Perovskite catalysts enhanced combustion on porous media

Abstract

The effects of different perovskite catalysts, catalytic active materials with a crystal structure of ABO.sub.3, on matrix stabilized combustion in a porous ceramic media are explored. Highly porous silicon carbide ceramics are used as a porous media for a catalytically enhanced matrix stabilized combustion of a lean mixture of methane and air. A stainless steel combustion chamber was designed incorporating a window for direct observation of the flame within the porous media. Perovskite catalytic enhancement of SiC porous matrix with La0.75Sr0.25Fe0.6Cr0.35Ru0.05O3; La0.75Sr0.25Fe0.6Cr0.4O3; La0.75Sr0.25Fe0.95Ru0.05O3; La0.75Sr0.25Cr0.95Ru0.05O3; and LaFe0.95Ru0.05O3, for example, were used to enhance combustion. The flammability limits of the combustion of methane and air were explored using both inert and catalytically enhanced surfaces of the porous ceramic media. By coating the SiC porous media with perovskite catalysts it was possible to lower the minimum stable equivalence ratio.

Claims

1. A three section matrix stabilized porous burner comprising a high porosity combustion chamber between two lower porosity sections wherein the high porosity combustion chamber comprises a porous ceramic matrix catalytically enhanced with a perovskite catalyst composition selected from the group consisting of: La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.6Cr.sub.0.35Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3; La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.6Cr.sub.0.4O.sub.3; La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3; La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Cr.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3; and LaFe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3.

2. The burner of claim 1, wherein the porous ceramic matrix comprises a silicon carbide porous ceramic matrix portion, and the perovskite catalyst is coated on the surface of the porous silicon carbide ceramic matrix portion.

3. The burner of claim 2, wherein the porous ceramic matrix further comprises an alumina porous ceramic matrix portion positioned adjacent to the silicon carbide porous ceramic matrix portion.

4. The burner of claim 1, wherein the porous ceramic matrix catalytically enhanced with a perovskite catalyst composition lowers the equivalence ratio.

5. The burner of claim 1, wherein the porous ceramic matrix comprises 85% porosity silicon carbide.

6. The burner of claim 1, wherein burner is a unidirectional porous burner.

7. A method for the superadiabatic combustion of reactants comprising the steps of: providing a three section matrix stabilized porous burner comprising: a high porosity combustion chamber between two lower porosity sections wherein the high porosity combustion chamber comprises a porous ceramic matrix catalytically enhanced with a perovskite catalyst composition selected from the group consisting of: La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.6Cr.sub.0.35Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3; La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.6Cr.sub.0.4O.sub.3; La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3; La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Cr.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3; and LaFe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3; and reacting a fuel and air mixture in the combustion chamber.

8. The method of claim 7, wherein the porous ceramic matrix comprises a silicon carbide porous ceramic matrix portion, and the perovskite catalyst is coated on the surface of the porous silicon carbide ceramic matrix portion.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein the porous ceramic matrix further comprises an alumina porous ceramic matrix portion positioned adjacent to the silicon carbide porous ceramic matrix portion.

10. The method of claim 7, wherein the fuel air mixture is a lean mixture of natural gas and air.

11. The method of claim 7, wherein porous ceramic matrix comprises 85% porosity silicon carbide.

12. The method of claim 7, wherein burner is a unidirectional porous burner.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer to the same parts throughout the different views. Also, the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention.

(2) FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of a matrix stabilized porous burner with a combustion chamber in accordance with an embodiment.

(3) FIG. 2 is an image of the cylindrical reticulated foam portions used in the matrix stabilized porous burner with a combustion chamber shown in FIG. 1 in accordance with an embodiment.

(4) FIG. 3 is an image of the matrix stabilized porous burner with a combustion chamber shown in FIG. 1 with insulation panels in accordance with an embodiment.

(5) FIG. 4 is a graphical representation of temperature vs. time of non-coated SiC foam in accordance with an embodiment.

(6) FIG. 5 is a graphical representation of temperature of the thermocouple locations vs. axial distance along the axis of the combustion chamber in accordance with an embodiment.

(7) FIG. 6 is a graphical representation of temperature vs. time of non-coated SiC at lowest equivalent ration in accordance with an embodiment.

(8) FIG. 7 is a graphical representation of temperature vs time of La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 coated SiC at lowest equivalent ratio in accordance with an embodiment.

(9) FIG. 8 is a graphical representation of a temperature gradient comparison between coated and non-coated SiC at the same equivalence ratio in accordance with an embodiment.

(10) FIG. 9 is a graphical representation of a temperature gradient as a function of equivalence ratio of a La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 coated SiC at different equivalent ratios in accordance with an embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

(11) The present disclosure describes various embodiments of an improved combustion apparatus including a matrix stabilized porous burner with a catalytically enhanced porous matrix portion. More generally, Applicants have recognized and appreciated that transition metals are considered excellent catalysts for many applications. Perovskite catalysts containing at least one transition metal, such as LaFeO.sub.3 or LaCrO.sub.3, are attractive materials because their crystal structure serves as the support for the transition metal ions due to its high thermal stability as well as other properties. To inhibit carbon deposition, which can lead to deactivation of the catalysts, such promising solutions as reduction of perovskite phase to precipitate small metal particles at the surfaces of oxides resulting in high activity and sustainability against coke formation can be done. Mixed ionic electronic perovskite ABO.sub.3 based catalyst has also been proposed as thermally stable and catalytically active materials. The promising ABO.sub.3 perovskite compositions contain rare earth cations located on the A-site of perovskite lattice where large A.sup.3+ cations (such as lanthanum La.sup.3+ ion) have been substituted with different A.sup.2+ cations (such as strontium Sr.sup.2+, calcium Ca.sup.2+, or barium Ba.sup.2+) introducing oxygen vacancies in the lattice and at the same time inducing the mixed valence state in B-site cations such that cobalt (Co.sup.3+), manganese (Mn.sup.3+), or iron (Fe.sup.3+) become a mixture of Co.sup.3+/Co.sup.4+; Mn.sup.3+/Mn.sup.4+, and Fe.sup.3+/Fe.sup.4+. Oxidation reactions over the perovskite materials have been found to follow two routes, either incorporating surface absorbed oxygen species or incorporating the mobility of lattice oxygen and a redox cycle of the B-ion. The catalytic activities of LaCoO.sub.3 and LaMnO.sub.3 catalysts were investigated in comparison with hexaluminate catalysts ceramics. LaCoO.sub.3 showed comparable activity to the most active hexaluminate, even though its surface area was only one tenth of the hexaaluminate's. Additionally perovskites have shown promising performance toward methane oxidation and even in gasified biomass testing.

(12) Applicants have also recognized and appreciated that LaCoO3 has been investigated as a catalyst toward CO.sub.2 reforming of CH.sub.4 in comparison with LaNiO3 perovskite and La2NiO4 and La2CoO4 ceramic materials. Based LaCoO.sub.3, LaMnO.sub.3, and LaFeO.sub.3 perovskites were investigated as promoters for methane oxidation, and the nature of the active sites on the surfaces of these oxides were also investigated. It was established that the significant quantities of carbonated species were found on the surfaces of perovskites. The addition of carbonates to rare earth oxides is known to improve the selectivity for the oxidative coupling of methane. The oxidative coupling of methane is the process of converting methane into value added chemicals through catalysts, a hard process due to methane's high chemical stability. However, it was established that the catalytic performance of pure perovskites, such as LaFeO.sub.3 or LaCoO.sub.3, were significantly improved by doping La.sup.3+ with Sr.sup.2+ ion. It was shown that while both cobaltites and ferrites, which are perovskites with the crystal structure ACoO.sub.3 and AFeO.sub.3 respectively, showed similar catalytic behavior in methane combustion, La.sub.1x Sr.sub.x CoO.sub.3 perovskites were much more easily reduced by H.sub.2 or CH.sub.4 in comparison with La.sub.1xSr.sub.xFeP.sub.3 perovskites. It has been reported that La.sub.1xSr.sub.xCoO.sub.3 catalysts achieved better than Pt performance in treating NO.sub.x in fuel-efficient diesel engines. Other substitutions of A and B sites in perovskite structures, such as with silver ions (Ag), cerium ions (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), samarium (Sm), europium ions (Eu), as well as the addition of precious metals, such as Pd, and their regeneration, can provide a significant synergistic effect for enhancement of catalytic activity of the material and proposed to be an effective tool of catalyst design and customization. Several studies have been performed on ruthenium (Ru) containing perovskites where oxidation of CO was performed over La.sub.0.7Sr.sub.0.3 Cr.sub.1x Ru.sub.x O.sub.3 (0.025x0.100) perovskite type catalysts. Improved catalytic activity has been reported along with decreased surface resistivity when it was established that the concentration of Ru.sup.4+ in the surface region and its stability are both determining factors for the CO oxidation activity. Another Ru ion containing compositions, such as La.sub.0.6Sr.sub.1.4Fe.sub.0.8Ru.sub.0.2O.sub.4, La.sub.0.4Sr.sub.1.6Fe.sub.0.7, Ru.sub.0.3O.sub.4, and La.sub.0.2Sr.sub.1.8 Fe.sub.0.6Ru.sub.0.4O.sub.4 have been shown to exhibit promising electrical properties at high temperature and therefore might also potentially be considered as a good catalyst.

(13) A particular goal of utilization of the embodiments of the present disclosure is the ability of the embodiments of the matrix stabilized porous burner with a catalytically enhanced/coated porous matrix portion to provide the further benefit of increased flame stability and control of the flame location inside of the porous matrix. The feedback of heat transfer from products to the reactants can be, in part, a function of the porous media thickness and the position of the flame within it with respect to the media's inlet, and outlet. By employing perovskite catalysts of an embodiment the activation energy of the reaction can be reduced, lowering the amount of heat recirculated required for stable combustion within the media. Allowing the flame of a lean mixture to stabilize closer from the inlet of the catalytically enhanced porous structure, at any given flow rate and lean equivalence ratio, increases the range of locations where a flame can be stabilized within the media and decreasing its possible minimum stable equivalence ratio.

(14) Another particular goal of utilization of the embodiments of the present disclosure is the ability of the embodiments of the combustion apparatus to provide certain benefits of catalytically promoted combustion. These benefits include an extremely low amount of NOx production, due to the fact that the reaction is catalytic and there are preferably no high temperature flame zones where NOx is typically produced. Simultaneously, there can be a dramatic reduction in the amount of unburned carbon and partially oxidized carbon, i.e., due to the catalytic drive of the combustion reaction to full completion.

(15) In view of the foregoing, various embodiments and implementations are directed to a combustion apparatus including porous burner with a combustion chamber including a catalytically enhanced, porous ceramic matrix. The combustion chamber can utilize high temperature porous ceramics enhanced with high temperature ceramic catalysts for lean combustion of natural gas. The design features of the combustion chamber include a high temperature (85% porosity) ceramic, including alumina and silicon carbide, coated with high temperature perovskite catalysts. As previously noted, perovskite catalysts are materials with a crystal structure ABO.sub.3.

(16) In accordance with an embodiment, a matrix stabilized porous burner with a combustion chamber 100 (see FIG. 1), components thereof, methods for making, and applications thereof are described below. To extend the lean burning limits using the porous burner, catalysts can be coated on the Surfaces of the porous medium. This can be particularly advantageous because the porous structure possesses a large Surface to Volume ratio, providing the much needed surface area for applications of heterogeneous catalysts. The Examples below present the results of adding five different types of perovskite catalysts La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.6Cr.sub.0.35Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3, La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.6Cr.sub.0.4O.sub.3, La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3, La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Cr.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3, and LaFe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3, to a base silicon carbide (SiC) porous structure.

(17) In the Examples below, a unidirectional porous burner is described with reference to the Figures. High temperature porous ceramics e.g., alumina, silicon carbide or other similar properties materials, are used to stabilize the flame and can be coated with high temperature perovskites catalysts of an embodiment. Materials such as ferrites or cobaltites, which are perovskites with the crystal structure ACo0.sub.3 and AFe0.sub.3), are contemplated. The A site, usually lanthanum, can be doped with strontium Sr2+or calcium Ca2+to change the Valence of the materials thus increasing the catalytic activity of the perovskite. Additionally the B site can be doped with other transition metals such as ruthenium Ru, or palladium Pd which in turn also increase the materials catalytic activity. In this way Such perovskite catalyst composition, Such as: La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.6Cr.sub.0.35Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3, La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.6Cr.sub.0.4O.sub.3, La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3, La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Cr.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3, and LaFe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 can be used in embodiments disclosed and contemplated herein, and are further described herein and below.

(18) The relationship between these three features is noted below. To be concise, previous state of the art porous burners designed for lean applications, such as reciprocal flow burners and others, need very complicated equipment (in case of the reciprocal flow burners), or a large porous ceramic beds to reduce the natural gas' lean combustion limit. Their configuration creates a large pressure drop across the combustion chamber, additionally their intricate control systems make them costly and not feasible outside academia. In accordance with an embodiment, a rather small porous burner bed can be in conjunction with state of the art catalysts to decrease the lean limit of combustion of natural gas.

(19) A careful balance was designed between catalytic combustion, the heat recirculation in porous media, and the combustion of lean fuels. In combustion within porous media, the temperature of the reacting fuel air mixture can approach and even exceed the adiabatic flame temperature of the given mixture. Both catalytic combustion and combustion in porous media reduce natural gas' lean limit. But due to the high temperature generated, catalysts, even perovskites, can be subject to degradation. However, in view of the novel approach of coupling high temperature perovskite catalysts and combustion in porous media of an embodiment as described herein, it is possible to, in a very simple configuration: reduce the lean limit of a mixture of natural gas' and air to produce a flame where the temperature is low enough for the perovskite catalysts remain active, low enough for the materials within the combustion chamber not to degrade, and high enough for temperature within the fluid mixture to be ideal for heat and power applications.

(20) In accordance with an embodiment, the enhanced matrix stabilized porous burner with a combustion chamber 100 increases efficient stable combustion of lean mixtures. This increase in efficiency is an excellent feature for existing systems, looking to increase the efficiency, and decrease the emission of existing combustion systems. These innovative features enable lower emissions and a higher efficiency than the burners that are used in current commercial combustion chambers, in addition to fuel flexibility. This would enable users to get more energy per dollar, the ability to burn low calorific fuels as well as heavy fuels such as JP8, while generating less harmful emissions, thus helping the United States government, for example, in its fight to attain the high level of environmental and fiscal conscientiousness that they are currently striving to reach.

(21) Advantages of the invention are illustrated by the following Examples. However, the particular structures, configurations, materials and amounts thereof recited in these Examples, as well as other conditions and details, are to be interpreted to apply broadly in the art and should not be construed to unduly restrict or limit the invention in any way.

(22) The Examples describe a study of superadiabatic combustion of methane inside of the porous matrixes with catalytic enhancement by perovskites. Five different perovskite compositions were used for methane combustion utilizing different equivalence ratios () and the obtained results were compared to the methane combustion in a SiC porous matrix where no perovskite promoter was present. The lean limit was established depending on the perovskite composition, as well as temperature measurements and determination of the combustion zone locations was performed. The perovskite composition which showed the best results for lean superadiabatic combustions was established.

Example 1

(23) This Example describes the experimental setup used in the study. Referring to FIG. 1, in one embodiment, a schematic representation of a matrix stabilized porous burner with a combustion chamber 100 is provided. More particularly, the combustion chamber 100 can be composed of two types of porous media: two alumina honeycombs 3 at each end of the combustion chamber, and a reticulated SiC or alumina foam 5 in the middle. Eight K-Type thermocouples (T0-T7; collectively 7) were placed along the axis of the cylindrical SiC foam, equidistantly spaced, 0.72 cm apart, as seen in FIG. 1. These eight thermocouples measured the temperature distribution within the combustion chamber. They have an uncertainty of 0.75% from 0 to 1250 C. The thermocouples were connected to a National Instruments data acquisition system (NI USB-6210), and then logged into LabView virtual instrument for data collection.

(24) High grade methane 9 (99% purity) and dry laboratory compressed air 11 were used in the experiment. The mixture of methane 9 and air 11 (which can pass through filter 13) was formed in a line of sufficient length to allow proper mixing after the two reactant streams meet at a T-junction. The air and methane flows were each controlled with Omega (FMA 3200) mass flow controllers 15. The flow controllers have an uncertainty of 1.5% of their full scale range of 0-5 L/min and 0-10 L/min for the methane and air flow meters, respectively. The fuel/air mixture is shown entering the combustion chamber 100 at a first inlet end 17 and exiting as exhaust at a second exhaust end 19.

(25) Images of the cylindrical reticulated foam used in the study are shown in FIG. 2 (silicon carbide used as the reticulated ceramic foam 5, and alumina used as the reticulated ceramic foam 3, each of which is used to stabilize the flame inside of the combustion chamber 100); the foam is highly porous (85%), has a diameter of 20.32 mm, a length of 50.8 mm, and an average pore size of 2-3 mm. The lower porosity (38%) alumina honeycomb ceramic cylinders 3 that are placed at the inlet 17 and at the exhaust 19 of the combustion chamber, on either side of the reticulated foam 5, has 8 pores per centimeter, a diameter of 20.32 mm, and a length of 25.4 mm. The average pore size of the honeycomb alumina 3 is much lower than the articulated foam's 5; this allows the flame to propagate along the axis of the articulated foam ceramic but to quench at top surface of the honeycomb. The honey comb ceramic acts as a flame arrestor due to its lower average pore size, forcing the combustion zone to be in reticulated ceramic foam section 5 of the burner.

(26) The combustion chamber enclosing the porous burner can be composed of stainless steel 21 and can feature a quartz window (not shown) that allows observation of the flame behavior during ignition. In this study, the assembly featured a casing that was insulated on every side with a 25.4 mm thick ceramic fiber board insulation 23 as seen in FIG. 3 (the panel covering the window is not shown to showcase additional details), to reduce heat loss from the burner, to increase the repeatability of the experiments, and to ensure the measurable effects of the catalysts activity in the chemical reaction.

Example 2

(27) This Example describes the preparation of the multiple samples of reticulated foam ceramics use in the study. In addition to the uncoated inert reticulated foam, perovskite catalyst coated reticulated foams were used. By conducting several runs of both inert and catalytically enhanced reticulated foams, the run to run variation and repeatability could be measured.

(28) The catalytically enhanced ceramics were coated using the dip coating method. In brief, eight samples of SiC articulated foams were coated with five different compositions of perovskite catalysts (as referenced above). The dip coating process consisted of dissolving the perovskite powders in isopropyl alcohol and placing the slurry mixture in a test tube submerged in a water bath within an ultrasound machine to ensure homogenization of the slurry. The reticulated foam ceramic was then lowered into the slurry and held suspended for one minute, which allowed enough time for the coating to penetrate the pores and bond to the surface. Once coated the reticulated foam was placed in a tray and allowed to dry overnight in the fume hood until all the isopropyl alcohol had evaporated.

Example 3

(29) This Example describes the initial ignition and use of the burner in the study, in addition to certain related results. The reactants enter the burner from the bottom portion 17 of the combustion chamber 100 as seen in FIG. 1. The burner is first ignited, near the top of the reticulated foam ceramic or at the thermocouple location T7, at =1.0. Once ignited the is reduced to 0.7. The fuel flow rate was varied to obtain the desired , the air volumetric flow rate is held constant at 0.008 m3/min throughout the experiment. After ignition, at =0.7, the premixed combustion wave will propagate in the opposite direction of the flow. Through the quartz window (FIG. 3, ref. No. 25), the combustion zone was observed as a highly luminescent zone slowly traveling upstream. The combustion wave is allowed to travel against the direction of the flow to record the eventual downstream movement of the wave once the is further reduced. This initial value of =0.7 is used to warm up the combustion chamber. If any of the eight thermocouples reach a steady-state temperature higher than 1,200 C., the volumetric flow rate of methane is reduced while maintaining the air flow rate constant, reducing which will cause the temperature to drop. The combustion chamber is never allowed to reach temperatures well above 1200 C. for prolonged periods of time to protect burner components such as the quartz window and thermocouple wires. Preheating has a significant effect on combustion on porous media, it was important in this work that the burner was essentially saturated with the thermal energy before continuing with the minimum measurement. By such saturation, the effect of catalysts can be accurately accessed.

(30) The burner was determined to have reached the steady state if the temperature readings and the flame position had remained steady for 10 minutes. All the temperature data here reported are those measured during the steady state. It is noted that, when discussing the results of FIG. 4 below, this 10-minute criterion was applied whenever the was changed, for example, to reach the condition near the flammability limit. The lean flammability limit was reached at the for which the flame failed to maintain a steady location. The process was repeated for the reticulated foams investigated to document the behavior of the different catalytically treated or untreated reticulated foam ceramics.

(31) By decreasing the in the burner in a step-wise manner, the flame will start moving in a step-wise manner downstream. As the flame moves downstream incoming reactants will cool down the upstream section of the solid ceramic core, increasing the temperature difference between it and the part of the solid downstream from the combustion wave increasing the heat transfer back to the reactants. Eventually the heat loss, heat recirculated, and thermal energy generated will reach a balance and the combustion wave will begin to stand and reach steady state. As the step-wise downstream movement of the flames nears the end of the solid ceramic length, the radiation to the surroundings becomes a greater portion of the total heat loss. Further decreases in cause the flame to blow off.

(32) Referring to FIG. 4, in one embodiment, a graphical representation of temperature vs. time of non-coated SiC foam is shown as the equivalence ratio of the mixture is reduced and steady state temperature profile measurements are taken. Stated differently, FIG. 4 shows the typical time trace of temperature collected from the experiments presented in this study. During the preheating stage of the experiments the flame will propagate upstream and begin to stand near thermocouple location T2, as seen at minute 0 in FIG. 4. Once steady state is reached, or the temperature approaches 1,200 C. the amount of methane in the mixture is reduced, for the reasons mentioned above. The was reduced at minute t=19, t=45, t=78, t=100, t=145, t=178, and t=265, shown by the dash lines in FIG. 4. The decrease in would result in less heat generated to heat up the incoming fuel-air mixture, and therefore, there would be insufficient heat to sustain a stable combustion at a fixed position. The combustion wave will retreat to a downstream location, until a balance between heat generation, increased heat recirculation, and heat loss is reestablished stabilizing the flame to stand again. This process is observed between the time intervals of t=0-19, t=45-78, t=78-100, t=100-145, t=145-178, and t=178-265 minutes in FIG. 4. The drop in temperature at the thermocouple location with the highest temperature after the dashed line, and the increase in temperature of the next thermocouple location after the dash line in figure FIG. 4 demonstrates how the combustion wave moved downstream as the was reduced. For example the temperature peak detected by thermocouple T4 occurred around t=220 minutes, while that for T3 is around t=190 minutes. One might conclude that as the is reduced, the flame location moves in the downstream direction. The downstream movement of the combustion wave due to lowering of the is more apparent in FIG. 5, as explained in the following.

(33) Referring to FIG. 5, in one embodiment, a graphical representation of temperature of the thermocouple 7 locations vs. axial distance along the axis of the combustion chamber 100 (of the stabilized standing combustion wave at 0.57, 0.54 and 0.52 equivalence ratios) is shown. FIG. 5 shows that the flame moves and stabilizes at a downstream location once the equivalent ratio is reduced; the temperature profiles shown are taken when the burner has reach steady state, and the flame has begun to stand. Additionally the magnitude of the displacement due to the change in becomes apparent. The temperature distribution at =0.58, taken at t=98 minutes, show the flame stabilized at the thermocouple location T2, with a maximum temperature of 1,030 C. At =0.54 the flame has propagated downstream from thermocouple location T2 and has begun to stand at thermocouple location T3, with a maximum temperature of 975 C. At =0.52 the flame stabilized at thermocouple location T5, with a maximum temperature of 994.3 C. The flame moved downstream from the thermocouple location T2 to T5 as was reduced from 0.58 to 0.52.

(34) Referring to FIG. 6, in one embodiment, a graphical representation of temperature vs. time of non-coated SiC at lowest equivalent ration (minimum stable equivalence ration happens between min. 250-270) is provided. FIG. 6 shows the data with higher resolution from the same run as FIG. 4 for t=177-377 minutes, a shorter time range towards the end of the experiment. At t=177 min the wave is stabilized at thermocouple location T3, with a Tmax=1,004 C. After the has been reduced the temperature at that location drops at t=185 min, followed by an increase at thermocouple location T4 from T=976 to T=1099. This is due to the downstream motion of the combustion wave. Eventually the downstream displacement motion of the combustion wave slows down and begins to stand, starting at 250 minutes, the temperature profile around minute 260 is the location of the temperature profile (=52) in FIG. 5. Additionally it is evident that after reducing the again, minute 270 of FIG. 6, the downstream motion of the wave continues to thermocouple location T6 and T7 until it is quenched by the lower porosity honey comb alumina ceramic. Thus the temperature profile at minute 260 of FIG. 6, and the line labeled (=52) in FIG. 5 are at the lowest stabilized where the combustion chamber can sustain a standing wave.

Example 4

(35) This Example describes results of experiments performed to collect data for inert SiC reticulated porous media, and catalytically enhanced SiC. Table 1 below shows the tabulated results, specifically the minimum stable achieved, for inert uncoated SiC articulated ceramic foam and for the SiC catalytically enhanced with five different compositions of perovskite catalyst: La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.60Cr.sub.0.35Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3, La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.60Cr.sub.0.40O.sub.3, La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Cr.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3, LaFe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3, and La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3.

(36) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Inert and Peroviskite coated SiC Tabulated Results T.sub.max at T.sub.max at Minimum Coating Composition of SiC = 0.58, Stable , Minimum Number Articulated Foam C. C. Stable of Runs Un-Coated (Inert) 1030.9 994.3 0.547 0.018 4 La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.60Cr.sub.0.35Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 1158.5 1081.4 0.525 0.021 2 La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.60Cr.sub.0.40O.sub.3 989.4 1056.2 0.525 0.007 2 La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Cr.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 953.9 1041.5 0.535 0.007 2 LaFe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 1033.7 1072.9 0.53 1 La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 906.6 1039.2 0.51 0.01 3

(37) The sign in the table shows the standard deviation, or run to run variation, between the results of the multiple runs with the same configuration of coated or uncoated articulated foam ceramics. This table shows that all five above-referenced different perovskite compositions yielded better results at lowering the minimum stable compared with the uncoated inert SiC articulated foam.

(38) Referring to FIG. 7, in one embodiment, a graphical representation of temperature vs time of La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 coated SiC at lowest equivalent ratio (minimum stable equivalence ratio happen between min 215-223) is provided. FIG. 7 shows the ending minutes of a run with SiC porous combustion chamber enhanced with La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3. The data was collected with the same procedure as the data collected for the uncoated SiC foam run(s) shown in FIGS. 4-6, as well as all the SiC foams coated with the five different types of perovskites. The flame was successfully stabilized for =0.5 at the thermocouple location T6 with a T.sub.max of 1039 C. The minimum average achieved by an inert SiC articulated foams was 0.547 while the catalytically enhanced SiC porous media were able to reduce the minimum stable to 0.535-0.51; La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 perovskite provided the best results with a minimum average of 0.51.

(39) Referring to FIG. 8, in one embodiment, a graphical representation of a temperature gradient comparison between coated and non-coated SiC at the same equivalence ratio is provided. FIG. 8 shows another feature of the perovskite catalytic enhancement of an embodiment in combustion in porous media. It shows the temperature distribution of non-coated SiC compared with the catalytically La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 enhanced SiC at a matching of 0.52. The perovskite coated SiC stabilized at the thermocouple location T3, with a T.sub.max of 1072 C., while the non-coated SiC stabilized at the thermocouple location T5, with a T.sub.max of 994 C. It is a total of 1.45 cm of displacement difference of the flame location, while having both the same , and volumetric flow rate.

(40) Referring to FIG. 9, in one embodiment, a graphical representation of a temperature gradient as a function of equivalence ratio of a La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 coated SiC at different equivalent ratios is provided. FIG. 9 shows the temperature distribution of the enhanced SiC with La.sub.0.75Sr.sub.0.25Fe.sub.0.95Ru.sub.0.05O.sub.3 at a stabilized standing wave with an of 0.52 and 0.50. The minimum stable was 0.5, that the flame stabilized to a standing wave was located at T6. While at =0.52 the flame successfully stabilized at T3.

(41) Thus, by examining results of FIGS. 8 and 9, it is evident that by coating the porous SiC articulated foam with perovskite catalysts the combustion wave is able to stabilize closer to the inlet at any given , in the same way an increase in (as seen in FIG. 5) or lowering of the flow rate can help stabilize the flame upstream. For the flame to stabilize at a given position in the porous media it is preferable that the right balance of chemical input, thermal energy recirculation, and heat loss occur. By enhancing the surface area of the porous media with high temperature perovskite catalysts as described and contemplated herein, the activation energy required to release the chemical energy of the reactants can be reduced. It effectively increases the minimum stable that a catalyzed porous burner can achieve.

(42) According to the preceding disclosure, embodiments of a porous burner are described that include high temperature catalysts. The porous burner can require little to no maintenance, has a noise-free operation, is low weight and low volume, has fuel flexibility, produces less harmful emissions and can provide efficient combustion as compared with other available devices. The porous burner provides simplicity in accomplishing its tasks without significant pressure drop: reduces the lean limit of a mixture of natural gas' and air to produce a flame where the temperature is low enough for the perovskite catalysts to remain active, low enough for the materials within the combustion chamber not to degrade, and high enough for temperature within the fluid mixture to be ideal for heat and power applications. The porous burner can be utilized by any kind of application where internal combustion engines are relevant. Certain promising applications of the porous burner of an embodiment include: water heaters, gas stoves, boilers, portable generators, turbine combustion chambers etc. (i.e., any kind application where internal combustion engines are relevant).

(43) While several embodiments of the invention have been discussed, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations of the present invention are possible. Such modifications do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present invention.