SYSTEM FOR CONTROLLING TEMPERATURE OF A BODY

Abstract

A system for controlling temperature of a body (6) comprising a DBD actuator (9) connectable to a power source to produce an ionic wind on the body; a control unit (8) to select an initial configuration and to control the power source (5) depending on a temperature difference (?T) between an input temperature (T.sub.i) and a target temperature (T.sub.ta) on the body (6), wherein the initial configuration comprises the following constructive parameters of the DBD actuator: number, shape, geometry, relative position of electrodes (d), dielectric material, dielectric thickness (e), wherein the initial configuration further comprises the following setting parameters to be set in the power source (5): a frequency value (f), an amplitude value (V), a waveform signal and a duty cycle, wherein the control unit (8) adjusts the initial configuration by modifying any of the setting parameters to control the heat transferred to the surface of the body.

Claims

1. A system for controlling temperature of a body comprising: a DBD actuator configured to be connectable to a power source and to produce an ionic wind on the body; a control unit configured to control the power source; wherein the control unit is configured to control the power source depending on a temperature difference between an input temperature and a target temperature (T.sub.ta) on the body and further depending on an initial configuration, wherein the initial configuration comprises the following constructive parameters of the DBD actuator: number of electrodes, shape and geometry of electrodes, relative position between electrodes, dielectric material, dielectric thickness, wherein the initial configuration further comprises the following setting parameters of the power source: a frequency value an amplitude value, a waveform signal and a duty cycle, wherein the control unit is further configured to adjust the initial configuration by modifying any of the setting parameters to control the heat transferred to the produced ionic wind; wherein the system further comprises a temperature sensor configured to measure a temperature of the surface of the body, wherein the control unit is provided with the measured temperature as an input temperature; the system being characterized in that the control unit is configured to apply a cooling configuration if the target temperature is lower than the temperature of the body and/or is configured to apply a heating configuration if the target temperature is higher than the temperature of the body, wherein the cooling configuration comprises a frequency value lower than a maximum cooling frequency limit and an amplitude value higher than a minimum cooling amplitude limit, and wherein the heating configuration comprises a frequency value upper than a minimum heating frequency limit, an amplitude value lower than a maximum heating amplitude limit.

2. (canceled)

3. (canceled)

2. The system according to claim 1, wherein the DBD actuator comprises flexible components or adapts to a specific shape.

3. The system according to claim 1, wherein the dielectric material in the DBD actuator has a non-constant thickness.

4. The system according to claim 1 comprising multiple DBD actuators.

5. The system according to claim 1, wherein the control of the system is prefixed or managed manually.

6. The system according to claim 3 wherein, if the target temperature is lower than the temperature of the body, the control unit is configured to apply a cooling configuration, wherein the cooling configuration comprises a frequency value lower than a maximum cooling frequency limit and an amplitude value higher than a minimum cooling amplitude limit.

7. The system according to claim 6, wherein the maximum cooling frequency limit is in the range of 10 Hz to 5 kHz and the minimum cooling amplitude limit is in the range of 5 kV.sub.pp to 40 kV.sub.pp.

8. The system according to claim 6 wherein the maximum cooling frequency limit is in the range of 10 Hz to 100 Hz.

9. The system according to claim 6, where the separation between edges of the electrodes is between 0 and 8 mm.

10. The system according to claim 6, where the exposed electrode of the DBD actuator has a non-straight edge, preferably a sawtooth shape

11. The system according to claim 1, wherein, if the target temperature is higher than the temperature of the body, the control unit is configured to apply a heating configuration, wherein the heating configuration comprises a frequency value upper than a minimum heating frequency limit, an amplitude value lower than a maximum heating amplitude limit.

12. The system according to claim 11, wherein the DBD actuator comprises a third electrode, wherein the third electrode and the first electrode are located on the same side of the dielectric medium, wherein the third electrode is electrically connected to the first electrode or to the second electrode or to an external power source (AC or DC) or remains as a floating electrode.

13. The system according to claim 11, where the separation between edges of the electrodes is negative, being both electrodes partially or completely overlapped.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0024] FIG. 1 shows a schematic block diagram with elements of an embodiment of the system.

[0025] FIG. 2 shows a schematic block diagram of a control unit of an embodiment of the system.

[0026] FIG. 3 shows an exemplary flow diagram of a control unit for cooling or heating a body of an embodiment of the system.

[0027] FIG. 4 shows a schematic representation of an embodiment of a system with a DBD actuator.

[0028] FIGS. 5A-5C show three different shapes of the exposed electrodes for a DBD actuator.

[0029] FIG. 6A shows a DBD actuator having a lower electrode without encapsulation.

[0030] FIG. 6B shows a DBD actuator having a lower encapsulated electrode.

[0031] FIG. 7 shows, for three voltage frequencies, experimental results of speed of ionic wind variation with height over the DBD actuator of FIG. 6B.

[0032] FIGS. 8A-8G show different constructive embodiments of DBD actuators for the system.

[0033] FIG. 9 shows different wave forms.

[0034] FIG. 10 shows a stationary and a non-stationary waveform.

[0035] FIG. 11 shows a single pulse waveform generated in the power source.

[0036] FIG. 12A shows temperature versus time curve regarding the heating of the embodiment of a system of FIG. 8A.

[0037] FIG. 12B shows temperature versus distance curve regarding the heating of the embodiment of a system of FIG. 8A.

[0038] FIG. 13A shows the cooling effect as function of time and excitation frequency voltage.

[0039] FIG. 13B shows the cooling effect as function of time and voltage amplitude.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0040] Several aspects and embodiments of the invention will be explained with reference to the drawings for a better understanding.

[0041] FIG. 1 shows a simplified block diagram according to one embodiment of the invention. A temperature sensor (7) measures the temperature of a body (6) and provides this value to a control unit (8). The power source (5) supplies alternate voltage to a DBD actuator (9). The control unit (8) controls a power source (5) depending on the temperature of the body (6) and also depending on a target temperature. The control unit (8) may select a certain setting of the power source (5) as an initial configuration. Cooling or heating may be applied depending on the current temperature of the body (6) given by the temperature sensor (7) and the target temperature. In the initial configuration the constructive features of DBD actuator may also be considered. The electrodes of the DBD actuator create a plasma region that causes an ionic wind towards the body (6). The control unit (8) may thus produce cooling or heating of the body (6) by varying setting parameters such as voltage frequency and/or voltage amplitude and/or the waveform and/or the duty cycle to check after an interval of time, ?t, with the temperature sensor (7) whether the temperature of the body has changed as desired. If the temperature of the body has not sufficiently changed upon checking, the initial configuration may be adjusted to facilitate reaching the target temperature.

[0042] The control unit can be activated to operate in heating or cooling mode based on the temperature sensor and on the target temperature. Moreover, control unit may include other input signals to modify how it works. Additionally, the control unit may allow operating in manual mode for selecting either of the two settings (cooling or heating).

[0043] In the heating mode, the default waveform will be nano pulses (ns-DBD). If, with the preset configuration, the target temperature cannot be reached, the excitation voltage is increased and then the frequency. For example, it can be done alternatively or even simultaneously. When the target temperature is reached, it can be changed to a waveform with lower consumption, by introducing a non-stationary wave with a duty cycle or in the form of bursts.

[0044] In the cooling mode, the preset waveform will preferably be a sinusoidal AC signal. If the target temperature is not reached with the preset conditions, the excitation voltage will be increased. Note that during the increase of the excitation voltage to achieve the cooling of the surface, an undesired effect may occur: an increase in temperature may appear. In such a circumstance, the excitation frequency is reduced or excited with a non-stationary wave through a duty cycle. The control unit may use a similar actuation to reduce power consumption once the target temperature is reached.

[0045] Notice that the system presented in FIG. 1, is also valid without temperature sensor (7). In this case control could be prefixed or managed manually.

[0046] FIG. 2 shows another block diagram of the control unit 8. The control unit (8) may consider an initial configuration with setting parameters of the power source (5) and constructive parameters of the DBD actuator (9) to properly adjust the initial configuration, e.g. the setting parameters of the power source (5). The constructive parameters of the DBD actuator (9) can be part of the inputs for the control unit (8) (e.g. safety operation values such as limit amplitude of voltage for a certain frequency range, limit frequency of voltage signal for a certain amplitude range, limit temperature of DBD actuator).

[0047] The control unit (8) is configured to monitor a safety operation for the DBD actuator (9) by checking whether a modification in a setting parameter of the power source (5) causes reaching a limit operation value for the DBD actuator (9), being the limit operation value selected according to the remainder setting parameters in the power source (5).

[0048] FIG. 3 shows a flow diagram of an implementation of the control unit (8) for temperature control. If temperature of a body (T.sub.b) is below (heating) or above (cooling) T.sub.ta degrees, an initial configuration is used to operate the power source and create plasma with the DBD actuator. After a certain amount of time, ?t, the body temperature is compared with the desired target value T.sub.ta. If there is a temperature difference between T.sub.b and T.sub.ta, the control unit may adjust the initial configuration by modifying setting parameters of the power unit. The setting parameters can be thus selectively modified for cooling or heating.

[0049] FIG. 4 shows a schematic representation of an embodiment of a system 10 for modifying the temperature of a body 6 based on dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) effect. The system 10 includes a DBD actuator with two electrodes. A first electrode 1 has a side exposed to the exterior (generally, surrounding air but also other fluids), a second electrode 2 has an encapsulation structure 4 in order to avoid unwanted effects and reduction of power consumption. Both electrodes are connected to a power supply 5 that provides a high alternate voltage. Other DBD actuators may be suitable as discussed later. Preferably, voltage waveform and associated parameters may be defined according to the intended use. Some of the parameters to be set as frequency, amplitude, waveform, duty cycle, will be explained later. As can be seen the electrodes 1, 2 are located in parallel planes, defining a space for a dielectric layer 3 between them of certain thickness e. The electrodes 1, 2 are not vertically aligned, there is an offset d between the edges 1b, 2b, when a high voltage is applied, causes an ionization of the air and an ionic wind is generated as indicated by the arrow which may be employed for several purposes. In particular, cooling or heating the surface of the body 6. Notice, that d>0 means a gap or separation between the electrodes, i.e. a gap from edge 2b to edge 1b while d<0 implies at least partial overlapping between both electrodes, i.e. edge 2b is under electrode 1. As a general rule, a configuration with d<0 should be preferred for heating applications, while d>0 configurations would be preferred for cooling.

[0050] FIGS. 5A-5C shows three different shapes of the exposed electrodes. Geometric characteristics may vary. FIG. 5A shows an electrode having straight edges. FIG. 5B shows an electrode having triangular teeth. FIG. 5C shows an electrode having sinusoidal edges. The edge shape is of importance for producing a suitable discharge as explained later.

[0051] It has been found that the thickness of the electrodes is not a key factor. However, the less the thickness, the better. Generally, thickness of electrodes should be below 200 microns, preferably about 50 microns.

[0052] FIG. 6A illustrates a simplified DBD actuator defined by two electrodes 1, 2 located on opposite sides of a dielectric medium 3 arranged in an asymmetric configuration. In this embodiment there is no encapsulated electrode. An alternating high voltage source 5 applies a voltage to the electrodes 1, 2. In the context of the present document, high voltage should be understood from 5 kVpp to 50 kVpp. Above a voltage threshold an electrical discharge occurs, the air is ionized on both sides of the dielectric material, in the regions with the greatest intensity of the electric field. Plasma is formed on both sides of the dielectric material 3. Consequently, an ionic wind is produced on both sides with opposite direction.

[0053] FIG. 6B illustrates another simplified DBD actuator. In this case, the plasma generation is produced on only one side of the dielectric 3. To prevent the generation of plasma on the other side of the dielectric, one of the electrodes is isolated, for example, by making it an encapsulated electrode. A region of plasma forms on the exposed electrode. In general, the electrode connected to ground is usually the encapsulated electrode.

[0054] The plasma region is formed due to the intense electric field obtained by applying a high voltage signal to the electrodes. The ionized air contained in the plasma region propagates from edge 1b of exposed electrode 1 to encapsulated electrode 2, generating an ionic wind.

[0055] The dielectric material prevents an electric arc from forming between the two electrodes. Furthermore, the accumulation of charge in the dielectric material 3 causes the discharge to decrease and ultimately to extinguish. For this reason, an alternating voltage signal is normally used.

[0056] FIG. 7 illustrates experimental measurements of induced ionic wind speed as a function of h, the height above the DBD actuator surface as depicted in FIG. 6B. Kapton? is used as the dielectric element and three different frequency values (1 kHz, 2 kHz, 3 kHz) for a supply voltage of 14 kVpp (amplitude of 7 kV) and at L=16 mm from trailing-edge exposed electrode (1b). It is found that the higher the frequency, the higher the speed of the ionic wind. This fact is employed by the control unit to modify the functioning of the DBD actuator. Speed reaches maximum near the actuator surface, between a height of 0.5 and 1 mm.

[0057] In FIGS. 8A-8G different formation of the electrical wind can be seen schematically according to various system embodiments of DBD (9) in which the constructive parameters of the DBD actuator (arrangement, size, number, etc.) of the electrodes vary. The point of the arrow indicates the direction of the ionic wind. The size of the arrow is not related to the speed magnitude.

[0058] FIG. 8A illustrates the case where exposed electrode 1 is placed on top of a dielectric layer 3. Encapsulated electrode 2 is placed on the opposite side of the dielectric layer. Both electrodes 1,2 are laminar (e.g. of foil tape) and are arranged on parallel planes and having a displacement on respective edges. Plasma is generated at the edge of the exposed electrode 1 closer to the encapsulated electrode 2. A DBD actuator like this may be suitable for cooling and heating application.

[0059] FIG. 8B illustrates the case where exposed electrode 1 is placed on top of a dielectric layer 3. Encapsulated electrode 2 is placed on the opposite side of the dielectric. Both electrodes 1,2 are laminar and are arranged on parallel planes. The exposed electrode 1 is smaller than the encapsulated electrode 2, and completely superimposed. Plasma is generated at both edges of the exposed electrode 1. A DBD actuator like this may be more suitable for heating applications.

[0060] FIG. 8C shows another embodiment where the projection of one electrode on the other defines an additional separation or gap. This gap between exposed electrode 1 and encapsulated electrode 2 can be modified to suit the needs. A DBD actuator like this may be more suitable for cooling applications.

[0061] FIG. 8D depicts another embodiment with an additional third electrode. In this configuration, an electric wind is generated perpendicular to the surface of the body 6. Concerning to the three electrodes, two electrodes are exposed and connected to the same power source. An electric wind is generated so that the wind direction can be modified 180 degrees; to achieve this result the voltage and/or frequency applied to electrodes 1 and 13 should be different, two power supplies could be used. A DBD actuator like this may be more suitable for heating applications.

[0062] FIG. 8E shows another embodiment similar to the configuration explained in FIG. 8A where the thickness of the dielectric is not constant. A part of the encapsulated electrode is not parallel to the plane of the exposed electrode. A larger plasma region is produced by decreasing the thickness of the dielectric in a region where intensity of the electric field decreases. A DBD actuator like this may be more suitable for cooling applications.

[0063] FIG. 8F depicts another embodiment with three electrodes. In this configuration, the third electrode 13 is electrically connected to the ground encapsulated electrode. When electrode 1 is connected to an alternating high voltage signal and electrodes 2 and 13 are connected to ground, the discharge has the advantage that electrode 13 allows greater charge neutralization, reducing charge accumulation in the dielectric material 3. A DBD actuator like this may be more suitable for heating applications.

[0064] FIG. 8G shows an embodiment according to a configuration called sliding discharge with three electrodes and combines a corona and DBD discharge. There are two exposed electrodes and one encapsulated electrode, separated by the dielectric element 3. In this arrangement the additional electrode 13 is connected to a negative direct current source. Between electrodes 1 and 2 there is a basic DBD. There are corona discharge channels formed from electrode 1 to electrode 13. This configuration achieves a larger plasma region with a reduced voltage. A DBD actuator like this may be more suitable for heating applications.

[0065] Above configurations are merely illustrative. Other types can be defined. Combinations of different configuration are also possible, even some of them sharing electrodes.

[0066] Although the figures show a single DBD actuator (9), a system may comprise multiple actuators acting on the same body or on different ones. Notice that the shape of electrodes is neither limited to be flat or laminar nor to be parallel between them. Actually, benefits of the performance of the system can be foreseen when the DBD, and its components, adapt to the body or to a specific shape.

[0067] Additional constructive parameters that also influence the performance of the embodiments are discussed below.

[0068] Thickness of the exposed electrode has a relative influence on the intensity of the electric field. The width and the material from which electrodes are made are not very important. The thinner the exposed electrode is, the better results in terms of generation of ionic wind.

[0069] The width of the encapsulated electrode produces an increase in the length of the plasma region, which improves the performance. However, above a certain value no further improvement is obtained.

[0070] The arrangement of opposite electrodes can be so that an offset d exists between edges to be placed in front one another; consequently, the parameter d can be negative or positive. The best results for ionic wind generation are obtained with an offset of ?1 mm to 1 mm. The overlapping electrodes configuration is related to a more uniform discharge. This embodiment also allows a slight increase in performance.

[0071] The material of the dielectric layer is of great importance, affecting the performance of the DBD system and its maximum operating conditions. Typical materials used as dielectrics include Teflon?, crystal, Kapton?, Macor?, bakelite, quartz, Delrin?, methacrylate and polycarbonate, among others. In practice, there is no perfect dielectric medium and the most appropriate one depends on the specific application.

[0072] Apart from previous considerations, the electrical excitation is also of great importance in the behavior of the system.

[0073] FIG. 9 shows several types of electrical signals that can be used to feed the system: sine, rectangular, triangular, sawtooth, and pulse. In a general way, sinusoidal waveforms are preferred for cooling applications, whereas very short duration pulses are preferred for heating ones.

[0074] Non-stationary excitation can be obtained by modulating a voltage signal using pulses. For example, turning on and off an alternating current signal at a certain frequency. The relationship between the action time and the excitation period gives us the duty cycle. A stationary performance has a 100% duty cycle. A non-stationary actuation can excite instabilities in a detached boundary layer, obtaining better results than in stationary actuation.

[0075] FIG. 10 shows a stationary and a non-stationary waveform. This type of excitation is valid in both cooling and heating. Regarding frequency, nanosecond pulse discharges can be more efficient than microsecond discharges. The power source needs to be capable of providing such a short duration signal.

[0076] Nanosecond pulse discharge, also referred as ns-DBD, have shown to be effective for flow control applications over a wide range of Mach. A great effect on heat transfer is also shown, thereby causing quick heating. A configuration based on nanoseconds pulse discharge is basically the same as a normal DBD, also referred as AC-DBD in this context, previously discussed. All the settings discussed are valid and applicable for both.

[0077] In a ns-DBDs configuration the Joule effect is key. The heating of the air around the system is so quick that produces compression waves propagating at sonic speeds. In ns-DBD systems, excitation is produced by high voltage pulses (5-50 kV) with rise time in the order of tens of nanoseconds and with a duration between 5 ns to 200 ns, as seen in FIG. 11.

[0078] FIG. 11 shows a typical form for a single pulse that is repeated according to a certain frequency. These pulses are used in the so-called ns-DBD configuration. The application of the ns-DBD configuration is an anti-icing element due to a great capacity to generate heat in order to avoid ice formation in airplanes.

[0079] FIGS. 12A-12B present experimental results for heating. FIG. 12A shows the temperature variation over time of an embodiment of a system in the configuration of FIG. 8A. Likewise, FIG. 12B shows the temperature variation on a line parallel to the edge 1 b and located 5 mm from the mentioned edge. An increase of almost 100? C. can be achieved in about 20 seconds. The particular settings used are a frequency of 1500 Hz, an amplitude of 16 kV, the waveform is a nanosecond pulse. Higher frequencies may achieve even better results.

[0080] An increase in voltage and frequency implies increasing the heating capacity in an anti-freeze or defrost system. Yet alternatively or additionally, an increase in the region heated can be achieved by a sliding discharge configuration of FIG. 8G.

[0081] As to the cooling capacity, care should be taken to obtain the desired result, if voltage or frequency are increased with the aim of generating more ionic wind, an increase in the temperature of the wind itself is also obtained. The increase in temperature may neutralize the expected improvement. It may even cause the opposite effect as can be seen in the following figures. This effect is taken into account by the control unit to properly control the power source not to revert the intended aim.

[0082] FIG. 13A shows temperature variation over time for a flat plate heated at 70? C. under the action of an embodiment of the system of FIG. 4. The supply voltage is set fixed at kV.sub.pp of amplitude, while frequency is increased. As can be seen, an increase in the frequency implies a greater temperature decrease of the plate and consequently an increase in the cooling capacity. But this cooling capacity decreases when frequency is increased, even reversing the trend. Increasing the speed of ionic wind may cause increasing the temperature of the wind itself, so that after a certain time the plate may be re-heated. The control unit monitors this behavior to apply a counteracting configuration if required.

[0083] FIG. 13B shows a similar behavior in a graph with several curves representing the temperature variation over time at a fixed frequency of 1 kHz, each curve corresponds with a value of amplitude voltage. It can be seen that each increase in voltage represents a minor improvement in cooling, canceling out and reversing it when voltage values are greater than 22 kVpp.

[0084] The curves of FIGS. 13A and 13B suggest cooling is possible applying DBD effect in exchange of a limited performance and a high-power consumption. This problem is addressed by performing a set of somewhat opposite actions.

EXAMPLES

[0085] Hereinafter, the present invention is described specifically with reference to some examples, which however are not intended to limit the present invention.

[0086] A dynamic control of settings of the power source is achieved with the control unit.

Setting Parameters for Cooling:

[0087] A frequency as low as possible to be set. DBD actuators operate in the 1 kHz to 50 kHz range on a regular basis. Advantageously, the present system allows the operating frequency to be lowered by at least one or two orders of magnitude, being the optimum range less than 100 Hz. For these lower frequencies, the ionic wind has little cooling capacity so the excitation voltage is increased by the control unit to values of the order of 25 kV.sub.pp.

[0088] Several recommendations can be also provided for constructive parameters. First of all, imposing a separation between the exposed electrode and the encapsulated electrode, this implies a smaller plasma region and weaker ionic wind. However, a distance between electrodes also causes a non-homogeneous discharge. That is, the discharge does not have a repeatable behavior.

[0089] Secondly, to compensate for the non-homogeneity of the discharge, the exposed electrode, which is usually straight as shown in FIG. 5A, is replaced by a sawtooth electrode as illustrated in FIG. 5B, causing the discharges to always start on the electrode teeth. The discharge will be more homogeneous and the electric field more intense, compensating for the drawbacks of separating the two electrodes, increasing the parameter d.

[0090] With these design and operation actions, an ionic wind is achieved with a minimum increase in temperature. Hence, an excellent cooling can be achieved with minimal power consumption.

[0091] In summary, to achieve a good cooling capacity, a particular approach is followed departed from the normal operation of a DBD actuator. A different range of frequency is used, a separation between electrodes is required as well as particular shape to control the discharge.

Example of a Cooling Actuation

[0092] Let's consider as inputs a body temperature of 70 Celsius degrees, and a target temperature of 40 Celsius degrees. An ambient temperature about 25 Celsius degrees puts some conditions and/or restrictions. The higher the ambient temperature, the lower the heat flow dissipated from the surface of the body. On the other hand, a lower ambient temperature allows to reach a lower body temperature.

Constructive Parameters:

[0093] Thickness in the order of 0.5 mm (Kapton material).

[0094] Separation d between electrodes greater than 0 mm, preferably 3 mm.

[0095] Setting parameters: [0096] i. Vpp<40 kVpp [0097] ii. f>50 Hz [0098] iii. Waveform: AC (sinusoidal, square . . . ) [0099] iv. Possibility of actuation with a duty cycle to reduce consumption.

[0100] In the case of a greater dielectric thickness, separation d can be reduced to 0 mm. [0101] i. Vpp>12 kVpp [0102] ii. f>500 Hz [0103] iii. Waveform: AC (sinusoidal, square . . . ) [0104] iv. Possibility of acting with a work cycle to reduce consumption.

Setting Parameters for Heating:

[0105] A frequency and amplitude of the voltage as high as possible to be configured. The control unit shall work with a safety margin in order to avoid exceeding the temperature of the dielectric used and its dielectric breakdown. DBD actuators shall operate in the range of several kHz and tens of kV on a regular basis.

Example of a Heating Actuation

[0106] Let's consider as inputs a body temperature of ?10 Celsius degrees, and a target temperature of 10 Celsius degrees. In case the ambient temperature is equal to or lower than the body temperature a higher energy input will be needed.

Constructive Parameters:

[0107] The room available in the application will condition the type and thickness of the dielectric material to be used. Using Kapton with a thickness of 0.5 mm allows us to overlap the electrodes, from negative d to 0 mm.

Setting Parameters:

[0108] i. V>10 kV [0109] ii. f>2 kHz [0110] iii. Waveform: preferably nanopulses

[0111] These and other features, functions, and advantages that have been discussed can be achieved independently in various embodiments or may be combined in yet other embodiments.