Catalyst layers and electrolyzers

Abstract

A catalyst layer for an electrochemical device comprises a catalytically active element and an ion conducting polymer. The ion conducting polymer comprises positively charged cyclic amine groups. The ion conducting polymer comprises at least one of an imidazolium, a pyridinium, a pyrazolium, a pyrrolidinium, a pyrrolium, a pyrimidium, a piperidinium, an indolium, a triazinium, and polymers thereof. The catalytically active element comprises at least one of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Al, Si, In, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, U, Sm, Tb, La, Ce and Nd. In an electrolyzer comprising the present catalyst layer, the feed to the electrolyzer comprises at least one of CO.sub.2 and H.sub.2O.

Claims

1. A catalyst layer for an electrochemical device comprising a catalytically active element and an ion conducting polymer wherein said ion conducting polymer comprises: (a) positively charged cyclic amine groups; and (b) polymers or copolymers of styrene, and wherein the weight of the ion conducting polymer in the catalyst layer is less than 64% of the weight of the catalytically active element.

2. The catalyst layer of claim 1, wherein said ion conducting polymer comprises one or more of imidazoliums, pyridiniums, pyrazoliums, pyrrolidiniums, pyrroliums, pyrimidiums, piperidiniums, indoliums, or triaziniums.

3. The catalyst layer of claim 2, wherein said ion conducting polymer comprises one or more of imidazoliums, pyridiniums, or pyrazoliums.

4. The catalyst layer of claim 2, wherein said catalytically active element comprises one or more of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Al, Si, In, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, U, Sm, Tb, La, Ce or Nd.

5. The catalyst layer of claim 4, wherein said catalytically active element comprises one or more of Pt, Pd, Au, Ag, Cu, Ni, Fe, Sn, Bi, Co, In, Ru or Rh.

6. The catalyst layer of claim 5, wherein said catalytically active element comprises one or more of Au, Ag, Cu, Sn, Sb, Bi or In.

7. The catalyst layer of claim 6, wherein the weight of the ion conducting polymer in the catalyst layer is less than 64% of the weight of the catalytically active element in the catalyst layer.

8. The catalyst layer of claim 7, wherein the weight of the ion conducting polymer is at least 1% and less than or equal to 10% of the weight of the catalytically active element in the catalyst layer.

9. The catalyst layer of claim 1, wherein said catalyst layer also comprises elemental carbon.

10. The catalyst layer of claim 9, wherein the carbon is a carbon black.

11. The catalyst layer of claim 1, wherein the electrochemical device is an electrolyzer.

12. The catalyst layer of claim 11, wherein operation of the electrolyzer produces electrolysis products comprising one or more of CO, OH.sup., HCO.sup., H.sub.2CO, HCO.sub.2.sup., HCOOH, H.sub.2O.sub.2, CH.sub.3OH, CH.sub.4, C.sub.2H.sub.4, CH.sub.3CH.sub.2OH, CH.sub.3COO, CH.sub.3COOH, C.sub.2H.sub.6, O.sub.2, H.sub.2, (COOH).sub.2 or (COO).sub.2.

13. An electrochemical device comprising the catalyst layer of claim 1, wherein the electrochemical device is a sensor.

14. An electrochemical device comprising the catalyst layer of claim 1, wherein the device is a fuel cell.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 is an exploded side view of a fuel cell hardware assembly including a membrane electrode assembly interposed between two fluid flow field plates having reactant flow channels formed in the major surfaces of the plates facing the electrodes.

(2) FIG. 2 shows how the voltammograms of a 5 cm.sup.2 cell change when 0% (200), 1% (201), 5% (202), and 10% (203) of PSMIMCl are added to the CO.sub.2 electrolyzer cathode catalyst layer, where the percentage is calculated as the weight of the PSMIMCl divided by the weight of the silver.

(3) FIG. 3 shows how the voltammograms of a 5 cm.sup.2 CO.sub.2 electrolyzer cell change when 1% (210), 4% (211), 8% (212), 16% (213) and 32% (214) of PSTMIMCl are added to the cathode catalyst layer.

(4) FIG. 4 shows how the voltammograms of a 5 cm.sup.2 CO.sub.2 electrolyzer cell change when 5% PSMP is added to the cathode catalyst layer.

(5) FIG. 5 shows how the voltammograms of a 5 cm.sup.2 CO.sub.2 electrolyzer cell change when 5% of PSPY is added to the cathode catalyst layer.

(6) FIG. 6. Shows how the voltage (300) and selectivity (301) of a 5 cm.sup.2 CO.sub.2 electrolyzer varies with time when the cell is run at a constant current of 600 mA/cm.sup.2.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

(7) It is understood that the process is not limited to the particular methodology, protocols and reagents described herein, as these can vary as persons familiar with the technology involved here will recognize. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is used for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to limit the scope of the process. It also is to be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms a, an, and the include the plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, a reference to a linker is a reference to one or more linkers and equivalents thereof known to those skilled in the art. Similarly, the phrase and/or is used to indicate one or both stated cases can occur, for example, A and/or B includes (A and B) and (A or B).

(8) Unless defined otherwise, technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the process pertains. The embodiments of the process and the various features and advantageous details thereof are explained more fully with reference to the non-limiting embodiments and/or illustrated in the accompanying drawings and detailed in the following description. It should be noted that the features illustrated in the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale, and features of one embodiment can be employed with other embodiments as the skilled artisan would recognize, even if not explicitly stated herein.

(9) Any numerical value ranges recited herein include all values from the lower value to the upper value in increments of one unit, provided that there is a separation of at least two units between any lower value and any higher value. As an example, if it is stated that the concentration of a component or value of a process variable such as, for example, size, angle, pressure, time and the like, is, for example, from 1 to 98, specifically from 20 to 80, more specifically from 30 to 70, it is intended that values such as 15 to 85, 22 to 68, 43 to 51, 30 to 32, and the like, are expressly enumerated in this specification. For values which are less than one, one unit is considered to be 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01 or 0.1 as appropriate. These are only examples of what is specifically intended and all possible combinations of numerical values between the lowest value and the highest value are to be treated in a similar manner.

(10) Moreover, provided immediately below is a Definitions section, where certain terms related to the articles and process are defined specifically. Particular methods, devices, and materials are described, although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the process or articles.

Definitions

(11) The term electrochemical conversion of CO.sub.2 as used here refers to any electrochemical process where carbon dioxide, carbonate, or bicarbonate is converted into another chemical substance in any step of the process.

(12) The term polymer electrolyte membrane refers to both cation exchange membranes, which generally comprise polymers having multiple covalently attached negatively charged groups, and anion exchange membranes, which generally comprise polymers having multiple covalently attached positively charged groups. Typical cation exchange membranes include proton conducting membranes, such as the perfluorosulfonic acid polymer available under the trade designation NAFION from E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company (DuPont) of Wilmington, Del.

(13) The term anion exchange polymer refers to polymers having multiple covalently attached positively charged groups.

(14) The term anion exchange membrane electrolyzer as used here refers to an electrolyzer with an anion-conducting polymer electrolyte membrane separating the anode from the cathode.

(15) The term Hydrogen Evolution Reaction also called HER as used here refers to the electrochemical reaction 2H.sup.++2e.sup..fwdarw.H.sub.2.

(16) The term MEA as used here refers to a membrane electrode assembly, which typically comprises at least an ion-conducting membrane having an anode layer attached or in close proximity to one face of the membrane and a cathode layer attached or in close proximity to the other side of the membrane.

(17) The Term CV refers to cyclic voltammetry or cyclic voltammogram.

(18) The term Millipore water is water that is produced by a Millipore filtration system with a resistivity of at least 18.2 megohm-cm.

(19) The term GC as used here refers to a gas chromatograph.

(20) The term imidazolium as used here refers to a positively charged ligand containing an imidazole group. This includes a bare imidazole or a substituted imidazole. Ligands of the form:

(21) ##STR00001##
where R.sub.1-R.sub.5 are each independently selected from hydrogen, halogens, linear alkyls, branched alkyls, cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls, cyclic aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls, heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof, such as the vinyl benzyl copolymers described herein, are specifically included.

(22) The term pyridinium as used here refers to a positively charged ligand containing a pyridinium group. This includes a protonated bare pyridine or a substituted pyridine or pyridinium. Ligands of the form

(23) ##STR00002##
where R.sub.6-R.sub.11 are each independently selected from hydrogen, halogens, linear alkyls, branched alkyls, cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls, cyclic aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls, heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof, such as the vinyl benzyl copolymers described herein, are specifically included.

(24) The term pyrazoliums as used here refers to a positively charged ligand containing a pyrazolium group. This includes a bare pyrazolium or a substituted pyrazolium. Ligands of the form

(25) ##STR00003##
where R.sub.16-R.sub.20 are each independently selected from hydrogen, halogens, linear alkyls, branched alkyls, cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls, cyclic aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls, heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof, such as the vinyl benzyl copolymers described herein, are specifically included.

(26) The term phosphonium as used here refers to a positively charged ligand containing phosphorous. This includes substituted phosphorous. Ligands of the form:
P.sup.+(R.sub.12R.sub.13R.sub.14R.sub.15)
where R.sub.12-R.sub.15 are each independently selected from hydrogen, halogens, linear alkyls, branched alkyls, cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls, cyclic aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls, heteroalkylaryls, and polymers thereof, such as the vinyl benzyl copolymers described herein, are specifically included.

(27) The term positively charged cyclic amine as used here refers to a positively charged ligand containing a cyclic amine. This specifically includes imidazoliums, pyridiniums, pyrazoliums, pyrrolidiniums, pyrroliums, pyrimidiums, piperidiniums, indoliums, triaziniums, and polymers thereof, such as the vinyl benzyl copolymers described herein.

(28) The term electrochemical device as used here refers to a device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions or facilitating chemical reactions through the introduction of electrical energy. Batteries, fuel cells, electrolyzers, and electrochemical reactors are specifically included.

(29) The term vinyl benzyl derivatives as used here refers to a chemical of the form.

(30) ##STR00004##
or polymers thereof where X is hydrogen, halogens, linear alkyls, branched alkyls, cyclic alkyls, heteroalkyls, aryls, cyclic aryls, heteroaryls, alkylaryls, heteroalkylaryls, imidazoliums, pyridiniums, pyrazoliums, pyrrolidiniums, pyrroliums, pyrimidiums, piperidiniums, indoliums, or triaziniums. Polymers thereof, such as the vinyl benzyl copolymers described herein, are specifically included.

Specific Description

(31) One embodiment of the advance is an electrolyzer cathode catalyst layer that improves the output of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer.

(32) FIG. 1 illustrates a fuel cell hardware assembly 30, which includes a membrane electrode assembly 32 interposed between rigid flow field plates 34 and 36, the flow fields typically being formed of graphite or a graphite composite material. Flow field channels 34a are formed in the surface of flow field plate 34 facing membrane electrode assembly 32. Flow field channels 36a are formed in the surface of flow field plate 36 facing membrane electrode assembly 32. Membrane electrode assembly 32 consists of a polymer electrolyte (ion exchange) membrane 42 interposed between two electrodes, namely, anode 44 and cathode 46. Anode 44 and cathode 46 are typically formed of porous electrically conductive sheet material, preferably carbon fiber paper, and have planar major surfaces. Electrodes 44 and 46 have a thin layer of catalyst material disposed on their major surfaces at the interface with membrane 42 to render them electrochemically active.

(33) A distinguishing feature here is the addition of anion conducting polymers to the catalyst layer to improve the cell output.

(34) There are many previous descriptions of catalyst layers for electrochemical cells. Patents include U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,234,777; 5,869,416; 6,156,449; 6,696,382; 6,800,391; 6,844,286; 7,364,813; 7,754,369; 7,754,369; 7,855,160; 7,906,452; 8,198,206; 8,481,231; 8,940,460; 9,127,182; and 9,160,008; U.S. Pat. App. Pub. Nos. 2002/0034674; 2002/0098405; 2004/0023104; 2004/0107869; 2005/0151121; 2006/0110631; 2008/0248944; 2010/0196785; 2010/0285951; 2011/0003071; 2011/0166009; 2011/0262828; 2012/0094210; 2012/0148936; 2012/0171583. 2012/0196741; 20120/258381; 2013/0260278; 2014/0162170; 2014/0220474; and 2014/0228200; and International Publication Nos. WO2015/092371 and WO2015/124250. However, in most cases acidic polymers such as perfluorosulfonic acids, including those available from DuPont under the trade designation Nafion, are used. Acidic polymers substantially decrease the selectivity of CO.sub.2 electrolyzers, so they are typically not useful in practical CO.sub.2 electrolyzers.

(35) There are a few reports of anionic fuel cells with anion conducting polymers having multiple covalently attached positively charged groups in their catalyst layer. See for example U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,403,054; 7,785,750; and 8,257,872; U.S. Pat. App. Pub. No. 20150171453; International Publication Nos. WO/2013/0137011 and WO/2012/078513; and Matsuoka et al., Journal of Power Sources, Volume 150, 4 Oct. 2005, pages 27-31. However, these authors use polymers containing amines of the form:

(36) ##STR00005##
where the bond on the left is an attachment to the polymer and the R groups are either, hydrogens, methyls or ethyls, not positively charged cyclic amines such as imidazolium or pyrazolium. Si et al. (J. Mater. Chem. A, 2014. 2: p. 4413-4421), Yan et al (J. Power Sources, 2014. 250: p. 90-97), and Schauer et al. (the Schauer paper) Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2015. 132: 42581, disclose imidazole functionalized poly(arylene ether sulfone) and poly(ether ketone) polymers, but Schauer et al. FIG. 2 shows that these polymers are unstable under alkaline conditions so they are unsuitable for use in alkaline electrolyzers.

(37) U.S. Pat. No. 6,841,285, notes that, Thus imidazole and pyrazole may act as both hydrogen donors and acceptors in proton conduction processes. While these compounds may show increased conductivity within membrane systems, it is unlikely that they are suitable for use within the fuel cell environment. For example, a recent study by C. Yang et al., Journal of Power Sources 103:1, 2001, reports that imidazole impregnated membranes poisoned the catalysts.

(38) Note that imidazole and pyrazole would be protonated under the acidic conditions in U.S. Pat. No. 6,841,285 thus forming imidazolium and pyrazolium ions, so that the implication of the '285 patent is that imidazoliums and pyrazoliums should not be used in a catalyst layer.

(39) The present work shows that in contrast to the implication in the '285 patent, polymers containing imidazoliums, pyrazoliums and pyridiniums enhance the performance of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer.

(40) The catalyst layer can also include at least one Catalytically Active Element. Catalytically Active Element as used here refers to a chemical element that can serve as a catalyst for the electrochemical conversion of CO.sub.2 or another species of interest in a desired reaction. In particular, the device can include one or more of the following Catalytically Active Elements: V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Al, Si, In, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, U, Sm, Tb, La, Ce, and Nd. Research has established that Pt, Pd, Au, Ag, Cu, Ni, Fe, Sn, Bi, Co, In, Ru and Rh perform well, with Au, Ag, Cu, Sn, Sb, Bi, and In perform especially well.

(41) Embodiments of the present invention also include the addition of electrically conductive species to the catalyst layer, with carbon being a conductive preferred component.

(42) Without further elaboration, it is believed that persons familiar with the technology involved here using the preceding description can utilize the invention to the fullest extent. The following examples are illustrative only, and are not meant to be an exhaustive list of all possible embodiments, applications or modifications of the invention.

Specific Example 1

(43) The objective of this example is to show that in contrast to the indication in U.S. Pat. No. 6,841,285, the addition of polymers containing imidazoliums to the catalyst layer enhances the performance of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer.

(44) A copolymer, which is designated here as PSMIM (Cl), was prepared following the synthetic route in patent application Ser. No. 14/704,935. PSMIM refers to a co-polymer of polystyrene and poly 1-(p-vinylbenzyl)-3-methyl-imidazolium:

(45) ##STR00006##
where X.sup. is an anion, m>0 and n>0.

(46) The inhibitor-free styrene was prepared by passing styrene (Sigma-Aldrich, Saint Louis, Mo.) through the tert-butylcatechol (TBC) inhibitor remover (Sigma-Aldrich 311340). In general, 40 ml of remover is sufficient to yield 50 ml of clear, inhibitor free styrene. Inhibitor TBC in 4-vinylbenzyl chloride (4-VBC) was removed by the same inhibitor remover in a similar fashion.

(47) Poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride-co-styrene) was then synthesized by heating a solution of inhibitor-free styrene (Sigma-Aldrich) (36.139 g, 350 mmol) and 4-vinylbenzyl chloride (Sigma-Aldrich) (29.7272 g, 190 mmol) in chlorobenzene (Sigma-Aldrich) (45 ml) at 60-65 C. in an oil bath for approximately 20 hours under argon gas with AIBN (,-Azoisobutyronitrile, Sigma-Aldrich) (0.5927 g, 0.90 wt % based on the total monomers' weight) as initiator. The copolymer was precipitated in CH.sub.3OH (methanol) and dried under vacuum.

(48) Polystyrene methyimidazolium chloride (PSMIM) was synthesized by adding 1-methylimidazole (Sigma-Aldrich) (2.8650 g, 034.9 mmol), which is an alkylimidazole, to the solution of the poly(4-VBC-co-St) (5.0034 g, 19.4 mmol) in anhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (30 mL). The mixture was then stirred at around 30 C. for around 50 hours to form a PSMIM solution.

(49) 4-VBC-co-St or poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride co-styrene) as used here refers to a co-polymer of styrene and 4-vinylbenzyl chloride:

(50) ##STR00007##

(51) PSMIM-DVB was synthesized starting with poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride co-styrene.) 1-methylimidazole (Sigma-Aldrich) (3.912 g, 47.7 mmol) was added in a 250 ml 3-neck round bottom flask to the solution of the poly(4-VBC-co-St) (15.358 g, 59.8 mmol) in anhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (105 mL). 0.22 ml of a divinylbenzene (DVB) in DMF solution (DVB concentration=0.0083 g/ml) was carefully added through a pipette to the mixture with continual magnetic stirring. After this, 0.22 ml of AIBN-DMF solution (AIBN concentration=0.0083 g/ml) was added to the mixture in a similar fashion. The reaction was then kept under nitrogen atmosphere at 50 C. for about 60 hours. PSMIM-DVB was obtained as a white powder after purification by precipitation into diethyl ether.

(52) Membranes were prepared by casting the PSMIM-DVB solution prepared above directly onto a flat glass surface. The thickness of the solution on the glass was controlled by a film applicator (MTI Corporation, Richmond, Calif.) with an adjustable doctor blade. The membranes were then dried in a vacuum oven in the following step wise fashion. They were first kept at 80 C. for 120 minutes, then at 100 C. for 60 minutes, at 120 C. for 30 minutes and finally at 150 C. for 60 minutes. Chloride ions in the membranes were removed by soaking the membranes in 1 M KOH solution for 24 hours or longer.

(53) The cathode layer in Specific Example 1 was prepared as follows. Silver ink was made by mixing 100 mg of silver nanoparticles (20-40 nm, 45509, Alfa Aesar, Ward Hill, Mass.), 5 mg porous carbon (Vulcan XC-72R, Fuel Cell Earth, Woburn, Mass.) and different amounts of PSMIM-Cl in 3 ml of ethanol (459844, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.). The mixture was then sonicated for 10 minutes. The silver ink was painted onto a gas diffusion layer (Sigracet 35 BC GDL, Ion Power Inc., New Castle, Del.) covering an area of 6 cm6 cm. The electrode was immersed in 1 M KOH for at least 1 hour so that PSMIM-Cl converted by ion exchange to PSMIM-OH. Then the electrode was cut into 2.5 cm2.5 cm sections for cell testing.

(54) The anode in Specific Example 1 was prepared as follows: 100 mg of IrO.sub.2 (43396, Alfa Aesar, Ward Hill, Mass.) was dispersed in the mixture of 1 ml of deionized water, 2 ml of isopropanol (3032-16, Macron Fine Chemicals, Avantor Performance Materials, Center Valley, Pa.) and 0.1 ml of 5 wt. % poly-tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) dispersion (665800, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.). The mixture was sonicated for 10 min using a water bath sonicator. The ink was painted onto 6 cm6 cm of carbon fiber paper (Toray Paper 120, Fuel Cell Earth, Woburn, Mass.). The actual IrO.sub.2 loading was about 2 mg/cm.sup.2. The electrode was cut into 3 cm3 cm sections for cell testing.

(55) The membrane was sandwiched between the anode and the cathode with the metal-containing layers on the anode and cathode facing the membrane, and the whole assembly was mounted in a Fuel Cell Technologies 5 cm.sup.2 fuel cell hardware assembly with serpentine flow fields.

(56) CO.sub.2 humidified at 25 C. was fed into the cathode flow field at a rate of 20 sccm, and 10 mM KHCO.sub.3 was fed into the anode flow field. The cyclic voltammograms were collected by scanning the cell potential from 1.2 to 3.0 V. All of the scans were made at room temperature and atmospheric pressure.

(57) FIG. 2 shows the results. Plot 200 is a base case with no PSMIM in the cathode catalyst layer ink. Notice that the current increases when PSMIM is added to the catalyst layer in a later sample, such that the PSMIM weight is 1% of the weight of the silver (plot 201). Further increases in the current are seen as the PSMIM concentration is increased so that the PSMIM weight is 5% of the weight of the silver (plot 202). Then there is a small decrease when the weight of the PSMIM is increased to 10% of the weight of the silver (plot 203). A decrease in the selectivity of the reaction was observed.

(58) A run in which the PSMIM weight was 20% of the weight of the silver was also performed. The cell showed a small current, but analysis of the exit stream did not show significant CO.sub.2 conversion.

(59) These results demonstrate that the addition of an ionomer containing an imidazolium enhances the performance of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer, in contrast to the findings in U.S. Pat. No. 6,841,285.

Specific Example 2

(60) The objective of this example is to show that in contrast to the findings in U.S. Pat. No. 6,841,285, the addition of polymers containing tetra-methyl-imidazolium to the catalyst layer enhances the performance of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer.

(61) Preparation of PSTMIM: poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride-co-styrene) was prepared as in Specific Example 1. Tetra-methyl-imidazolium (TCI) (5.934 g) was added to the solution of the poly(4-VBC-co-St) (10 g) in anhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (85 mL). The mixture was stirred at 30-35 C. for around 60 hours. PSTMIM was obtained as white solid particles after purification by precipitation into diethyl ether. PSTMIM refers to a material that contains a co-polymer of styrene and 1-(p-vinylbenzyl)-tetra-methyl-imidazolium.

(62) The cathode in Specific Example 2 was prepared as follows. Silver ink was made by mixing 100 mg of silver nanoparticles (20-40 nm, 45509, Alfa Aesar, Ward Hill, Mass.), 5 mg porous carbon (Vulcan XC-72R, Fuel Cell Earth, Woburn, Mass.) and different amounts of PSTMIM-Cl in 3 ml of ethanol (459844, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.). The mixture was then sonicated for 10 minutes. The silver ink was painted onto a gas diffusion layer (Sigracet 35 BC GDL, Ion Power Inc., New Castle, Del.) covering an area of 6 cm6 cm. The electrode was immersed in 1 M KOH for at least 1 hour so that PSTMIM-Cl converted to PSTMIM-OH. Then the electrode was cut into 2.5 cm2.5 cm for cell testing.

(63) The anode in specific example 2 was the same as in Specific Example 1 and the cell was tested as in Specific Example 1.

(64) FIG. 3 shows the voltammograms measured at varying PSTMIM content. Notice that the current is higher than the base case (plot 200) in FIG. 2 when PSTMIM is added to the catalyst later so that the PSTMIM weight is 1% of the weight of the silver (plot 210). Further increases in the current are seen as the PSTMIM concentration is increased so that the PSTMIM weight is 4% of the weight of the silver (plot 211). Then there is a small decrease when the weight of the PSTMIM is increased to 8% of the weight of the silver (plot 212). The performance continues to decrease when the weight of the PSTMIM is 16% of the weight of the silver (plot 213), but the cell current is still higher than the base case in FIG. 2 (plot 200). The performance is lower than the base case in FIG. 2 (plot 200) when the weight of the PSTMIM is 32% of the weight of the silver (plot 214), but the cell current is still significant.

(65) A run in which the PSTMIM weight was 64% of the weight of the silver was also performed. The cell showed a small current, but analysis of the exit stream did not show significant CO.sub.2 conversion. These results demonstrate that the addition of an ionomer containing tetra-methyl-imidazolium enhances the performance of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer, in contrast to the findings in the '285 patent.

Specific Example 3

(66) The objective of this example is to show that in contrast to the findings in U.S. Pat. No. 6,841,285, the addition of polymers containing pyridiniums to the catalyst layer changes the performance of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer but does not poison it.

(67) Preparation of PSMP: poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride co-styrene) was prepared as in Specific Example 1. Pyridine (Sigma-Aldrich) (0.318 g, 4.68 mmol) was added to the solution of the poly(4-VBC-co-St) (1 g, 3.89 mmol) in anhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (8 mL). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 60 hours, and PSMP was obtained as a white solid after purification by precipitation into diethyl ether. PSMP refers to a material that contains a co-polymer of styrene and 1-(p-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium.

(68) The cathode in Specific Example 3 was prepared as follows. Silver ink was made by mixing 100 mg of silver nanoparticles (20-40 nm, 45509, Alfa Aesar, Ward Hill, Mass.), 5 mg porous carbon (Vulcan XC-72R, Fuel Cell Earth, Woburn, Mass.) and different amounts of PSMP-Cl in 3 ml of ethanol (459844, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.). The mixture was then sonicated for 10 minutes. The silver ink was painted onto a gas diffusion layer (Sigracet 35 BC GDL, Ion Power Inc., New Castle, Del.) covering an area of 6 cm6 cm. The electrode was immersed in 1 M KOH for at least 1 hour so that PSMP-Cl was converted to PSMP-OH. Then the electrode was cut into 2.5 cm2.5 cm sections for cell testing.

(69) The anode in Specific Example 3 was the same as in Specific Example 1 and the cell was tested as in Specific Example 1.

(70) FIG. 4 shows the voltammograms measured when the weight of the PSMP was 5% of the weight of the silver. Notice that the current is considerably above the base case (200) in FIG. 2. These results demonstrate that the addition of an ionomer containing a pyridinium enhances the performance of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer, in contrast to the findings in the '285 patent.

Specific Example 4

(71) The objective of this example is to show that in contrast to the findings in the '285 patent, the addition of polymers containing pyrazoliums to the catalyst layer enhances the performance of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer.

(72) Preparation of PSPZ: poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride co-styrene) was prepared as in Specific Example 1. Pyrazole (Sigma-Aldrich) (0.593 g, 4.67 mmol) was added to the solution of the poly(4-VBC-co-St) (1 g, 3.89 mmol) in anhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (8 mL). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 60 hours and this PSPY-DMF was accordingly further diluted for use as the ionomer. PSPY refers to a material that contains a co-polymer of styrene and 1-(p-vinylbenzyl)-pyrazolium ionomers.

(73) The anode in Specific Example 4 was the same as in Specific Example 1 and the cell was tested as in Specific Example 1.

(74) FIG. 5 shows a voltammogram measured when the weight of the PSPY was 5% of the weight of the silver. Notice that the current is considerably above the base case (200) in FIG. 2. These results demonstrate that the addition of an ionomer containing a pyrazolium enhances the performance of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer, in contrast to the findings in the '285 patent.

Specific Example 5

(75) The objective of this example is to show that the addition of a PSMIM to the cathode of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer also improves the steady state performance of the electrolyzer.

(76) The anode and cathode for this test were synthesized as in Specific Example 1. The weight of the PSMIM in the cathode layer was 2% of the weight of the silver.

(77) A PSTMIM-DVB membrane was used in this experiment. The preparation of the PSTMIM-DVB membrane is as follows: Poly(4-vinylbenzyl chloride co-styrene) was formed as in specific example 1. Tetramethylimidazole (TMIM) (TCI) (4.05 g, 32.6 mmol) was added in a 250 ml 3-neck round bottom flask to the solution of the poly(4-VBC-co-St) (10 g, 38.9 mol) in anhydrous N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF) (Sigma-Aldrich) (73 mL). After the TMIM was thoroughly dissolved within this reaction mixture, 1 mL of a DVB-DMF solution (DVB concentration=0.052 g/ml) was carefully added through a pipette to the mixture with continual magnetic stirring. After this, 1 ml of AIBN-DMF solution (AIBN concentration=0.00135 g/ml) was added to the mixture in a similar fashion. The reaction was then kept under nitrogen atmosphere at 50 C. for about 60 hours. PSTMIM was obtained as a white powder after purification by precipitation into diethyl ether. A PSTMIM-DVB membrane was then formed as in Specific Example 1.

(78) The cell was assembled and tested as in Specific Example 1.

(79) FIG. 6 shows how the voltage and selectivity varied with time when the cell was held at a fixed current of 3 amps (600 mA/cm.sup.2). Notice that the cell is producing 600 mA/cm.sup.2 at 3.3 volts. GC analysis showed that the cell was converting CO.sub.2 to CO with over 95% selectivity to CO. By comparison, the Schmidt paper (referred to above, available at http://www.sccer-hae.ch/resources/Talks/08_Krause_Power_to_Value.pdf; last accessed on May 17, 2016) requires over 6 volts to reach the same current. Consequently, our cell would only need about half as much energy as Schmidt et al.'s to convert CO.sub.2 at a rate corresponding to 600 mA/cm.sup.2. The results are stable. The loss of performance reported in the Schauer paper is not seen.

(80) More generally, notice that Specific Examples 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 show that adding three different ion conducting polymer containing positively charged cyclic amine groups to the catalyst layer in a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer enhance the performance of a CO.sub.2 electrolyzer, in contrast to the findings in the '285 patent. This observation is believed to be general. That is, adding ion conducting polymer containing positively charged cyclic amine groups can enhance the performance of electrolyzers and other devices.

(81) While particular elements, embodiments and applications of the present invention have been shown and described, it will be understood that the invention is not limited thereto since modifications can be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the present disclosure, particularly in light of the foregoing teachings.

(82) The examples given above are merely illustrative and are not meant to be an exhaustive list of all possible embodiments, applications or modifications of the present electrochemical device. Thus, various modifications and variations of the described articles, methods and systems of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Although the invention has been described in connection with specific embodiments, it should be understood that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention which are obvious to those skilled in the chemical arts or in the relevant fields are intended to be within the scope of the appended claims.