lithium. A considerable fraction of the metallic lithium is fixed at the anode/separator interface as dead lithium due to the formation of an passivation film during the stripping process.

[0041] The first cycle relaxation voltage analysis of the fast charged pouch cells (1-6C rates) revealed a plateau, inferring the lithium metal stripping (FIG. 2a) after the charging half cycle. The broadening of the voltage plateau indicated an incrementing lithium stripping from 1C to 5C, followed by a depreciation at 6C rate. The maximum lithium plating was found to occur between charging rates 4C rate and 5C rate. For 1C to 3C and 6C, the voltage plateau relaxed completely within the resting period, indicating complete re-intercalation was achieved by the battery during this period. For 4C and 5C, the voltage plateau did not diminish completely indicating incomplete re-intercalation during the rest period.

[0042] A saturation behavior was observed in the discharge capacity plot over multiple cycles (FIG. 2b). The initial sharp capacity fade provided an indication of rapid lithium leaching from the electrolyte to be deposited as metallic lithium. The saturation of the discharge capacity indicated a suppression of the lithium deposition due to certain mechanism, such as SEI formation over the lithium plating. This mechanism was found to limit the lithium plating at very high C-rates (>5C). At 6C, the reduction in the voltage plateau (FIG. 2a) and the discharge capacity (FIG. 2b) plots suggest a reduced lithium deposition, thereby limiting the current requirements for maximum lithium deposition to 5C. A 50% loss in discharge capacity at 5C indicated half of the cyclable lithium was concentrated onto the interfacial film.

[0043] The coulombic efficiency (FIG. 2c) decreased sharply over the formative cycles, supporting the hypothesis of lithium plating from the capacity fade analysis. A rapid increment in the efficiency indicated a saturation in the plating mechanism beyond four operating cycles. A decrease in the first cycle DCR measurements of the pouch cells (FIG. 2d) was also observed, followed by a rise. The decay in the cell resistance attested the deposition of a conductive material within the pouch cell and could be inferred to as lithium plating. The increasing cell resistance beyond the fourth cycle confirms the suppression of lithium plating.

[0044] Post-mortem thickness and mass evaluations predicted an increase in Li film deposition until 5C, with a decay in the subsequent cycle (FIG. 3). The film characteristics were determined by considering the thickness of a slow charged (C/20) pouch cell anode as the baseline. The results support the observations from the in-situ electrochemical analysis and predict an optimum operating condition at around 5C rate. An interesting observation was the magnitude of the deposited lithium film in FIG. 3. Former low temperature analysis and modeling efforts have predicted a film thickness in the order of 100-1000 nm. However, a metallic Li film thickness of 10-50 μm strongly improves the extractability of lithium from LIBs.

[0045] To further assess the concept of incrementing lithium deposition on the anode surface at elevated charging rates, FE-SEM analysis was performed on pristine, 1C, 3C and 5C samples (FIGS. 4a-4d). The micrograph of the pristine graphite anode (cycled by C/20-CC) shows an array of exfoliated graphite flakes with indications of a thin SEI film deposition, but with no lithium deposition (FIG. 4a). For the sample cycled at 1C, dendritic depositions were observed to have initiated over the graphite flakes (FIG. 4b). These dendritic depositions were confirmed to be metallic lithium plating by XPS (FIG. 9). A partial coverage of the deposited lithium was found at 1C, with clear visibility of the graphite flakes underneath. With increasing C-rate from 3C to 5C, an exponential increment in dendritic lithium plating was observed (FIG. 4c-4d). At 5C (FIG. 4d), the surface morphology of the anode was completely dominated by metallic lithium whiskers with fault lines associated with film fracture from residual mechanical strain.

[0046] The lithium extraction process from the anode and the separator samples was done using distilled water with no acid or base addition (i.e. free of acid/base). The metallic lithium (Li) and the lithium intercalated (Li.sub.xC.sub.6, x<1) in the graphite electrode was extracted based on the following chemical reactions.

2Li+2H.sub.2O.fwdarw.2LiOH+H.sub.2  (1)

Li.sub.xC.sub.6+xH.sub.2O.fwdarw.xLiOH+6C+x/2H.sup.2   (2)

[0047] The electrolyte (LiPF.sub.6) in the separator would decompose in contact with water to release hydrofluoric acid (HF). The HF would consecutively decompose the SEI layer (Li(RCHOCO.sub.2)).

LiPF.sub.6+H.sub.2.fwdarw.LiOPF.sub.4+2HF   (3)

LiPOF.sub.4+H.sub.2O⇄Li.sub.3PO.sub.4+Li.sub.x(POF).sub.y+HF   (4)

2(RCHOCO.sub.2)Li+2HF.fwdarw.2LiF+(RCHOH).sub.2+2CO.sub.2   (5)

[0048] The lithium hydroxide (LiOH) thus produced could decompose or get carbonated in contact with atmosphere and the gases evolved from the SEI decomposition.

2LiOH.fwdarw.Li.sub.2O+H.sub.2O   (6)

2LiOH+CO.sub.2.fwdarw.Li.sub.2CO.sub.3+H.sub.2O.sub.2  (7)

LiOH+HF.fwdarw.LiF+H.sub.2O.sub.2O   (8)

[0049] Therefore, the solution produced by adding water to the plated anode and the separator would primarily contain LiOH, Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, LiF, Li.sub.3PO.sub.4, and LiOPF.sub.4. The pH and conductivity of the solution were measured (FIG. 10). A similar pattern was observed in the conductivity measurements as the electrochemical analysis (FIGS. 2a-2d), with the solution pH and conductivity was found to increase with C-rates. The oscillations in the conductivity measurement occurred because the extracted solution did not contain only LiOH. Since the SEI and electrolyte decompose along with the plated lithium, consequentially forming other lithium salts. In an ideal situation, only the lithium metal on the anode film would have dissolved in water to yield equivalent LiOH. The variability in the dissociation constants and solubility of the different lithium salts and their by-products introduced the observed deviations in the conductivity measurement. The extracted lithium salts from the anode/separator and cathode batches were weighed after drying (FIG. 5a-5b). An increasing lithium deposition was observed with C-rate in the anode until a maximum (FIG. 5a). This observation confirmed the upper charging limit to be between 4C and 5C for the given lithium pouch cells. A 40% improvement in lithium recoverability was observed for batteries electrochemically cycled at 4C and 5C charging rates compared to a fresh (pristine) battery. With increasing plating, a reduction in the lithium content from the cathode is expected. During the fast charging, the cyclable lithium is lost from the cathode and the electrolyte and deposits on the anode. A corresponding decrease in the lithium extraction was observed in the cathode (FIG. 5b), indicating targeted concentration of metallic lithium at the anode/separator interface.

[0050] The lithium salts yielded from the battery were analyzed. The 5C batch of the lithium salt was analyzed using XPS. The lithium peak from the XPS was deconvoluted and fitted with the above-mentioned lithium salts (FIG. 6). The peak areal analysis predicted about 50% of the salt composition was LiOH, followed by Li.sub.2O, Li.sub.2CO.sub.3, LiF, LiOPF.sub.4 and Li.sub.3PO.sub.4. This analysis confirmed that most of the lithium was derived from the electrodeposited metallic Li layer. Since the pouch cell was completely discharged prior to disassembly, the contribution of LiOH from the intercalated graphite was assumed to be insignificant. Since the Li.sub.2O and Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 were mostly generated as a byproduct of LiOH decomposition, the total metallic lithium contributed >80% of the yield composition. The remainder of the yield were derived either from the SEI or the electrolyte decomposition.

[0051] Consequently, the molar concentrations from the XPS data were used to estimate an equivalent lithium extraction from the battery. For an initial yield of 23.3 mg, a molar analysis was performed in Table 1 to evaluate 5.52 mg of lithium in the extracted salt mixture. With a 300 mg/Ah of lithium content in a lithium cobalt oxide battery, the lithium yield from a 20 mAh LCO/C pouch cell equates to about 92% by weight. The flow schematic of the entire process is presented in FIG. 7.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Molar analysis and equivalent mass prediction of lithium from XPS deconvolution for 5C lithium spectrum. Molar Mass Molar Ratio Compound (g/mol) x.sub.Li (%) Mass (mg) n (mmol) m.sub.Li (mg) Li.sub.2O 29.88 2.00 20.81 3.54 0.12 1.66 LiOH 23.95 1.00 49.11 6.70 0.28 1.96 Li.sub.2CO.sub.3 73.89 2.00 11.76 4.95 0.07 0.94 LiF 25.94 1.00 8.77 1.30 0.05 0.35 Li.sub.3PO.sub.4 115.79 3.00 2.97 1.96 0.02 0.36 LiPOF.sub.4 129.91 1.00 6.57 4.86 0.04 0.26

[0052] The XPS deconvolution of the washed graphite (after lithium extraction) from the pouch cell revealed no trace of lithium (Table S1 of FIG. 11), indicating a complete lithium recovery from the anode. Moreover, the sample was found to be 89.9% C 1 s with 10% impurity. The extracted and dried graphite was heat treated (HT) in Ar flow under full vacuum and at 1000° C. A 30% mass loss was observed indicating decomposition of residual hydrocarbons from the filler and binder materials. Post-HT XPS analysis revealed 7.65% improvement in the graphite purity with a C1s of 96.8% and 3.2% of impurity. Raman spectra were obtained from the pre- and post-HT graphite anode samples (FIG. 8a). The disorder peak (D band) was suppressed in the post-HT sample, inferring an increase in the graphitic behavior of the anode, and reduction in the amorphous filler and binding materials. The I.sub.G/I.sub.D ratio increased from 1.79 to 3.13 after the heat treatment process, indicating a 75% increase in the degree of graphitization. The degree of graphitization can be easily further improved by heat treating at higher temperature. In addition, TGA and DSC analyses were performed to evaluate the thermal transitions and mass loss during the HT process of the graphite sample (FIG. 8b). A two-stage mass loss is observed during the first cycle heating, with expected water removal by 300° C. and decomposition of the binding material into carbon by 450° C. The second cycle iteration of the process revealed no significant mass or thermal changes, indicating a stable product with no further thermal decompositions. The HT process can be optimized to enable enhanced extraction of graphite.

[0053] The XPS deconvolution of the Co2p spectrum of the washed and dried cathode film was performed based on former XPS measurements of Li.sub.xCoO.sub.2 electrodes at different states of charge (references. 37,38). The results, shown in FIG. 8c, indicated <10 atomic (at.) % (or <0.7 wt. %) of lithium. The deconvolution of the Li1s and Co3p peaks (FIG. 8d) predicted 7.05 at. % of Li in CoO.sub.2 structure (Table S2). Compositional analysis of the same electrode was performed with Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and revealed 7.77 at. % Li and the rest 92.95 at. % of Co (Table S2 of FIG. 12). These results agree within 1% of the amounts estimated from the XPS spectrum deconvolution. The XPS analysis of extracted Li (FIG. 6b and Table 1) showed 92.2 at. % recovery. The remaining 7.8 at. % of Li is present in material extracted from cathode as shown by XPS and ICP-OES. Therefore, for simple cathode chemistries, like lithium salts of cobalt oxide, manganese oxide and ferrous phosphate, the extraction process yields 93 at. % pure metal salt.

[0054] The H.sub.2 evolution during the extraction process could be utilized as an energy source in the recovery process. The H.sub.2 gas could be collected and combusted to dry the lithium solution and/or heat treat the graphite extractant for purification. From the predicted deposition of about 4.42 mg (or 0.63 mmol) of lithium metal dendrites (assuming 80% of the yield is from lithium plating), a rudimentary thermodynamic energy balance yields 149J of heat from the hydrolysis of lithium and 90J of energy upon combustion of the generated H.sub.2. Therefore, a total thermal generation of 239J. Assuming 5 times excess (molar-basis) of H.sub.2O used in the extraction process, the energy required to boil the water from 25° C., is equivalent to 146J. Therefore, the H.sub.2 could be used as a clean fuel to support the recovery process.

[0055] Results (With Mechanical Load or at Sub-Ambient Room Temperature):

[0056] The experimental embodiments in which fast charging (1C-6C rates) was performed under applied mechanical (compressive) load produced a maximum capacity fade of 39% which was observed at 440 kPa when tested at RT over a load range of 0 kPa to 440 kPa. A compressive load was applied by placing an individual pouch cell between a bottom plate that was located on a rigid stage and a top plate having compression load cell thereon with a compressive force being applied normal (perpendicular) to the side of the pouch cell by displacement of the top plate/compression load cell.

[0057] The other experimental embodiments, in which fast charging (1C-6C rates) was performed at a temperature below ambient room temperature (sans mechanical load), produced a maximum capacity fade a maximum capacity fade of 60% which was observed at -9 degrees C. when tested over a temperature range of RT to −18 degrees Celsius. The sub-RT was obtained by placing the pouch cell in a Peltier cooling platform.

[0058] In summary, an advantageous lithium extraction method is presented which utilizes the degradation mechanisms from fast charging lithium battery, i.e., lithium plating, as a tool to selectively concentrate metallic lithium at the anode/separator interface. In-situ electrochemical analysis predicted an increasing lithium deposition with charging rate up to 5C followed by a decay. The film characterization during post-mortem analysis revealed a maximum film thickness of 35um with increasing lithium spatial deposition with C-rate. A green recovery method is employed by which the lithium from the plated film, SEI, and electrolyte were extracted using only distilled water with no addition of acid or base. A 40% gain in lithium recoverability was observed between the lithium harvested from the fast charging and pristine electrodes. XPS and ICP-OES analysis of the extracted lithium salt predicted >80% of the lithium was derived from the dendritic film, with a total extraction efficiency of >90% at 5C. No traceable lithium was found in the anode and <8 at. % of lithium was found in the cathode. Thus, the practice of the invention can be deployed to any scale of lithium battery for recovery of lithium and graphite, while concentrating the transition metal in the cathode for downstream processing.

[0059] Although certain embodiments of the invention have been described above for purposes of illustration, those skilled in the art will appreciate that changes can be made therein within the scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims.