Palm-size μNMR relaxometer using a digital microfluidic (DMF) device and a semiconductor transceiver for chemical/biological diagnosis

Abstract

A palm-size portable NMR relaxometer system for performing multi-step multi-sample chemical/biological assays, comprising a PCB having a CMOS NMR transceiver and a DMF device integrated thereon. A portable magnet has an inner gap configured to at least partially receive the DMF device. The DMF device comprises a platform of electrodes including a sensing site and receives one or more samples for analysis at an electrode and automatically transports the one or more samples on individual paths sequentially to the sensing site, for performing sensing on each sample sequentially. A Butterfly coil disposed on the PCB and underneath the DMF device and is at least partially received in the inner gap. The Butterfly coil excites the sample at the NMR sensing site by transducing a magnetic field produced at the sensing site to an electrical signal which is processed by the CMOS NMR transceiver to produce an analytical signal.

Claims

1. A portable NMR relaxometer system for performing multi-step multi-sample chemical/biological assays, comprising: a printed circuit board (PCB) having a CMOS NMR transceiver, a Butterfly coil, and a Digital Microfluidic (DMF) device integrated thereon; and a portable magnet generating a static magnetic field, wherein the portable magnet comprises a housing that surrounds the portable magnet, wherein the housing of the portable magnet within a body of the portable magnet comprises an inner gap from one side of the housing to an opposite side of the housing that is configured to at least partially receive the DMF device such that sensing would be performed within the housing of the portable magnet, wherein the DMF device comprises a platform of electrodes using electro-wetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) effects, the platform including a sensing site and having top and bottom planes for squeezing a sample, wherein the DMF device is configured to receive one or more samples for analysis at an electrode on the platform and automatically transport the one or more samples on individual paths sequentially to the sensing site, for performing sensing on each sample sequentially, wherein the CMOS NMR transceiver comprises an NMR circuit that interfaces with the Butterfly coil, the Butterfly coil being disposed on the PCB and directly underneath the DMF device and being at least partially received in the inner gap of the portable magnet, the Butterfly coil generating a surface-parallel RF magnetic field that is parallel to a surface of the PCB and is orthogonal to the static magnetic field generated by the portable magnet for exciting the sample at the NMR sensing site by transducing a magnetic field produced at the sensing site to an electrical signal which is processed by the CMOS NMR transceiver to produce an analytical signal.

2. The system of claim 1, wherein the DMF device further comprises a capacitance-to-digital module having a memory and processor configured to automatically determine whether a droplet is located on an electrode of the platform by: counting a number of pulses on each electrode; comparing the number of pulses counted on each electrode; and determining that an electrode having a low number of pulses relative to a high number of pulses at another electrode has a droplet located thereon.

3. The system of claim 1, wherein the platform of the DMF device comprises: the top plane, composed of glass and being coated with the electrodes, the electrodes being comprised of Chromium; a Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 layer underneath the electrodes; a Parylene-C layer underneath the Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 layer; a first Teflon layer under the Parylene-C layer; a space for holding the samples which are surrounded on each end by Silicone oil; a second Teflon layer underneath the space for holding the samples; an ITO layer underneath the second Teflon layer; and the bottom plane, composed of glass and disposed underneath the ITO layer.

4. The system of claim 1, further comprising: a DMF circuit, configured to control the platform of electrodes of the DMF device; a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), configured to transmit commands to the CMOS NMR transceiver and control the DMF circuit; and a signal generator, configured to provide an LO.sub.ref signal for input to the CMOS NMR transceiver.

5. The system of claim 4, wherein the DMF device further comprises a samples actuator comprising: an input for receiving input power from the FGPA; a boost converter for generating a sufficiently high voltage signal for electrode actuation; an oscillator for generating a square wave; a switch pair for amplifying the square wave; a high pass filter (HPF) to high-pass filter the amplified square wave to remove the DC level for actuating the electrodes of the platform; and a switch array controlled by the FGPA to control an on-off pattern of the electrodes by modulating a driving voltage on an occupied electrode with an on-off duty cycle to actuate movement of the sample.

6. The system of claim 1, wherein the DMF device is configured to transport the sample from one electrode on the platform to a neighboring electrode by applying a square wave to the neighboring electrode.

7. The system of claim 1, wherein a Silicone oil shell is applied on the platform of the DMF device to surround the received sample on the platform of electrodes.

8. The system of claim 1, wherein the samples comprise probe-decorated NP droplets and each sample is mixed with a target prior to being transported sequentially and individually to the sensing site.

9. The system of claim 1, wherein the DMF device is configured by a software module such that a first sample is screened at the sensing site while a second sample stays on its electrode, and then after the first sample is guided away from the sensing site the second sample is transported to the sensing site for screening.

10. The system of claim 1, wherein the DMF device is configured by a software module to move a sample onto the sensing site for screening and then away from the sensing site for mixing with a target, and then back to the sensing site for further screening.

11. The system of claim 4, wherein the signal generator comprises: a temperature sensor to sense an ambient temperature and produce an analog signal relating thereto; an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) for converting the analog signal to a digital signal; a processor for reading the digital signal and calculating a working frequency for the LO.sub.ref signal; a digital-to-analog converter for altering the working frequency; and a voltage-controller oscillator to produce the LO.sub.ref signal from the working frequency and output the LO.sub.ref signal.

12. The system of claim 4, wherein the CMOS NMR transceiver further comprises: a transmitter adapted to power the Butterfly coil, comprising: a state control and pulse sequence synthesizer to receive the LO.sub.ref signal from the signal generator and read the commands transmitted from the FGPA, and a power amplifier configured to generate CPMG pulse sequences and excite the nuclei of the sample at the sensing site with the CPMG pulses via the Butterfly coil; and a receiver adapted to extract the NMR signal induced by the Butterfly coil from the protons, comprising: a multi-stage low-noise amplifier (LNA) at a front of the receiver to boost the gain and enhance the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the RF signal, a pair of quadrature mixers configured to downconvert the RF signal to an intermediate frequency (IF) signal for filtering and digitalization, and a dynamic-bandwidth lowpass filter (LPF) configured to process the IF signal to suppress out-of-band noise and high frequencies generated by the mixers.

13. The system of claim 12, wherein the LPF is a 6.sup.th-order Butterworth filter using source-follower-based topology.

14. The system of claim 5, further comprising a portable computer, configured to: set NMR parameters, sample routing, and positioning, display NMR results, read ambient temperature, control the switch array of the DMF device, display vacancy of the electrodes on the platform, and display results of the micro-NMR sensing in real time.

15. The system of claim 1, further comprising a pipette configured to receive a sample for analysis and deliver the sample to the DMF device.

16. The system of claim 1, wherein the transceiver comprises multiple receivers which interface with multiple Butterfly coils, each receiver interfacing with a respective Butterfly coil disposed inside the opening gap of the portable magnet.

17. The system of claim 1, wherein the Butterfly coil comprises 7 turns.

18. A method for performing multi-step multi-sample chemical/biological assays using a portable NMR relaxometer system which comprises a printed circuit board (PCB) having a CMOS NMR transceiver and a Digital Microfluidic (DMF) device integrated thereon, and a portable magnet generating a static magnetic field, wherein the portable magnet comprises a housing that surrounds the portable magnet, wherein the housing of the portable magnet within a body of the portable magnet comprises an inner gap from one side of the housing to an opposite side of the housing that is configured to at least partially receive the DMF device such that sensing would be performed within the housing of the portable magnet, wherein the DMF device comprises a platform of electrodes using electro-wetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) effects, the platform including a sensing site and having top and bottom planes for squeezing a sample, the method comprising: receiving one or more samples for analysis at an electrode on the platform; automatically transporting the one or more samples on individual paths of the platform sequentially to the sensing site, for performing sensing on each sample sequentially; interfacing with a Butterfly coil disposed on the PCB and directly underneath the DMF device and being at least partially received in the inner gap of the portable magnet, the Butterfly coil generating a surface-parallel RF magnetic field that is parallel to a surface of the PCB and is orthogonal to the static magnetic field generated by the portable magnet for exciting the sample at the NMR sensing site by transducing a magnetic field produced at the sensing site to an electrical signal; and processing the electrical signal by the CMOS NMR transceiver to produce an analytical signal.

19. The method of claim 18, further comprising automatically determining whether a droplet is located on an electrode of the platform by: counting a number of pulses on each electrode; comparing the number of pulses counted on each electrode; and determining that an electrode having a low number of pulses relative to a high number of pulses at another electrode has a droplet located thereon.

20. The method of claim 18, further comprising applying Silicone oil on the platform of the DMF device to surround the received sample on the platform of electrodes.

21. The method of claim 18, wherein the samples comprise probe-decorated NP droplets and further comprising mixing each sample with a target prior to being transported sequentially and individually to the sensing site.

22. A non-transitory computer-readable medium storing a program which, when executed by at least one processor, performs a method for performing multi-step multi-sample chemical/biological assays using the system of claim 1, the method comprising: controlling the DMF device to automatically transport one or more samples received at an electrode on the platform, on individual paths of the platform sequentially to the sensing site, for performing sensing on each sample sequentially.

23. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 22, wherein the program controls the DMF device to automatically determine whether a droplet is located on an electrode of the platform by: counting a number of pulses on each electrode; comparing the number of pulses counted on each electrode; and determining that an electrode having a low number of pulses relative to a high number of pulses at another electrode has a droplet located thereon.

24. A method for performing multi-step multi-sample chemical/biological assays, the method comprising: providing the portable NMR relaxometer system of claim 1; providing a first droplet and a second droplet on a first electrode and a second electrode, respectively; providing a first target and a second target on a third electrode and a fourth electrode, respectively; mixing the first droplet with the first target to form a first mixture and the second droplet with the second target to form a second mixture by transporting the first droplet to the third electrode and the second droplet to the fourth electrode, respectively; transporting the first mixture to the sensing site for sensing on a first path while the second mixture stays on its electrode; transporting the first mixture away from the sensing site; and transporting the second mixture to the sensing site for sensing on a second path while the first mixture stays on its electrode.

25. A method for performing multi-step multi-sample chemical/biological assays, the method comprising: providing the portable NMR relaxometer system of claim 1; providing a droplet on a first electrode; providing a first target and a second target on a second electrode and a third electrode, respectively; transporting the droplet to the sensing site for recording a spin-spin relaxation time as a reference; mixing the droplet with the first target to form a first mixture by transporting the first droplet to the second electrode; transporting the first mixture to the sensing site for sensing; transporting the first mixture to the third electrode to form a second mixture by transporting the first mixture to the third electrode; and transporting the second mixture to the sensing site for sensing.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The features and advantages of the present invention will be more readily understood from a detailed description of the exemplary embodiments taken in conjunction with the following figures.

(2) FIG. 1(a) is an illustration of a NMR relaxometer 10 according to an embodiment of the present invention. The portable magnet 12 can greatly reduce the weight and size of the NMR analysis, while the CMOS transceiver 17 can provide a high sensitivity, rendering it as a befitting NMR relaxometer for POC applications. The DMF device 14 (the DMF electronics are shown by 15) is integrated with the NMR circuitry 17 to transport the samples under analysis automatically. The Butterfly coil 18, placed directly underneath the DMF device 14, is capable of generating a magnetic field in the x direction, thus orthogonal to the static magnetic field (the z direction) and efficaciously utilizes the inner space of the magnet 12. The Butterfly coil 18 is located on the PCB 19. The NMR circuitry is controlled by the field-programmable gate array (FPGA) board 20, which is linked with the PC 22 for display and visualization of the NMR result and providing a graphical user interface.

(3) FIG. 1(b) shows the brief assembly of the DMF device 14 according to an embodiment of the present invention. The droplets are squeezed inside the DMF device 14 and the Butterfly coil 18 is placed underneath the DMF device 14 for NMR screening. The samples actuator 23 and the capacitance-to-digital module 25 form a closed-loop control to govern the location of the droplets. The step-by-step assembly as well as the operation of the NMR relaxometer 10 is readily understood by the description and drawings provided herein including in the Electronic Supplementary Information (ESI) presented below.

(4) FIG. 2(a) shows the entire setup of the NMR relaxometer 10 and peripheral devices according to an example embodiment of the invention including the FPGA 20 to control the device level hardware, the PC 22 for real-time results display and setting up of the experimental parameters (e.g., pulse width, number of echoes, echoes spacing, etc.), batteries 24 for powering up the NMR relaxometer 10, and a signal generator 26 to provide an LO.sub.ref signal for the relaxometer 10. The samples 27 are placed inside the DMF device 14 using for example the pipette 28 before the experiments.

(5) FIG. 2(b) shows the assembly of the CMOS NMR transceiver 17, the DMF device 14, and the Butterfly coil 18 according to an example embodiment of the present invention. The DMF device 14 is placed atop the Butterfly coil 18, which is connected to the NMR transceiver 17 to excite the samples inside the DMF device 14 and sense the resultant RF signal.

(6) FIG. 2(c) is a photo of the CMOS transceiver die. The overall size of the die is 1.61.3 mm.sup.2 in this example embodiment.

(7) FIG. 3(a) shows the schematics of the temperature-tracking LO.sub.ref generator 26 according to an example embodiment. A temperature sensor 30 is used to sense the ambient temperature and the result is digitized by the analog-to-digital converter 29 and read by the processor 32. The required working frequency for the LO.sub.ref is then calculated by the processor 32 and the processor 32 drives the digital-to-analog converter 34, which alters the output frequency of the signal generator 43 thus befitting with the Larmor frequency of the protons.

(8) FIG. 3(b) shows the measured result of the magnetic field of the magnet 12 and temperature sensor 30 output over temperature. Both of them show a great linearity (R2>0.999) hence the required LO.sub.ref frequency can be calculated from the temperature sensor output.

(9) FIG. 4(a) shows the pulses counted on the electrodes covered by air and water, respectively. As the permittivity of water is substantially larger than air (80:1), the capacitance of the electrode covered by water has a higher capacitance, causing lower pulses counted and thus the system can detect if the electrode is vacant.

(10) FIG. 4(b) show photos taken outside the magnet 12, which demonstrate the movement of the droplets. The real-time pulses counted on the electrodes are marked respectively. The droplet is initially placed on an arbitrary electrode (e.g., the upper left in the photo) and the system detects the location of the droplet by comparing the pulse counted on the electrodes. After the droplet is located, it is guided to the NMR sensing site 38 progressively (from 1 to 4).

(11) FIG. 4(c) shows that once the droplet arrives at the NMR sensing site, the NMR experiment or screening will be triggered and the echoes amplitude of the samples will be collected (e.g., 256 echoes). The visualized operation of the NMR relaxometer 10 can be displayed.

(12) FIG. 5(a) is a graph illustrating the interference of silicone oil on T.sub.2 of deionized water. As the amount of silicone oil surrounding the droplets increases, the T.sub.2 deviates from its original value (without silicone oil).

(13) FIG. 5(b) is a graph illustrating the T.sub.2 spectrum of the samples enclosed with 1.6 L of Silicone oil, showing a singular exponential decay for the samples.

(14) FIG. 6(a) is a graph illustrating the correlation of T.sub.2.sup.1 (reference to 0 mM of CuSO.sub.4) to concentration of CuSO.sub.4, which shows a linear dependency. The paramagnetic CuSO.sub.4 ions perturb the local field and thus shorten the T.sub.2 of the protons. The echoes amplitude for the case of CuSO.sub.4 with 1 mM concentration is plotted above. 128 echoes are collected for each single experiment.

(15) FIG. 6(b) is a graph illustrating the correlation of T.sub.2 (reference to 0 M of avidin) to the concentration of avidin, which shows a linear dependency. Avidin bonds with biotin which is attached on the Iron NP and forms NP micro-clusters and thus shortens the T.sub.2 of the samples. The echoes amplitude for the case of avidin with 0.2 M concentration is plotted above. 64 echoes are collected for each single experiment.

(16) FIG. 7(a) is an illustration of the motions of the droplets for multi-step multi-sample handling. Two identical probe-decorated NP droplets 44 are placed inside the DMF device 14 together with two targets 40, 42 (water 40 as control, and avidin 42). The probe-decorated NP droplets 44 are then gradually transported to the target site for mixing with the respective target. After mixing, one of the mixture is transported to the NMR sensing site 38 while the other stays on its electrode. Upon the first mixture finishing the NMR analysis, the first mixture is guided away from the NMR sensing site 38 and the second mixture comes in. These operations demonstrate that the NMR relaxometer 10 can handle and perform multi-step and multi-sample NMR analysis. (T.sub.2 of water sample: 256 ms; avidin: 211 ms)

(17) FIG. 7(b) shows a Gantt chart of the operation of an individual droplet. With software control in the computer, the route of the droplets and the protocols can be optimized and the duration of the experiment can be minimized. The turnaround time for the experiment is, in this example embodiment, approximately 2.2 minutes.

(18) FIG. 8(a) is an illustration of one multi-step experiment. The probe (water alone) 52 is firstly guided to the NMR sensing site 38 for recording the spin-spin relaxation time as a reference. Then the probe 52 is mixed with the 1st target 50 and the mixture is transported to the NMR sensing site 38 for concentration identification. Subsequently the droplet 52 is mixed with the 2nd target 50 and the resultant droplet is driven to the NMR sensing site 38 again for quantification. The sequence of the droplet operations are marked on the figure.

(19) FIG. 8(b) illustrates a variation of T.sub.2 upon reaction with the CuSO.sub.4 ions. The T.sub.2 of the droplet is changed upon mixing with the CuSO.sub.4 ions, which reveals the capability of the relaxometer 10 to perform a multi-step NMR experiment.

(20) FIG. 9 is an illustration of the multi-butterfly-coil NMR relaxometer according to an example embodiment of the invention. By integrating multiple receivers inside the CMOS transceiver together with multiple butterfly coils 54, 56, the throughput of the assay can be further increased to befit a simultaneous multi-biomarker targeting. For simplicity the DMF device 14 is omitted in this figure.

(21) FIG. 10 shows NMR systems developed in the last decade. The present invention according to an example embodiment (labeled This Work in the FIG. 10 and in Table 1) succeeds in integrating a DMF device into an NMR relaxometer to achieve multi-step multi-sample handling inside a volume-limited portable magnet.

(22) FIG. 11 is a schematic of an NMR transceiver 17 and its connection to the external parts including a Butterfly coil 18 according to an example embodiment of the present invention.

(23) FIG. 12, comprising FIGS. 12(a)-(d), are schematics of key functional blocks according to an example embodiment of the present invention: FIG. 12(a) shows a power-efficient multi-stage inverter-based PA 58; FIG. 12(b) shows an NMOS-PMOS differential-pair LNA 60 with high gain and low noise; FIG. 12(c) shows I/Q active mixers 62 with a common PMOS differential pair for noise reduction; and FIG. 12(d) shows area-efficient and high-linearity 6th-order source-follower-based LPF 64.

(24) FIG. 13 is a timing diagram of the CPMG pulse sequences and the receiver output response showing the dead time of the receiver caused by the excitation pulses. Echoes amplitude of the NMR signals is also shown in the figure.

(25) FIG. 14 is a graph showing the step response of the 6th-order Butterworth LPF according to an example embodiment for the LPF 64 with different cut-off frequencies f.sub.0. The inset shows the corresponding settling times.

(26) FIG. 15 is a graph showing the relationship between the cut-off frequency of the LPF 64 and its bias current in this example.

(27) FIG. 16(a) shows a noise equivalent circuit of the receiver 33 front-end with the Butterfly coil 18 according to an example embodiment of the present invention.

(28) FIG. 16(b) shows the SNR of the NMR receiver 33 versus the number of turns of the Butterfly coil 18 in this example with a receiver input referred noise of 0.92 nV/Hz. An optimal number of turns of 7 is obtained by multi-domain simulation.

(29) FIG. 16(c) shows the magnetic field pattern of the 7-turn Butterfly coil of an example embodiment in the x-z plane. The RF magnetic field in the center of the Butterfly coil 18 goes in the x-direction.

(30) FIG. 16(d) shows the magnetic field pattern of the Butterfly coil in the x-y plane. The center of the Butterfly coil 18 has strongest magnetic field strength with some redundant sensing region.

(31) FIG. 17 is a schematic of a DMF module 15 according to an example embodiment of the present invention.

(32) FIG. 18 shows a visualized waveform applied on an electrode before and after the droplet arrives at the electrode according to an example embodiment.

(33) FIG. 19 shows a fabrication procedure of a Ta.sub.2O.sub.5/Parylene C-insulated DMF device 14 according to an embodiment of the present invention. Steps 1 to 6 show the fabrication process of the plate with electrode, while the fabrication process of the plate with ITO is shown in step 7 to 8. The assembly of the DMF device 14 together with the Butterfly coil 18 is also shown in the figure.

(34) FIGS. 20(a)-(h) are snapshots of the DMF device 14 transporting the droplets from t=0 s to t=3.2 s. At t=0 s, the square wave was applied to the neighboring electrode, causing the surface tension of the droplet near the electrode to change and attract the droplet.

(35) FIG. 21 shows the communication between the PC 22 and the FPGA board 20 in one example embodiment to drive the NMR relaxometer 10; this is done by adopting the TTL-232R_PCB module 21 to interface between the PC 22 and the FPGA board 20, which mastered the hardware of the NMR relaxometer 10.

(36) FIG. 22 presents Table 1, which shows a comparison of some of the systematic specifications of the present invention with the functionality of recent NMR systems.

(37) The invention will next be described in connection with certain exemplary embodiments; however, it should be clear to those skilled in the art that various modifications, additions, and subtractions can be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the claims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

(38) 1. Overview

(39) The present invention according to one aspect discloses a micro-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxometer miniaturized into palm-size, and electronic-automated for multi-step multi-sample chemical/biological diagnosis. The integration of microfluidic and microelectronic technologies disclosed herein enables association between droplet management and NMR assays inside a portable sub-Tesla magnet (e.g., 1.2 kg, 0.46 Tesla in one example embodiment). Targets in unprocessed biological samples, captured by specific probe-decorated magnetic nanoparticles (NP), can be sequentially quantified by their spin-spin relaxation time (T2) via multiplexed NMR screening. Distinct droplet samples are operated by a digital microfluidic (DMF) device that electronically manages the electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) effects over an electrode array. Each electrode (e.g., 3.53.5 mm.sup.2 in an example embodiment) is scanned with capacitive sensing to locate distinct droplet samples in real time. A cross-domain-optimized Butterfly-coil-input semiconductor transceiver transduces between magnetic and electrical signals to/from a sub-10 L droplet sample for high-sensitivity NMR screening. A temperature logger senses the ambient temperature (e.g., 0 to 40 C.) and the backend processor calibrates the working frequency for the transmitter to precisely excite the protons. In our experiments, the NMR relaxometer quantifies avidin using biotinylated Iron NP (: 30 nm, [Fe]: 0.5 mM) with a sensitivity of 0.2 M. Auto-handling and identification of two targets (avidin and water) are demonstrated and completed within 2.2 mins. This NMR relaxometer can achieve combinatorial chemical/biological diagnostic protocols using closed-loop electronic automation.

(40) 2. Materials and Methods

(41) 2.1 System Assembly

(42) An overview of the NMR relaxometer 10 according to an embodiment of the present invention is exemplified in FIG. 1, which comprises FIGS. 1(a) and 1(b). It can be divided into two parts: a NMR module and a DMF module. The NMR module includes: i) a CMOS transceiver 17 to excite and receive signals from the samples; ii) a Butterfly coil 18 fabricated on the PCB 19 to transduce between magnetic and electrical signals inside the space limiting magnet 12 (e.g., volume: 28.9 cm.sup.3); and iii) peripheral voltage and current regulators to power up and bias the CMOS transceiver 17. Further discussion and detail is provided in the Electronic Supplementary Information (ESI) section presented below.

(43) The DMF module is comprised of: i) a DMF device 14 in which samples are placed and transported; ii) a samples actuator 23 that controls the pulse applied on each electrode; and iii) a capacitance-to-digital module 25 that scans the real-time capacitance of each electrode and reports the vacant sites.

(44) An experimental setup is depicted in FIG. 2(a). The system operation is centralized in the personal computer (PC) 22, including setup of NMR parameters, display of NMR results, and droplet routing and positioning. The PC 22 is linked with a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) board 20 to control the device-level hardware using the universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART). The key functional blocks and their intercommunication are detailed in the ESI section below.

(45) 2.2 NMR Principle

(46) The principle of NMR and NMR is to observe the resonant behaviour of the non-zero spin nuclei (i.e., .sup.1H, .sup.13C, .sup.17O and .sup.31P, etc.) with radio-frequency (RF) exciting signals acting on them in the presence of an orthogonal static magnetic field B.sub.0. With B.sub.0 acting on the non-zero spin nuclei, they magnetize in the direction of B.sub.0 and stay in equilibrium. If an excitation RF signal with frequency equal to the Larmor frequency of the nuclei applies on the nuclei orthogonally, the nuclei start to precess around B.sub.0 as a process to exchange resonant energy between RF magnetic fields and nuclear spins, and hence the net magnetization will deviate from B.sub.0 with tip angle . The nuclei will not precess if the excitation signal falls outside of this Larmor frequency, which can be derived as:
f.sub.L=*B.sub.0(1)
with the gyromagnetic ratio of the nuclei . After a certain period the magnetization vector is tipped away from B.sub.0 with =90 and the excitation signal will be turned off. The nuclei will still oscillate at f.sub.L and decay exponentially at T.sub.2 which is influenced by the environment sensed from the nuclei. This parameter can reveal the physical properties of the samples.
2.3 DMF Device and Electronic

(47) The DMF device 14 shown in the inset of FIG. 1 comprises two parallel glass plates fit into (in this example embodiment) the 32-mm inner width of the magnet 12. The top plate (thickness: 1.5 mm) is coated with 15 Chromium electrodes (each 3.53.5 mm.sup.2) first for droplet control, followed by multi-layer dielectric materials to enhance the EWOD force thus reducing the threshold driving voltage..sup.21 The ITO (Indium Tin Oxide) coated glasses were purchased from HuaNan Tehnology Ltd. (China) to serve as bottom plate of DMF device. The specified sheet resistance of the ITO is 100 /sq. It serves as the ground and has a thickness of 0.5 mm, 3 thinner than the top plate rendering it suitable for NMR screening underneath. The final coating for both plates is a hydrophobic Teflon layer for smooth droplet actuation. Details about the fabrication procedure of the DMF device 14 can be found in ESI. The volume of liquid under testing per electrode (without mixing) is 8 L unless specified. The DMF device 14 and its assembly are depicted in FIG. 2(b). (It is of course to be understood that the various dimensions and specifications given in the example embodiments presented in this disclosure are by way of illustration and example only, and that the present invention is not necessarily limited by the specific specifications given.)

(48) The electrodes are actuated in this embodiment by a 40-V.sub.pp square wave with frequency of 1 kHz. The on (off) duty cycle is 10% (90%) to strap the droplets, while reducing the RMS-voltage stress on the electrode to minimize the risk of dielectric breakdown (see FIG. 18 referred to in the ESI section below). This driving signal on the NMR sensing site is switched off during NMR experimentation to prevent interference on the sensitive NMR receiver. To further enhance the portability of the system, an electronic boost converter is used to generate the square wave so as to circumvent the use of an extra high voltage supply. The position of the droplet is sensed by a capacitance-to-digital module. A detailed schematic of the DMF electronic in this example embodiment is included in the ESI section below.

(49) 2.4 Portable Permanent Magnet

(50) According to this example embodiment a portable magnet PM-1055 from Metrolab Technology SA (Switzerland) is adopted in this system with a nominal magnetic field of 0.5 T (0.05 T). The portable magnet 12 has an opening gap with a dimension of 32 mm14 mm and a weight of 1.25 kg. The magnetic field at different temperatures is measured by a Tesla Meter DTM-150 with probe LPT-130 from Group3 Technology Ltd. (New Zealand) inside temperature chamber SH-261 from ESPEC North America, Inc. (Hudsonville, Mich.).

(51) 2.5 Samples

(52) De-ionized water was tested firstly to show the functionality of the NMR relaxometer 10. Silicone oils (polydimethylsiloxanes) of 1 cSt viscosity from Clearco Products Co., Inc. (Bensalem, Pa.) were used as filler medium to smoothen the droplet movement due to their low surface tension, and prevent sample evaporation. Copper (II) sulfate solutions were prepared from CuSO.sub.4.5H.sub.2O purchased from Aladdin (Industry, Calif.). Avidin powder was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Co. (St. Louis, Mo.) and biotinylated magnetic NP (: 30 nm) were purchased from Nanocs Inc. (New York, N.Y.). The concentration of biotinylated magnetic NP throughout the experiment is 0.5 mM.

(53) 2.6 NMR CMOS Transceiver

(54) The NMR transceiver 17 in this example embodiment was designed in a 0.18-m CMOS process by EDA tool Vituoso Platform from Cadence Design Systems, Inc. (San Jose, Calif.) and fabricated by GlobalFoundries Inc. (Santa Clara, Calif.) with one polysilicon layer and six metal layers. The photo of the die is shown in FIG. 2(c). The transmitter 31 is equipped with a state control and pulse sequence synthesizer 35, and a power amplifier to generate the Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill (CPMG) pulse sequences and excite the samples via the Butterfly coil 18. For the receiver 33, it is headed by a multi-stage low-noise amplifier 60 to boost the gain and enhance the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the experiments, followed by a pair of quadrature mixers 62 downconverting the RF signal to intermediate frequency (IF) for filtering. A dynamic-bandwidth lowpass filter 64 was designed to rapidly recover from the dead time and manage the uncertain IF. The filter 64 is a 6.sup.th-order Butterworth using the source-follower-based topology. The overall receiver 33 has a simulated input-referred noise of 0.92 nV/Hz. The die is bonded on the PCB 19 by chip-on-board technology with encapsulated sealing to reduce the lead inductance.

(55) The CMOS transceiver 17 is powered up, e.g., by batteries or another suitable power supply and regulated with a 1.8-V low-dropout regulator. The Butterfly coil 18, which transduces between magnetic field and voltage signals, can effectively utilize the inner space of the magnet 12 by generating a surface-parallel RF-magnetic field orthogonal to the static magnetic field. The Butterfly coil 18 was fabricated on the PCB 19 with a conductor width of 0.15 mm and spacing of 0.15 mm. The coil's parameter and geometry optimization were studied in finite element analysis simulator COMSOL Multiphysics (Burlington, Mass.) and this is detailed in the ESI section below. The signal generator 43 (33250A from Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, Calif.) served as a voltage-controlled oscillator, providing an LO.sub.ref signal for the NMR relaxometer 10, which can be replaced by, e.g., an on-chip phase-locked loop or other suitable circuit if desired. The temperature sensor MAX6612 from Maxim Integrated (San Jose, Calif.) is utilized to sense the ambient temperature. A detailed design and schematic according to an example embodiment as well as the measurement result of the CMOS transceiver 17 and the peripheral electronics are discussed in the ESI section below.

(56) 2.7 NMR Experimental Parameters

(57) The /2 pulse widths for the Butterfly coil 18 was found to be 150 s. A CPMG pulse sequence was used to excite the protons and refocus the dephasing magnetization attributed to the inhomogeneous magnetic field. Relaxometry is chosen for this system as it poses a flexible requirement on the magnet 12, hence the volume and weight of the magnet 12 can be reduced compared to its spectroscopy counterpart, rendering it favourable to POC diagnosis. Spacing between the echoes were set to 4 ms for all cases. The samples were halted for 6 s upon arrival on the NMR sensing site for the stabilization of the hydrogen nuclei. The experiments were repeated 8 times to enhance the SNR and the time interval between the successive experiments was set at 6 s.

(58) 2.8 NMR Signal Post-Processing

(59) The NMR results were recorded and digitized by an Analog-to-Digital Converter ADC128S022 from Texas Instruments Inc. (Dallas, Tex.) with 12-bit resolution. Thereafter the raw data were sent to the PC 22 and the I/Q channel data were demodulated with a Hilbert transformer to reject the image noise. The spin-spin relaxation time was derived by a nonlinear regression model. The T.sub.2 spectrum of the samples was obtained by performing inverse Laplace transform on the echoes amplitude in MATLAB from MathWorks, Inc. (Natick, Mass.).

(60) 3. Results

(61) 3.1 Temperature-Tracking LO.sub.ref Generation

(62) The Neodymium magnet is sensitive to temperature (stated 1200 ppm/K). Thus, albeit in room temperature, the Larmor frequency of proton shifts 25.5 kHz per 1 C. variation. Confounded by the narrow bandwidth of the excitation signal (18.8 kHz for 300 s refocusing pulses) attributed to the low voltage CMOS transceiver 17, this frequency shift may cause the NMR relaxometer to malfunction, and calibration of the local oscillator (LO.sub.ref) frequency is hence necessitated. To achieve this, a temperature-tracking LO.sub.ref generator 26 was developed.

(63) Illustrated in FIG. 3(a), a temperature sensor 30 detects the ambient temperature, and the processor 32 (a portable computer or PC here, but any suitable processor will do) reads the corresponding digitized value and calculates the corresponding temperature. Consequently, the processor 32 can calibrate the required working frequency for the LO.sub.ref and drive the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) 34 with a proper code. The output of the DAC 34 is fed into the signal generator 43 and the frequency of the LO.sub.ref is altered by the output of the DAC 34, thus matching the Larmor frequency of the proton, which is shown in eqn. (1) linearly proportional to the magnetic field, with the excitation frequency.

(64) FIG. 3(b) depicts the magnetic field and temperature sensor 30 output versus temperature. Both of them show a linear relationship with the temperature and thus the Larmor frequency can be calibrated from the temperature. This feature enables the system to work in an environment with ambient temperature ranges from approximately 0 to 40 C., while raising the robustness of the NMR relaxometer 10.

(65) 3.2 Operation of Water Droplet

(66) FIG. 4(a) shows the pulses counted on the electrodes covered by air and water, respectively. As the permittivity of water is substantially larger than air (80:1), the capacitance of the electrode covered by water has a higher capacitance, causing lower pulses counted and thus the system can detect if the electrode is vacant.

(67) A de-ionized water sample was experimented with to demonstrate the functionality of the NMR relaxometer 10. The droplet was placed on an arbitrary electrode and the DMF device 14 can auto-locate the droplet by scanning and comparing the pulses counted in each electrode. With a droplet sandwiched between the electrode and the ITO, the capacitance of the corresponding electrode rises as the permittivity of water is 80 of air. As shown in FIG. 4(a), the average pulse counted on the occupied and vacant electrodes were 277.5 and 757.7, respectively. This 2.73 difference suffices to identify whether the electrodes are occupied by the droplets. This sensing module is critical in this two dimensional DMF device as the relaxometer 10 entails handling of multiple droplets. As well, with this sensing module adopted, the system is under a close-loop control to attain an efficient droplets management scheme. The operation of the droplets including the trigger of the NMR experiment, stabilization of the hydrogen nuclei before the NMR experiment, and anti-merging droplets paths can be manipulated and optimized by the software within the shortest time to boost the efficiency and throughput of the system.

(68) After identification of the droplet location, the program starts to transport the droplet to the NMR sensing site 38. FIG. 4(b) show photos taken outside the magnet 12, which demonstrate the movement of the droplets. The real-time pulses counted on the electrodes are marked respectively. The droplet is initially placed on an arbitrary electrode (e.g., the upper left in the photo) and the system detects the location of the droplet by comparing the pulse counted on the electrodes. After the droplet is located, it is guided to the NMR sensing site 38 progressively (from 1 to 4). FIG. 4(c) shows that once the droplet arrives at the NMR sensing site, the NMR experiment or screening will be triggered and the echoes amplitude of the samples will be collected (e.g., 256 echoes). The visualized operation of the NMR relaxometer 10 can be displayed.

(69) Thus, as can be seen from the example shown in FIG. 4, the droplets are guided to the destination gradually with their positions tracked in real-time to ensure successful movement. To visualize these movements, the entire journey was recorded outside the magnet as shown in FIG. 4(b). The droplets are transported with a velocity of 1.17 mm/s (i.e., 3 s per electrode). Snapshots of a droplet moving between neighbouring electrodes are shown in FIG. 20, explained further in the ESI section below. Upon the droplet arrival, the NMR experiment or screening is triggered after 6 s and the T.sub.2 of the sample is derived as depicted in FIG. 4(c) by applying the CPMG pulse sequence on the droplet. The CPMG pulse sequence can recover the hastened damping NMR signal attributed to the field inhomogeneity of the magnet by refocusing the dephasing spins across the droplet.

(70) Silicone oil is commonly utilized in DMF to smoothen the droplet operation. Yet it contains hydrogen atoms (formula: [Si(CH.sub.3).sub.2O]n) that will affect the NMR result. To evaluate the interference from the silicone oil, the T.sub.2 variation of the samples (i.e., water) with different volume of silicone oil is showed in FIG. 5(a). With increasing amount of silicone oil, the T.sub.2 of the sample deviates from its original value. A volume of 1.6 L of silicone oil shell (<0.1 mm) was chosen to surround the samples for minimum interference to the NMR result (T.sub.2<5%), while preserving its function in smoothening the droplet motion. The T.sub.2 spectrum of the resulting samples and oil formation is plotted in FIG. 5(b), showing the desired single decaying exponential pattern.

(71) 3.3 Chemical/Biological Samples Quantification

(72) The capability of quantifying chemical and biological targets of the NMR relaxometer was studied. Paramagnetic CuSO.sub.4 ions have a high magnetic susceptibility of 133010.sup.6 cm.sup.3 mol.sup.1. It will perturb the local field of the surrounding protons and shorten the T.sub.2, and thus it is used as the test agent in the first experiment. As shown in FIG. 6(a), the NMR relaxometer can detect the CuSO.sub.4 concentration with T.sub.2.sup.1 increases linearly.

(73) The second experiment demonstrates the capability of the system to pinpoint specific biological targets with a pre-designed probe-decorated NP. Iron NP with biotin labeling are used as probe to quantify avidin in the samples. The biotinylated magnetic NP bond with avidin to yield NP micro-clusters, which shorten the T.sub.2 of the proton attributed to super-paramagnetism of Iron NP. FIG. 6(b) depicts the experimental result, which shows that the T.sub.2 value decreases proportionally to the concentration of avidin with an achieved sensitivity of 0.2 M. These experiments evince that the NMR relaxometer is capable of handling and quantifying chemical and biological targets.

(74) 3.4 Multi-Step Multi-Sample Droplet Operation

(75) One unique feature of the NMR relaxometer of the present invention is the capability to handle distinct samples and perform NMR experiments on them sequentially. This is attributed to the expanded two-dimensional electrodes beneficial from the compact CMOS transceiver 17. The feature is demonstrated by placing two stationary targets and two identical probe-decorated NP droplets inside the DMF device 14 at the same time. Since the relaxometer 10 in this embodiment has to handle multiple samples, it is crucial to distinguish the droplets and project individual paths for them without the risk of fortuitous mixing. As the location of the droplets can be tracked by the capacitance-to-digital module, their individual paths can be procured at the software level.

(76) As shown in FIG. 7(a), the 1.sup.st probe-decorated NP droplet (7.5 L) is guided to a stationary target 40 (2.5 L) for mixing, then to the NMR sensing site 38 to extract the T.sub.2. Concurrently, the 2.sup.nd probe-decorated NP droplet is guided to another target 42 for mixing. The 1.sup.st mixture is led away from the NMR sensing site 38 after finishing the diagnosis (here, in 48 s), allowing the 2.sup.nd mixture to come in. The assays are completed after the 2.sup.nd mixture finished NMR screening and the raw data is processed in the PC 22 for concentration quantification (T.sub.2 of water sample: 256 ms; avidin: 211 ms). Two or more probes and targets pairs can be placed inside the DMF device 14 for enhancing the throughput of the relaxometer 10, depending on the geometry of the DMF electrodes.

(77) The timing diagram of the NMR relaxometer operation in this example is shown in FIG. 7(b). With the droplet movement controlled by the program automatically and their positions tracked in real-time, optimization of the route and timing management can be done at the software level. The fastest protocol can be found and applied to the DMF device 14. This 2.2-min experiment validates the entire system as being capable to transport, mix and analyze multiple distinct samples in real-time, while reducing the labor work (error) and the risks of defilement.

(78) Another experiment reveals the capability of the relaxometer to handle the sample prior/after the NMR sensing. A droplet which acts as a probe (water) is placed on an arbitrary position inside the DMF device 14 together with two targets 50, 50 (2 nanomole of CuSO.sub.4 individually), as shown in FIG. 8(a). Firstly the probe 52 is guided to the sensing site 38 for recording the original T.sub.2. Afterwards the droplet 52 is guided to another electrode and mixed with the 1.sup.st target 50. The T.sub.2 of the resultant mixture is then recorded for concentration identification. Subsequently the droplet 52 is moved to another electrode and is mixed with the 2.sup.nd target 50 and the T.sub.2 of the mixture is analyzed again at the sensing site 38. Illustrated in FIG. 8(b), this experiment successfully pinpoints the amount of analytes existing in multiple targets in a multi-step fashion, benefiting from the droplet management capability and the expanded DMF electrode array, for the relaxometer 10 of the present invention.

(79) 4. Discussion

(80) The electronic-automated NMR relaxometer of the present invention surpasses existent NMR systems as it can simultaneously quantify multi-biomarkers in a single experimental setup by manipulating the samples utilizing the DMF device 14 as demonstrated in the experiments. In addition to the time-multiplexing assay, the throughput can be elevated by adopting multiple butterfly coil 18 inside the magnet 12. As depicted in FIG. 9, a transceiver built with multiple receivers can be used to receive and process the signals from multiple butterfly coils 54, 56 for higher throughput and space utilization.

(81) Additionally, attributed to the non-invasive and contactless properties of NMR, this NMR relaxometer 10 integrated with a DMF device 14 can be extended by introducing other DMF-compatible protocols to further enhance the applicability of the system. Exemplification includes cell isolation, cell culturing, DNA amplification, and electroimmunoassay inside the DMF device 14. These protocols can be utilized with extant NMR analytic techniques to culminate in a unified and integrate solution for lab-on-a-chip assay. In addition, a thermal heater can also be integrated inside the DMF device 14 to alter the temperature of the droplets, which opens up the capability of temperature related NMR assays on biological samples. Furthermore, multimodal analysis in which different aspects of the sensing technique such as optical sensing or impedance sensing combined with the NMR system can be implemented inside the DMF device 14 to provide complementary analytes information.

(82) 5. Conclusions

(83) The present invention in one embodiment discloses a portable NMR relaxometer capable of handling multi-step multi-sample protocols, which is demonstrated for the first time. It is equipped with a semiconductor transceiver to reduce the overall dimensions of the module while improving the sensitivity. The transceiver's input network is a PCB-fabricated Butterfly coil to better utilize the inner space of the handheld or portable magnet. Inside the magnet, the electronic-automated DMF device with closed-loop capacitive feedback manages multiple droplet samples in real-time and can be reconfigured by software. A number of experiments validate the NMR relaxometer as being competent to achieve real-time quantification of chemical/biological analyte in, e.g., sub-10-L samples and capable of manipulating multiple samples automatically and performing multi-step experiments inside the space limiting magnet effectively. When compared to the conventional micro-channel NMR systems, this work, the present invention, offers a more flexible and electronic-automated method to handle multi-step multi-sample diagnostic protocols.

(84) 6. Electronic Supplementary Information (ESI)

(85) The following Electronic Supplementary Information (ESI) provides further information and specifications regarding the present invention according to example embodiment(s) thereof, and includes:

(86) 6.1. Highlights of recent NMR systems.

(87) 6.2. A design of the CMOS NMR transceiver according to an example embodiment.

(88) 6.3. Simulation and measurement results of the CMOS transceiver.

(89) 6.4. Co-optimization of the butterfly coil and CMOS transceiver.

(90) 6.5. A digital microfluidic (DMF) module according to an example embodiment.

(91) 6.6. DMF device fabrication according to an example embodiment.

(92) 6.7. Droplet actuation.

(93) 6.8. NMR relaxometer software and hardware interfaces.

(94) 6.1. Highlights of Recent NMR Systems

(95) A brief summary of recent advancement of NMR systems including their overall illustration together with depictions of their integrated circuits and a brief reference to the present invention (This work) are shown in FIG. 10. The present invention succeeds in managing multiple samples under NMR assay using electronic-automated method which can decrease amount of labor work (error) and the risks of defilement. The present invention integrates the DMF device 14 into the NMR relaxometer 10 to achieve multi-step multi-sample handling inside a volume-limited portable magnet 12.

(96) 6.2. Design of the CMOS NMR Transceiver

(97) The semiconductor transceiver for NMR-signal excitation and reception in this example embodiment of the present invention was designed and fabricated in a 0.18-m CMOS technology to optimize the overall performance and integration level. As depicted in FIG. 11, there are two parts: the transmitter 31 and the receiver 33, as detailed further below. More particularly, FIG. 11 is a schematic of the NMR transceiver and its connection to its external parts including the Butterfly coil 18.

(98) 6.2A. Transmitter

(99) The transmitter 31 generates a Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill pulse sequence and delivers adequate signal power to the external Butterfly coil 18 to excite the nuclei of the droplet sample. An all-digital state control and pulse sequence synthesizer 35 are integrated to read the commands given from the field programmable gate array (FPGA) 20. The FPGA 20 manages the overall status of the transceiver 17, including the low-noise amplifier (LNA) stage 60, transmission switches, and low-pass filters (LPFs) 64. In addition, the synthesizer 35 will control the pulse sequence that is delivered to the power amplifier (PA) 58 with proper phase (0 or 90), which is synthesized from the external reference signal LO.sub.ref. The PA 58, as shown in FIG. 12(a), is realized as a differential chain of four inverter stages to optimize the output current driving to the Butterfly coil 18, while reducing the propagation delay. The size of the inverters is quadrupled sequentially to boost the output power. This class-D PA topology does not consume static current, resulting in better power efficiency. The switches controlled by the state control were inserted between the PA 58 and the Butterfly coil 18. The Butterfly coil 18 is tailored to enlarge the usability space inside the portable magnet 12.

(100) 6.2B. Receiver

(101) The receiver 33 is to extract the weak NMR signal induced by the Butterfly coil 18 from the protons. Outside the transceiver chip 17, a discrete capacitor C.sub.ext is placed in parallel with the Butterfly coil 18 for resonant pre-filtering, while offering a passive pre-gain to the signal. This is a feasible technique as the received signal is narrowband around the Larmor frequency, and thus no distortion will be added. Inside the chip 17, the receiver 33 is headed by a multi-stage LNA 60 as shown in FIG. 12(b). The LNA 60 dominates the signal-to-noise ratio of the receiver 33, as the noise contribution from the subsequent stages will be suppressed by the gain of it. The LNA 60 is optimized for low noise to avoid deteriorating the signal-to-noise ratio of the NMR signal, whereas it should avoid immense power unsuitable for point-of-care (POC) diagnostic tools. The present invention uses a complementary common-source topology for current reuse, which provides better performances when compared with the typical common-source amplifier. The differential implementation rejects the common-mode noises picked up from the environments (i.e., electromagnetic interference and power line coupling). A common-mode feedback (CMFB) circuit 61 stabilizes the output common-mode level. Three similar LNAs (or any other suitable number) can be cascaded to amplify the signal for subsequent signal processing.

(102) The LNA 60 is followed by two active mixers 62 for I and Q channels, as shown in FIG. 12(c), for downconverting the radio-frequency (RF) signal at 19.6 MHz to intermediate frequency (IF) signal at 1 kHz for digitization in this example embodiment. The mixers 62 are double-balanced to reduce the noise figure (double sideband) and feedthrough from the local oscillator (LO) to the IF. The 4-phase LO is provided by the pulse sequence synthesizer 35. The mixers 62 are constructed in this embodiment by PMOS transistors to reduce the flicker noise and substrate coupling from/to another part of the chip 17.

(103) The downconverted NMR signal will be further processed by the LPFs 64, which suppress the out-of-band noise and unwanted high-frequency products generated by the hard-switched mixing process. The LPFs 64 are implemented as a 6.sup.th-order Butterworth using the source-follower-based topology, visualized in FIG. 12(d). Such topology features a transistorized positive-feedback technique to build a complex pole in a single branch, reducing the circuit complexity and unwanted parasitic poles. Assuming M.sub.1 and M.sub.3 have a transconductance g.sub.m1, and M.sub.2 and M.sub.4 have a transconductance g.sub.m2, the transfer function and corresponding cut-off frequency of each Biquad are given by:

(104) $\begin{array}{cc}H\left(s\right)=\frac{1}{s^2\frac{C_1{C}_2}{g_{m1}{g}_{m2}}+s\frac{C_2{g}_{m1}-C_2{g}_{m2}+C_1{g}_{m2}}{g_{m1}{g}_{m2}}+1}& \left(\mathrm{S1}\right)\\ {}_0=2f_0=\sqrt{\frac{g_{m1}{g}_{m2}}{C_1{C}_2}}& \left(\mathrm{S2}\right)\end{array}$

(105) As g.sub.m of the transistor is proportional to the square root of its bias current, the cutoff frequency can be adjusted by controlling the bias current. This aim avoids the use of large resistors or capacitors which are costly in integrated circuits. In addition, unlike the fixed-resistor-capacitor LPFs, the bandwidth of this kind of LPF is tunable by altering the bias current of the transistors, being more area-efficient for bandwidth control. Two PMOS-type Biquad and one NMOS-type Biquad are cascaded to construct the 6.sup.th-order Butterworth response, while matching their input and output common-mode levels.

(106) The selected LPF's bandwidth is critical to the quality of the final received NMR signal. Excess bandwidth will raise the out-of-band noise, but inadequate bandwidth will distort the signal, thus penalizing the accuracy of the result. The excitation pulses will affect the output DC level, and thus it will affect also the DC level of the following echo signals and distort the result.

(107) FIG. 13 is a timing diagram of the CPMG pulse sequences and the receiver output response showing the dead time of the receiver 33 caused by the excitation pulses. Echoes amplitude of the NMR signals is also shown in the figure. More specifically, as shown in FIG. 13, even there are isolation switches to prevent the excitation pulses from saturating the receiver, there are still leaking pulses that may appear at the output due to non-ideal switches, causing a dead time for the receiver. Yet, with a small bias current, the duration of recovery from the dead time caused by the excitation pulse will be longer. Simulated in MATLAB, the step responses of an ideal 6.sup.th-order Butterworth LPF with a bandwidth from 2 to 10 kHz are shown in FIG. 14, where the inset shows the settling time of the LPF 64 at different cutoff frequencies. The settling time is inversely proportional to the cutoff frequency, posing a tight trade-off between the receiver's noise and settling time if the bandwidth is fixed. Herein the present invention discloses a dynamic-bandwidth LPF topology to break such a trade-off. As shown in FIG. 13, the bandwidth of the LPF 64 is expanded during the excitation mode to swiftly recover from the excitation pulse, while its bandwidth is shrunk in the stable receiving mode to reduce the out-of-band noise.

(108) Subsequent to the LPFs, voltage buffers implemented as a simple source-degenerative common-source amplifier with a gain of 2 V/V are adopted to drive the off-chip analog-to-digital converters, which are enclosed within the FPGA board 20 for digitization.

(109) 6.3. Simulation and Measurement Results of the CMOS Transceiver

(110) The CMOS transceiver 17 of this example embodiment is power-up via low-dropout regulators ADP323 from Analog Devices Inc. (Norwood, Mass.) and current regulators LM334 from Texas Instruments Inc. (Dallas, Tex.). Measurement results show the transmitter 31 draws 19.6 mW power in transmitting mode, whereas the PA 58 dominates the power consumption (>99%). The PA 58 has a high power efficiency of 28% and provides an effective RF field of 5.7 Gauss on the samples.

(111) The receiver 33 has a simulated gain of 87.6 dB at 20 MHz with an input-referred noise of 0.92 nV/Hz for each channel. The measured power consumption of the receiver 33 is 26.6 mW, with the forefront LNA consumes prodigious power (18.0 mW), as a large bias current is entailed to suppress the noise.

(112) FIG. 15 shows the relationship between the LPF's cut-off frequency and its bias current; that is, this figure shows the bandwidth of the LPF versus the bias current as measured. With a large bias current, the g.sub.m of the transistors will be raised up, causing the cut-off frequency of the LPF 64 to be increased as predicted in Eqn. (S2). Thus, the dynamic-bandwidth tuning can be achieved by altering the bias current of the LPFs during the excitation and receiving modes. This method can preserve a low out-of-band noise while shortening the effect of the switch leakages during the excitation mode.

(113) 6.4. Co-Optimization of the Butterfly Coil and CMOS Transceiver

(114) The geometry (i.e., number of turns) for the Butterfly coil 18 is closely related to the SNR of the NMR receiver. The induced voltage V.sub.EMF of the coil can be expressed as:

(115) $\begin{array}{cc}{V}_{\mathrm{EMF}}=-\left(\frac{}{t}\right)\left(B_1{M}_0\right){\mathrm{dV}}_s& \left(\mathrm{S3}\right)\end{array}$
with the nuclear magnetization M.sub.0, the RF magnetic field produced by the unit current passing through the Butterfly coil B.sub.1 and the volume of the droplet V.sub.S. The V.sub.EMF of the different Butterfly coils thus can be compared by averaging B.sub.1 acting on the droplets provided that the magnetization of the nuclei and the volume and shape of the droplet are the same for both cases. Consequently, the thermal noise for the conductor of the Butterfly coil can be expressed by the Nyquist formula:
V.sup.2.sub.noise,coil=4k.sub.gT.sub.coilR.sub.coil(S4)
with the Boltzmann's constant k.sub.B, the resistance of the Butterfly coil path R.sub.coil and absolute temperature of the conductor T.sub.coil. Both the induced voltage and the thermal noise are amplified with a passive gain {square root over (Q.sup.2+1)} offered by the LC-tank where Q is the quality factor of the Butterfly coil. Depicted in FIG. 16(a), the SNR appearing at the output of the receiver 33 can be expressed as:

(116) $\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{SNR}=\frac{V_{\mathrm{EMP}}\sqrt{Q^2+1}}{\sqrt{\stackrel{\_}{{V^2}_{\mathrm{noise},\mathrm{coil}}}\left(Q^2+1\right)+\stackrel{\_}{{V^2}_{\mathrm{noise},\mathrm{rec}}}}}& \left(\mathrm{S5}\right)\end{array}$
Deduced from eqn. (S5), the SNR of the NMR receiver is a function of Butterfly coil geometry (V.sub.EMF, V.sup.2.sub.noise,coil and Q) as well as receiver noise (V.sup.2.sub.noise,rec). With a fixed budget of receiver noise (limited by the semiconductor process and power), the SNR of the NMR receiver depends on the coil geometry, which necessitated systematic study and optimization involving the finite element analysis simulator and electronic circuit simulations.

(117) Butterfly coils with different number of turns (5, 7, 9, 11 turns on each spiral) were studied in COMSOL Multiphysics including their resistances, inductances, and RF-magnetic field patterns. With simulated receiver noise of 0.92 nV/Hz, the SNR of distinct Butterfly-coil-input CMOS transceiver are plotted in FIG. 16(b). The derived optimum number of turns for the Butterfly coil is 7 and it is adopted in the NMR relaxometer of a preferred embodiment of the present invention. Of course, a number of turns for the Butterfly coil other than 7 could be used even if not optimal, including but not limited to 5, 9, and 11. Table S1 summarizes the characteristics of the Butterfly coils:

(118) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE S1 Simulated parameters of the Butterfly coil with distinct number of turns per spiral @ 20 MHz. Turns Resistance () Inductance (nH) Q B.sub.1 (mT) 5 0.795 167.4 26.5 0.292 7 1.486 354.8 30.0 0.596 9 2.61046 668.5 32.2 0.891 11 4.12017 1144.4 34.9 1.190

(119) The magnetic field pattern of the resultant 7-turn Butterfly coil is also demonstrated. The magnetic field in x-z plane and its direction is illustrated in FIG. 16(c). Within the center of the Butterfly coil, the RF magnetic field mainly passes through in x-direction, thus orthogonal to the static magnetic field (z-direction). FIG. 16(d) depicts the magnetic field in the x-y plane. The center region of the Butterfly coil has the strongest magnetic field peaking the NMR strength, making it suitable for NMR sensing. Yet, it is surrounded by some redundant sensing regions that may affect the results if they are filled with oil. As explained in the subsequent section, the use of a thin shell of oil applied to each droplet implies that the minimal overlap of the silicone oil with the redundant regions induces negligible effect.

(120) 6.5. Digital Microfluidic Module

(121) A simplified schematic of the digital microfluidic (DMF) module 15 according to an example embodiment of the invention is shown in FIG. 17. A step-up voltage-to-voltage boost converter 71 was used to built-up with LM3478 switching controller from Texas Instruments Inc. to generate a sufficiently-high voltage signal for electrode actuation. The input power is directly drawn from the FPGA board 20 at 5 V; this act avoids the need of another high-voltage supply for better portability.

(122) An oscillator 73 built up with timer ICM7555 from Intersil (Milpitas, Calif.) is used to generate a square wave of I kHz. This square wave is amplified into a 40-V peak-to-peak voltage by a switch pair 75, and then high-pass filtered by high pass filter 77 to remove the DC level for actuating the electrodes. A switch array 79 mastered by the FPGA 20 was used to control the on-off pattern of the electrodes. To reduce the RMS-voltage stress on the electrode so as to minimize the chance of dielectric breakdown, the driving voltage on an occupied electrode is modulated with on (off) duty cycle of 10% (90%). Exemplified in FIG. 18, after a continuous square wave of 3 s acting on the electrode, the pulse acting on the electrode with droplet is modulated with a turn on-off pattern of 1 to 9. This modulation technique allows the electrode to strap the droplet and prevents the dielectric breakdown of the electrode caused by the long-term voltage stress.

(123) The location of each droplet sample is determined by scanning the derived capacitance C.sub.elec of each electrode. As the capacitance between two parallel plates is proportional to the permittivity of its insulating medium, a droplet-occupied electrode will increase the capacitance on the corresponding electrode when compared with the air. In this work, a timer ICM7555 working in the astable mode is used to sense the electrode capacitance. The oscillation frequency of the timer is inversely proportional to the capacitance. Thus, the identification of droplet position can be done by counting the pulses available in a fixed period of time on each electrode.

(124) 6.6. DMF Device Fabrication

(125) A fabrication procedure of the DMF device according to an example embodiment of the invention including the top plate and the bottom plate is shown in FIG. 19. As an overview and more specifically, FIG. 19 shows a fabrication procedure of a Ta.sub.2O.sub.5/Parylene C-insulated DMF device according to an example embodiment of the invention, in which Steps 1 to 6 show the fabrication process of the plate with electrode, while the fabrication process of the plate with ITO is shown in step 7 to 8. The Assembly of the DMF device together with the Butterfly coil is also shown in the figure. It is noted: 1. The patterns of the electrode array were drawn in AutoCad and the mask with the designed patterns was prepared for lithography on the Cr-coated glass. 2. The patterns were etched on the glass with standard lithography and wet-etch methods. 3. Dielectric layer Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 was deposited on the glass by reactive DC magnetron sputtering (HHV, Auto 500) at room temperature with 99.99% Ta target under an Ar/O.sub.2 ambient. The chamber pressure was then decompressed to 1.310.sup.4 Pa and back filled with sputtering gas with 15 sccm Ar and 2.05 sccm O.sub.2 with power of 110 W and deposition rate of 2.4 nm/min. The thickness of Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 layer is 250 nm. In order to suppress the number of pin-holes in the dielectric, the oxidized layer was thermal annealed immediately in N2 atmosphere at 400 C. for 10 mins. 4. Silquest A-174 Silane solution from Momentive Performance Materials Inc. (Columbus Ohio) was adopt to prime the surface of the chip in isopropyl alcohol for 15 mins to strengthen the adhesion between Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 and Parylene C coatings, which is coated on the chip later. The glass was then baked at 120 C. for 5 mins. 5. A Parylene-C layer, which is used to screen the pinholes in the Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 layer and prevent exposure of Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 to liquid samples while maintaining the high dielectric constant and strength of the Ta.sub.2O.sub.5, was deposited atop the Ta.sub.2O.sub.5 surface by a low pressure chemical vapor deposition method carrying out in LH300 from La-Chi Enterprise Co., Ltd. (Taiwan). 6. Amorphous fluoropolymer hydrophobic layers (100 nm) were formed by spin coating 0.5% Teflon AF 1601S from Dupont (Wilmington, Del.) in perfluorosilane FC-40 from 3M Co. (St. Paul, Minn.) at 3200 rotation per minute (rpm) for 60 s. Then the glass was treated at 160 C. for 4 hours. 7. ITO coated glass was prepared which functions as a ground node for all the electrodes. 8. Amorphous fluoropolymer hydrophobic layers (100 nm) was formed on the ITO coated glass by spin coating 0.5% Teflon AF 1601S from Dupont in perfluorosilane FC-40 from 3M Co. at 3200 rpm for 60 s. Then the glass was treated at 160 C. for 4 hours.
The assembly of the resulted DMF device together with the Butterfly coil fabricated on the PCB is shown in FIG. 19.
6.7. Droplet Actuation

(126) Snapshots of a droplet transported from one electrode to its neighbor are shown in FIG. 20(a)-(h). The droplet is at rest first. When a 40-V.sub.pp square wave was applied to a neighboring electrode, the droplet moves toward the actuating electrode gradually. The entire movement takes around 3 s, equivalent to an average velocity of 1.17 mm/s.

(127) 6.8. NMR Relaxometer Software and Hardware Interfaces

(128) To facilitate the setting of NMR parameters and route optimization of DMF, a graphic-user-interface program implemented in Visual C# was adopted to master the whole NMR relaxometer and includes: i) setting the NMR parameters; ii) displaying the NMR results; iii) reading the ambient temperature and calibrating the DAC output; iv) controlling the switch array 79 for the DMF device; and v) displaying the vacancy of the electrodes. To achieve this, an interface is entailed for communications between the FPGA 20 (for hardware control) and the PC 22 (for software computing).

(129) FIG. 21 shows the communication between the PC 22 and the FPGA board 20 to drive the NMR relaxometer 10 in an example embodiment; this is done by adopting the TTL-232R_PCB module 21 to interface between the PC 22 and the FPGA board 20, which mastered the hardware of the NMR relaxometer 10. The TTL-232R_PCB module from Future Technology Devices International Limited (United Kingdom) was used for interfacing between the PC 22 and the FPGA board 22. It can read/transmit data from/to FPGA board 20 using UART (universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter) signals, and the PC 22 will process the data from the module. This protocol can ease the design for both hardware and software levels. As shown in FIG. 21, the PC 22 sends data to the FPGA 20 using the TTL-232R_PCB module with a unique address. The module will process the command and convert it to a readable format for the FPGA 20. The FPGA board 20 with a defined address will send the corresponding command to the appropriate module. For instance, if the PC 22 set one of the electrode to the ON state for the DMF device, the FPGA 20 will recognize this command and set the corresponding output to a high level, which will set the accompanying switch and drive the electrode for droplet actuation. With the PC 22, all the necessary control of the NMR relaxometer 10 can be simplified into the software level. This can eliminate the use of cumbersome hardware such as digital logics and switches, providing a neat platform for controlling the NMR relaxometer 10.

(130) 7. Additional Example Implementation(s)

(131) The present invention or various part(s) or function(s) thereof may be implemented using hardware, software, or a combination thereof, and may be implemented in one or more computer systems or other processing systems. A computer system for performing various operations of the present invention and capable of carrying out the functionality described herein can include one or more processors connected to a communications infrastructure (e.g., a communications bus, a cross-over bar, or a network). Various software embodiments are described in terms of such an exemplary computer system. After reading this description, it will become apparent to a person skilled in the relevant art(s) how to implement the invention using other computer systems and/or architectures.

(132) The computer system can include a display interface that forwards graphics, text, and other data from the communication infrastructure (or from a frame buffer) for display on a display unit. The display interface can communicate with a browser. The computer system also includes a main memory, preferably a random access memory, and may also include a secondary memory and a database. The secondary memory may include, for example, a hard disk drive and/or a removable storage drive, representing a floppy disk drive, a magnetic tape drive, an optical disk drive, etc. The removable storage drive reads from and/or writes to a removable storage unit in a well known manner. The removable storage unit can represent a floppy disk, magnetic tape, optical disk, etc. which is read by and written to by the removable storage drive. As will be appreciated, the removable storage unit can include a computer usable storage medium having stored therein computer software and/or data.

(133) The computer system may also include a communications interface which allows software and data to be transferred between the computer system and external devices. The terms computer program medium and computer usable medium are used to refer generally to media such as the removable storage drive, a hard disk installed in the hard disk drive, and signals. These computer program products provide software to the computer system.

(134) Computer programs or control logic are stored in the main memory and/or the secondary memory. Computer programs may also be received via the communications interface. Such computer programs or control logic (software), when executed, cause the computer system or its processor to perform the features and functions of the present invention, as discussed herein.

(135) 8. Conclusion

(136) While various embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example, and not limitation. It will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) that various changes in form and detail can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. Thus, the present invention should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents.

(137) In addition, it should be understood that the Figures illustrated in the attachments, which highlight the functionality and advantages of the present invention, are presented for example purposes only. The architecture of the present invention is sufficiently flexible and configurable, such that it may be utilized (and navigated) in ways other than that shown in the accompanying figures.

(138) Further, the purpose of the foregoing Abstract is to enable the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office and the public generally, and especially the scientists, engineers and practitioners in the art who are not familiar with patent or legal terms or phraseology, to determine quickly from a cursory inspection the nature and essence of the technical disclosure of the application. The Abstract is not intended to be limiting as to the scope of the present invention in any way. It is also to be understood that the steps and processes recited in the claims need not be performed in the order presented.