Transgenic corn with antifungal peptide AGM182 (DN:0113.18)

Abstract

Aspergillus flavus is an opportunistic, saprophytic fungus that infects maize and other fatty acid-rich food and feed crops and produces toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites known as aflatoxins. In vitro studies showed a five-fold increase in antifungal activity of AGM182 (vs. tachyplesin1) against A. flavus. Transgenic maize plants expressing AGM182 under maize Ubiquitin-1 promoter were produced through Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. PCR products confirmed integration of the AGM182 gene, while RT-PCR of maize RNA confirmed the presence of AGM182 transcripts. Maize kernel screening assay using a highly aflatoxigenic A. flavus strain (AF70) showed up to 72% reduction in fungal growth in the transgenic AGM182 seeds compared to isogenic negative control seeds.

Claims

1. A method to produce transgenic maize lines expressing a synthetic AGM182 peptide, the method comprising the steps of: producing a transgenic maize line through an agrobacterium mediated transformation of the AGM182 gene into immature maize embryos, wherein the AGM182 gene comprises a 129 bp nucleic acid of SEQ ID NO:3.

2. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the nucleic acid of SEQ ID NO:3 encodes an amino acid sequence of the AGM182 peptide of SEQ ID NO: 4.

3. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the AGM182 peptide is effective against mycotoxin producing fungal species and with no toxicity against mammals.

4. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the AGM182 peptide reduces the growth of the mycotoxin producing fungal species Aspergillus Flavus.

5. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the AGM182 peptide reduces the growth of Aspergillus Flavus by 72% in transgenic maize lines.

6. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the AGM182 peptide reduces the growth of mycotoxin producing fungal species, wherein the fungal species is Fusarium.

7. The method as claimed in claim 3, wherein the mycotoxin is aflatoxin.

8. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the AGM182 peptide reduces an aflatoxin contamination by 76-98% in transgenic maize lines.

9. A transgenic maize line expressing an AGM182 peptide of SEQ ID NO:4 that reduces aflatoxin production and fungal growth of Aspergillus Flavus.

10. The transgenic maize line as claimed in claim 9, wherein the synthetic AGM182 peptide, reduces the growth of the Aspergillus Flavus by 72%.

11. The transgenic maize line as claimed in claim 9, wherein the synthetic AGM182 peptide reduces the aflatoxin contamination by 76-98%.

12. An antimicrobial peptide AGM182 of SEQ ID NO:4.

13. The antimicrobial peptide as claimed in claim 12, wherein the synthetic antimicrobial AGM182 peptide has a five-fold higher antimicrobial activity (IC50=2.5 μM) compared to naturally occurring antimicrobial peptide tachyplesin 1 (IC50=12.5 μM).

14. A vector comprising an AGM182 gene that comprises a 129 bp nucleic acid of SEQ ID NO:3.

15. The vector of claim 14, wherein the vector is an expression vector.

16. The vector of claim 14, wherein the vector is a pMCG 1005 plasmid and the AGM182 gene is operatively linked to a constitutive Ubi-1 (maize) promoter.

17. The vector of claim 14, wherein the vector further comprises a maize alcohol dehydrogenase-1 (Adh-1) intron that is 5′ from the AGM182 gene start codon, wherein the Adh-1 intron improves the expression of the AGM182 gene.

18. The vector of claim 14, wherein the vector further comprises a barley alpha amylase signal peptide (BAAS) nucleic acid sequence that is 5′ from the AGM182 gene, wherein the BAAS peptide increases the efficiency of the synthetic AGM182 peptide excretion from the host cell to the cell wall.

19. A method of preventing or treating a plant to reduce a growth of a mycotoxin producing fungal species comprising: spraying a seed, seedling, or plant with an AGM182 peptide of SEQ ID NO: 4 in an amount sufficient to prevent or treat the growth of the mycotoxin producing fungal species.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 (SEQ ID NOS: 1 and 2) is a schematic diagram showing the physical properties of both peptides compared by casting the single letter amino acid codes (top row) into Molly (bottom row) [36, 42], a glyph-based design tool.

(2) FIGS. 2A, 2B shows three dimensional depictions of the tachyplesin1 (FIG. 2A, SEQ ID NO: 2) and AGM182 (FIG. 2B, SEQ ID NO: 1) were generated in PyMol, a molecular visualization system maintained and distributed by Schrodinger, a computational chemistry company (Cambridge, Mass.).

(3) FIGS. 3A to 3C show AGM182 gene and vector information. FIG. 3A shows the AGM182 nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:3), FIG. 3B shows the amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:4), and FIG. 3C is a pMCG1005 vector diagram containing AGM182 expression cassette used for maize transformation using the Agrobacterium strain.

(4) FIG. 4 is a graph that shows the inhibitory activity in vitro of tachyplesin1 and tachyplesin-based synthetic peptide, AGM182 against pre-germinated conidia of A. flavus. AGM182 showed a better inhibitory activity (IC.sub.50=2.5 μM) than tachyplesin1 against A. flavus (IC.sub.50=12.5 μM). Average means of three independently replicated assays.

(5) FIGS. 5A and 5B. Molecular analyses of AGM182 expressing transgenic maize plants. (FIG. 5A) PCR confirmation of transgenic plants containing AGM182 gene (129 bp diagnostic DNA fragment; +ve=plasmid control; C=isogenic negative control; (FIG. 5B) AGM182 expression (90 bp product) in the seeds of transgenic lines [vs. negative control (C)] using RT-PCR. Maize ribosomal structural gene (Rib), GRMZM2G024838 [33], was used as house-keeping gene. (132 bp product). NEB 2 log DNA ladder was used as a DNA marker.

(6) FIG. 6 shows GFP fluorescence emanating from the A. flavus strain 70-GFP in transgenic kernels after one week of bioassay. Isogenic negative control kernels (neg) were used to evaluate the fungal infection and spread in transgenic kernels (Lines 2-5). Up to 10 kernels were screened for each line under the fluorescent microscope and a representative kernel is shown here.

(7) FIGS. 7A and 7B show A. flavus infection, growth, and aflatoxin production after 7 d in a Kernel Screening Assay. FIG. 7A shows the average of 12 biological replicates and each replicate contained at least four kernels. GFP quantification (in Relative Fluorescence Units) which indicates fungal growth and FIG. 7B shows aflatoxin levels in transgenic A. flavus-infected T.sub.3 maize kernels (Lines 1-6 as compared with an isogenic negative control). Mean separation was done by Dunnett's posttest after ANOVA. Levels of significant reduction is denoted by asterisks (**=95%; ***=99% probability levels). Error bars indicate standard error of means for four randomized biological replicates.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

(8) FIG. 1 (SEQ ID NOS: 1 and 2) shows the physical properties of both peptides compared by casting the single letter amino acid codes (top row) into Molly (bottom row) [36, 42], a glyph-based design tool. Cyan color represents those amino acids that are hydrophobic while those that are hydrophilic retain a magenta color. Disulfide linkages are denoted by the green lines connecting the relevant cysteines, which are yellow in color. While a similar ‘central bubble’ has been maintained in the AGM182 (CLGKFC)(SEQ ID NO: 5) compared to that of tachyplesin1 (CYRGIC)(SEQ ID NO: 6), the second disulfide linkage of tachyplesin1 has been eliminated in AGM182 and replaced by a sequence that assumes an amphipathic beta-sheet conformation with maximized positive charge density. This property has been demonstrated to enhance anti-fungal activity of dAMP peptides [19, 36]. The red dots on AGM182 denote the differences in amino acid sequence compared to tachyplesin1.

(9) The main highlights of the present invention can be summarized as:

(10) Designed the synthetic peptide AGM182 modeled after the naturally occurring tachyplesin 1.

(11) AGM182 was five-times more effective in controlling Aspergillus flavus compared to tachyplesin 1.

(12) Transgenic maize plants expressing the synthetic peptide AGM182 were produced and advanced to third generation by selfing.

(13) Kernel Screening Assay showed significant reduction in fungal growth (72%) and spread inside transgenic kernels.

(14) Concomitant, significant reduction in aflatoxin levels (76-98%) was also achieved in transgenic kernels.

(15) The abbreviations to be used in the present specification are: RB=right border, LB=left border, Ubi-1=maize Ubiquitin) promoter (constitutive), Int=intron (maize alcohol dehydrogenase-1; Adh1), AGM182=gene of interest; BAAS=barley alpha amylase signal peptide, ocs (octopine synthase)=terminator, nos (nopaline synthase)=terminator, 4×35S=constitutive cauliflower mosaic virus promoter, Bar=phosphinothricin acetyltransferase gene for BASTA herbicide resistance.

(16) Materials and Methods

(17) In Silico Analysis of AGM182

(18) The synthetic peptide AGM182 used in the current study were designed based on the known antimicrobial peptide tachyplesin1 (FIGS. 1 and 2). The 3D structures of the AMPs were generated using PyMol software, maintained and distributed by Schrodinger, a computational chemistry company (Cambridge, Mass.). The AMPs were analyzed using the AMP predictor tools, ‘Antimicrobial Peptide Calculator and Predictor’ (Antimicrobial Peptide Database with APD3 algorithm; aps.unmc.edu/AP/ [27]. Tachyplesin1 was synthesized by Bachem (Bubendorf, Switzerland) and AGM182 synthetic peptide (AgroMed/Nexion Biosciences Ltd, Riva, Md.) was synthesized by Biomatik (Cambridge, Ont, Canada), both with a purity of >95% as obtained by the analyses of HPLC and Mass Spectrometry data provided by the manufacturers.

(19) Plasmid Constructs and Maize Transformation

(20) A 129 bp fragment of the AGM182 gene (SEQ ID NO:3) was synthesized (IDT; Coralville, Iowa) and cloned in to the pMCG 1005 vector [28] (provided by Dr. Kan Wang, IA State University). The synthetic AGM182 gene (codon optimized for expression in maize) was expressed under the constitutive Ubi-1 (maize) promoter present in the plant destination vector. The maize alcohol dehydrogenase-1 (Adh1) intron present in the transgene cassette (upstream of the AGM182 start codon) was incorporated to improve the expression of AGM182 in maize (monocot) and the barley alpha amylase signal peptide (BAAS) was fused to the N-terminal end of the AGM182 gene (FIG. 3C) to increase the efficiency of AGM182 (peptide) excretion from the host cells to the cell wall [29]. Agrobacterium EHA101-mediated transformation of immature maize (Zea mays L. Hi-II) embryos was accomplished through the Plant Transformation Facility at the Iowa State University [30]. Maize seedlings were grown at 25° C. under 16 h photoperiod (80).

(21) μmol m-2 s-1) in a growth chamber for 4 weeks and then moved in to the greenhouse in 5-gallon (19 L) pots [31]. Transgenic plants from independently transformed events were grown in moist soil mix containing 3 parts Scott's 360 Metro-Mix (Scotts Company, Marysville, Ohio) and 1 part perlite in 7.5 cm pots and were selfed to obtain T.sub.3 generation kernels. Isogenic maize lines that went through transformation process but tested negative by PCR and herbicide assay [31] were used as negative controls.

(22) Fungal Strain and Bioassay with Peptides

(23) Aspergillus flavus 70-GFP [32] was grown at 31° C. on V8 medium (5% V8 juice, 2% agar, pH 5.2). Spores from 6-day old cultures were suspended in 0.02% Triton X-100; the conidial concentration was determined with a hemocytometer and adjusted to 4×10.sup.6 conidia ml-1.

(24) Peptides were freshly dissolved in sterilized water and used for antifungal bioassays as reported [19]. Briefly, pre-germinated conidial suspensions (4×10.sup.6 conidia ml.sup.−1) of A. flavus 70-GFP were treated with the peptides at 0-25 μM concentrations for 60 min before spreading on Potato Dextrose Agar plates (9 cm day). Fungal colonies were enumerated following incubation at 30° C. for 24 h.

(25) PCR Screening of Transgenic Maize Kernels

(26) Maize seeds were flash frozen and ground using a 2010 Geno/Grinder (SPEX SamplePrep, Metuchen, N.J.). Transgenic plants were screened through PCR using ‘Phire Plant Direct PCR Kit’ (ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham, Mass.) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The screening primers used in this study were, AGM182_F1: 5′-ATGGCCAACAAGCATCTGTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 7) and AGM182_R1: 5′-CCGCGCCTTTATACAGAACT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 8). A 51° C. annealing temperature and 10 s elongation time were used to amplify a 129 bp DNA fragment to confirm the presence of the AGM182 gene in the transgenic maize plants.

(27) RNA Isolation, cDNA Synthesis, and Semi-Quantitative RT-PCR

(28) Pulverized maize seeds were used for RNA isolation using the Spectrum™ Plant Total RNA kit′ (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, Mo.). cDNA was synthesized using iScript™ cDNA synthesis kit (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's protocol. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR was performed using T100™ thermal cycler system (Bio-Rad) and Phusion® High-Fidelity DNA Polymerase (New England Biolabs, Ipswich, Mass.). The thermocycling conditions included a

(29) pre-incubation at 98° C. for 30 s followed by 30 cycles of 98° C. for 10 s (denaturation), 51.5° C. for 30 s (primer annealing), 72° C. for 5 s (elongation), and a final extension step at 72° C. for 5 min. The primers used for RT-PCR of AGM182 in transgenic plants are qAGM182-F2 5′-TGGCCAACAAGCATCTGT-3′ SEQ ID NO: 9) and qAGM182-R2 5′-ACAGGCGCGCTTTAATCT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 10) and maize ribosomal structural gene (Rib), GRMZM2G024838 [33], qRib-F 5′-GGCTTGGCTTAAAGGAAGGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 11) and qRib-R 5′-TCAGTCCAACTTCCAGAATGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 12).

(30) Kernel Screening Assay

(31) Undamaged T.sub.3 maize and negative control seeds were surface-sterilized with 70% ethanol and subjected to the Kernel Screening Assay (KSA) [32]. Surface-sterilized seeds were briefly immersed in a 4×10.sup.6 conidial inoculum and incubated in the dark at 31° C. and high humidity (>95% RH). After seven days, four representative seeds were randomly chosen and photographed (bright field and fluorescence) using an Olympus SZH10 research stereomicroscope equipped with the Nikon Digital Camera DXM1200.

(32) GFP Fluorescence and Aflatoxin Analysis

(33) To quantify fungal fluorescence pulverized A. flavus infected maize seeds (50 mg FW) were extracted in 0.5 ml of Sorenson's phosphate buffer (pH 7.0). The samples were vortexed for 30 s followed by centrifugation at 10,000 g for 15 min. A 100 μl aliquot of the supernatant was transferred to each well of a 96 well plate and GFP fluorescence (excitation 485 nm, emission

(34) 535) were recorded using a plate reader (Biotek Synergy 4, Winooski, Vt.) [32, 34]. Relative Fluorescence Units (RFU) were normalized as percent values and used for statistical analysis from 12 biological replicates. Each replicate consisted of four randomly selected, PCR positive kernels. Following molecular analysis and GFP quantitation, seed samples were pooled together into four randomized replicates. Homogenates from three maize seeds were pooled, dried in a forced air oven (60° C.), and extracted with methylene chloride [35]. Sample residues were dissolved in 4.0 ml 80% methanol and total aflatoxin levels were measured with the FluoroQuant Afla Test Kit for Aflatoxin Analysis (Romer Labs, Union, Mo.).

(35) Statistical Analysis

(36) All data from two independent KSAs including fluorescence (12 biological replicates), and aflatoxin values (four randomized replicates) were subjected to one-way ANOVA and mean separation was performed using the Dunnett's posttest (P<0.05 or <0.01) using GraphPad Prism software (La Jolla, Calif.).

(37) Results

(38) Design and in Silico Analysis of AGM182

(39) The synthetic AGM182 peptide was designed based on the naturally occurring Tachyplesin I peptide from Japanese horseshoe crab. Analysis of amino acids in the AGM182 shows increase in positive charge density (vs. Tachyplesin1). While a similar ‘central bubble’ (CLGKFC)(SEQ ID NO: 5) has been maintained in the AGM182 compared to that of Tachyplesin1 (CYRGIC)(SEQ ID NO: 6), the second disulfide linkage of Tachyplesin1 was eliminated in AGM182 and replaced by a sequence that results into an amphipathic β-sheet structure conformation with maximized positive charge density for improved antifungal activity FIG. 1. The three-dimensional structures of both Tachyplesin I and AGM-182 are shown in FIG. 2A (tachyplesin1 (SEQ ID NO: 2) and FIG. 2B (AGM182 (SEQ ID NO: 1)). The physical-chemical properties of both AMPs, that include length of the peptide, amino acid composition, charge, molecular weight, hydrophobicity, and Boman index. Hydrophobicity was significantly increased in the AGM182 peptide.

(40) In Vitro Testing of Antimicrobial Activity of the Peptides

(41) The synthetic peptide AGM182 was evaluated for activity against A. flavus in comparison to the native peptide tachyplesin1. AGM182 showed fivefold increase in its IC.sub.50 value against A. flavus as compared to tachyplesin1 (IC.sub.50=2.5 μM vs. 12.5 μM; FIG. 3C). No hemolysis of porcine blood cells was observed at all concentrations of AGM182 compared to 100% hemolysis with 0.1% Triton-X.

(42) Maize Transformation and Molecular Screening of Transgenic Plants

(43) Transformation of maize (Hybrid Hi-II) was accomplished using the Agrobacterium tumefaciens EHA101-mediated transformation of immature embryos [31]. The codon-optimized synthetic AGM182 gene was expressed under the constitutive Ubi-1 promoter FIG. 3C. Thirteen independently transformed TO lines were generated and eleven T.sub.1 lines were found positive for the presence of both the herbicide marker gene and AGM182. Eight T.sub.2 lines were selected and advanced to T.sub.3 generation in the greenhouse by selfing and only six lines expressing the AGM182 gene provided sufficient number of kernels for further assays. Transgenic maize plants did not exhibit any overt phenotype compared to isogenic negative or non-transformed control plants (data not shown). PCR screening of the transgenic maize seed showed the presence of 129 bp amplicon (AGM182 specific) in the AGM182 transgenic plants that was absent in the control plants (FIG. 5A). Expression analysis of the AGM182 transcripts in the AGM182 positive plants demonstrated substantial expression of this synthetic gene and no expression was observed in the control plants (FIG. 5A).

(44) A. flavus Growth During Infection of Transgenic Seeds

(45) A. flavus growth was monitored in transgenic seeds using the KSA. Expression of the AGM182 gene in transgenic maize kernels resulted in a significant decrease in fungal growth as compared to the control (FIG. 6). GFP fluorescence, as an indicator of fungal growth inside the kernel embryo and/or endosperm positively correlated with the extent of fungal growth. AGM182-expressing maize kernels showed significant reduction in fungal growth (up to 72%) as indicated by the decrease in GFP fluorescence compared to the isogenic control (FIG. 7A).

(46) Aflatoxin Production in Transgenic Kernels

(47) Transgenic expression of the AGM182 gene in maize significantly reduced aflatoxin content in the transgenic lines as compared to the control. In general, between the two aflatoxins (B.sub.1 and B.sub.2) primarily detected in A. flavus infected maize kernels, aflatoxin B.sub.1 is the predominant aflatoxin. The aflatoxin data presented here is the total amount of aflatoxins detected in the infected kernels. A significant reduction in aflatoxin levels (76-98%) was observed in the different AGM182 lines as compared to an isogenic negative control (FIG. 7B bottom). Among the six different AGM182 lines studied here, transgenic Line 4 had the lowest aflatoxin level in the seeds (60.0 ng.Math.g-1) as compared to the control seeds (3000 ng.Math.g-1).

(48) Discussion

(49) Designed synthetic peptides are effective against in controlling a broad spectrum of plant pathogens [5, 7, 9, 19, 36] including difficult-to-control, mycotoxin producing fungal species such as Aspergillus and Fusarium. Their advantages over naturally occurring peptides include increased resistance to proteolytic degradation [16, 37, 38], no or minimal effect on off-target beneficial microbial populations [22, 23] and they can be integrated into genomes of cultivated field, fruit and ornamental crops [20, 39-41] to provide resistance to diseases and toxin-producing fungal species. In the current study the synthetic antimicrobial peptide AGM182 was designed based on the naturally occurring AMP tachyplesin1 (FIG. 1). Physicochemical properties of AMPs play a significant role on the antimicrobial activity of AMPs. These include net positive charge/charge density, hydrophobicity and others [36]. Though the peptide length and net positive charge in the AGM182 did not differ much with tachyplesin1, hydrophobicity was significantly increased in AGM182 (FIG. 1). Hydrophobicity is one of the important criteria for antimicrobial property of AMPs as it increases the interaction between AMPs and cell membrane of target pathogens. Higher hydrophobicity in AMPs has been shown to increase antimicrobial activity [36]. While designing AGM182, a similar ‘central bubble’ though preserved in the AGM182 (CLGKFC)(SEQ ID NO: 5) vs. tachyplesin1 (CYRGIC)(SEQ ID NO: 6), the second disulfide linkage was eliminated in AGM182 and replaced by amino acid residues that resulted in amphipathic β-sheet conformation with higher positive charge density (FIG. 1). This positive attribute in dAMP peptides is shown to affect stability and anti-fungal activity [19, 42]. As such, a five-fold higher antimicrobial activity of AGM182 was observed as compared to tachyplesin1 (IC.sub.50=2.5 μM vs 12.5 μM) in vitro (FIG. 4) and it is attributable to the structural alteration described above. We have also demonstrated the absence of hemolytic activity by this peptide as well. Among different physicochemical properties that positively affect hemolytic activity of AMPs, presence of specific amino acid residues especially tryptophan, has been demonstrated to increase significantly lysis of mammalian erythrocytes by binding to cholesterol present in biological membranes through the indole moiety [43]. Even exclusion of only tryptophan residue in melittin (an AMP from honeybee venom) significantly reduced its hemolytic activity [44]. The absence of tryptophan residue in AGM182 AMP could possibly explain its inability to lyse porcine erythrocytes.

(50) The primary mode of action of these AMPs is membrane damage although AMPs have also been shown to be involved in cellular signaling and can modulate host defense responses [45, 46].

(51) Besides naturally occurring AMPs in plants, synthetic AMPs have demonstrated the ability to restrict pathogen growth in vitro or in planta (through transgenic approaches) [20, 39, 40, 47]. Earlier studies from our lab in cotton showed transgenic expression of a synthetic AMP, D4E1, significantly reduced A. flavus growth and aflatoxin production in cottonseed [20]. In this report we have demonstrated, prevention of preharvest aflatoxin contamination in a major food crop such as maize through transgenic expression of a tachyplesin-derived synthetic peptide, AGM182.

(52) In general, small peptides such as AGM182 used in the current study, could not be detected using the standard Western blotting technique in the transgenic plants. Detection of such small antimicrobial peptides in plants are often challenging due to their small size (18 amino acids in AGM182, FIGS. 1 and 2) and lack of antigenicity to successfully raise antibodies and this observation is in accordance with earlier reports on synthetic peptides [18, 20, 24, 48, 49]. This also could be due to low concentration of the synthetic AGM182 peptide in transgenic maize kernels resulting from possible proteolytic degradation in the plants [16]; yet, the low AGM182 concentration in planta might still be good enough to reduce A. flavus growth and subsequent aflatoxin production. A direct correlation between in planta AGM182 production and fungal load in the transgenic maize kernels could not be obtained due to the above-mentioned reasons; however, at the transcript level fungal load correlated well with the expression of AGM182 (FIG. 4, FIGS. 5A-5B, FIG. 7A) in the transgenic kernels and corresponding decrease in aflatoxins (FIG. 7B).

(53) The significant reduction in GFP fluorescence in the seeds of AGM182 transgenic maize lines (FIG. 6) correlated with the reduction in fungal growth (FIG. 7A) and showed that AGM182 is functionally active in the transgenic plants. Aflatoxin levels were drastically reduced (>95%) in the infected AGM182 transgenic seeds (FIG. 7B), which is possibly due to the reduction in fungal load and associated reduction in fungal pathogenicity during seed infection. Similar results were also observed in transgenic cotton seeds expressing the synthetic AMP, D4E1 [20] where, a significant reduction in A. flavus growth (45-70%) and aflatoxin production (75-98%) were observed, though the reduction in aflatoxin in the AGM182 transgenic maize seeds are relatively higher than in the D4E1 transgenic cotton seeds. The higher reduction in aflatoxin contamination in maize by AGM182 (vs. D4E1 in cotton) could be due to higher efficacy of AGM182 against A. flavus or could be a crop specific response. At this stage, we do not know what other cellular impact AGM182 might have on other metabolic processes in this fungus. In vitro on AGM182-A. flavus interaction using RNA-seq [50] in future might reveal the impact of AGM182 on other metabolic processes in the fungus in addition to the known mode of action of AGM182 and other synthetic peptides through destabilization of the fungal cell membrane leading to lysis [7, 19]. Any possible alteration in other metabolic pathways in A. flavus by AGM182 could possibly be an indirect effect resulting from the instability of cellular structures caused by the AMP. Transgenic expression of AGM182 in maize on the other hand, did not have any negative effect on plant phenotype and seed weight in the transgenic plants as compared to the control suggesting that AGM182 does not interfere with plant growth and associated yield attributes.

(54) Overall, the results presented here demonstrated the effectiveness of the tachyplesin-derived synthetic peptide AGM182 on controlling A. flavus growth and aflatoxin contamination in transgenic maize kernels. In addition, this study highlights the potential application of synthetic biology to design efficiently a safe, synthetic AMP like AGM182. The KSA results, as reported in this study (FIGS. 6 and 7A-7B), have been shown to be directly related to results obtained from field evaluations of corn genotypes [51]. It should be noted that even the best performing transgenic maize lines in this screening recorded aflatoxin levels 60-150 ngg-1 under the optimal conditions. A single, highly contaminated kernel can produce a high aflatoxin value for the entire seed batch. Food and feed safety standards set forth by the European Union, the USA and other countries limit total aflatoxin levels to 4-20 ng.Math.g-1[52]. It is noteworthy that the experimental conditions employed for the kernel screening assay were highly conducive for successful colonization and toxin production by the fungus, which might not be the case under field environments. However, it appears that no single technology can completely inhibit A. flavus infection and reduce aflatoxin contamination to allowable levels imposed by regulations set for food and feed commodities [53]. Thus, a combination of technologies such as use of resistant lines bred through classical or molecular approaches [51, 54-57], application of atoxigenic strains to replace toxin-producing strains [58], and good agronomic practices combined with pest control [4, 59] should assist in safeguarding human and livestock from dangerous levels of aflatoxins in contaminated food and feed. Conspicuously, much of the adverse health impacts due to aflatoxin-contaminated food and feed crops in developing countries results from consumption of improperly stored produce; hence, it is essential to explore avenues for control of aflatoxin contamination during storage and handling as well.

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