METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR INKJET PAINTING OF SURFACES, ESPECIALLY EXTERIOR AIRCRAFT SURFACES

Abstract

Methods and systems for painting surfaces (especially vehicle surfaces such as exterior aircraft surfaces) are provided whereby an applied basecoat layer may be treated with plasma (e.g., a non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma) or laser radiation so as to form a treated basecoat layer which exhibits a decreased contact angle and an increased wetting energy as compared to the contact angle and wetting energy of the basecoat layer which is untreated. At least one inkjet printed color layer may be applied onto the treated basecoat layer followed by the application of a clearcoat protective layer over the one or more inkjet printed color layers.

Claims

1. A method for painting a surface comprising: (a) applying a basecoat layer to the surface; (b) treating the basecoat layer using an end effector; (c) applying at least one inkjet printed color layer (CMYK+W) onto the basecoat treated according to step (b); and (d) applying a clearcoat layer over the one or more inkjet printed color layers.

2. The method according to claim 1, wherein step (b) is practiced by treating the basecoat layer with a plasma provided by the end effector.

3. The method according to claim 2, wherein step (b) is practiced by treating the basecoat layer with a non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma.

4. The method according to claim 3, wherein the non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma forms a plasma-treated basecoat layer which exhibits a decreased contact angle and an increased wetting energy as compared to the contact angle and wetting energy of the basecoat layer which is untreated by the plasma.

5. The method according to claim 1, wherein step (b) is practiced by treating the basecoat layer with laser radiation provided by the end effector.

6. The method according to claim 1, wherein step (b) is practiced by treating the basecoat layer with a green-light laser having a wavelength of about 532 nm, an ultraviolet laser having a wavelength of about 10 to 400 nm or a CO2 laser having a wavelength of about 10.6 ?m.

7. The method according to claim 1, wherein step (c) is practiced using an ultraviolet (UV) curable inkjet printable paint.

8. The method according to claim 7, wherein step (c) comprises the steps of simultaneously applying the UV curable inkjet printable paint by inkjet printing and subjecting the UV curable inkjet printable paint to UV light to at least partially cure the inkjet printable paint and form the at least one inkjet printed color layer.

9. A method for painting an exterior surface of a vehicle which comprises the steps of: (a) applying a basecoat layer onto the exterior surface of the vehicle; (b) positioning a robotic assembly comprising an end effector which includes a plasma applicator, one or more inkjet printheads and an ultraviolet (UV) light system adjacent to the basecoat layer applied to the exterior surface of the vehicle; and (c) operating the robotic assembly so as to perform the steps of: (i) treating the basecoat layer with a plasma by operating the plasma applicator operably associated with the end effector thereof to generate a plasma directed toward the basecoat layer; (ii) applying at least one color layer onto the plasma treated basecoat layer by inkjet printing an ultraviolet (UV) light curable inkjet printable paint by operating the one or more inkjet printheads operably associated with the end effector of the robotic assembly; and (iii) exposing the at least one color layer to UV light by operating the UV light system operably associated with the end effector of the robotic assembly to at least partially cure the inkjet printable paint forming the at least one color layer.

10. The method according to claim 9, wherein steps (c)(ii) and (c)(iii) are practiced simultaneously.

11. The method according to claim 9, wherein step (c)(i) is practiced by treating the basecoat layer with a non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma.

12. The method according to claim 9, wherein step (a) is practiced by applying the basecoat layer using a second robotic assembly.

13. The method according to claim 9, wherein step (b) is practiced by the steps of: (b1) mounting the robotic assembly onto an automated guided vehicle (AGV); and (b2) operating the robotic assembly and moving the AGV so as to perform steps (c)(i)-(c)(iii) until the exterior surface of the vehicle is painted.

14. The method according to claim 9, wherein the vehicle is an aircraft.

15. An automated system for painting an exterior surface of a vehicle which comprises: a robotic coating assembly for applying a base coat to a surface of the vehicle; a color-printing robotic assembly having an end effector which includes a plasma applicator, one or more inkjet printheads and an ultraviolet (UV) light system; and a controller operably connected to the robotic coating assembly and the color-printing robotic assembly to cause: (i) the robotic coating assembly to apply a basecoat layer onto the exterior surface of the vehicle; (ii) the plasma applicator assembly operably associated with the end effector of the color-printing robotic assembly to treat the basecoat layer with a plasma generated by the plasma applicator assembly; (iii) at least one color layer to be applied onto the plasma treated basecoat layer by inkjet printing of an ultraviolet (UV) light curable inkjet printable paint through operation of the one or more inkjet printheads operably associated with the end effector of the robotic assembly; and (iv) the at least one color layer to be exposed to UV light by operating the UV light system operably associated with the end effector of the robotic assembly to at least partially cure the inkjet printable paint forming the at least one color layer.

16. The automated system according to claim 15, which further comprises an automated guided vehicle (AGV) operably connected to the controller, wherein at least the color-printing robotic assembly is mounted to and carried by the AGV.

17. The automated system according to claim 15, further comprising: a painting booth for housing the vehicle, wherein at least one rectilinear track adjacent to the exterior surface of the vehicle, and carriages operably mounted to the rectilinear track, wherein each of the robotic coating assembly and the color-printing robotic assembly is mounted to a respective one of the carriages for rectilinear movements adjacent to the exterior surface of the vehicle.

18. The automated system according to claim 15, wherein the robotic coating assembly comprises a rotatable bell applicator nozzle system.

19. The automated system according to claim 15, wherein the vehicle is an aircraft.

20. The automated system according to claim 19, wherein the exterior surface of the aircraft vehicle is an exterior fuselage surface of the aircraft.

21. An end effector for a robotic assembly comprising: a plasma applicator to generate a plasma and treat and adjacent surface, one or more inkjet printheads for application of an ultraviolet (UV) curable inkjet printable paint onto the adjacent surface; and a UV light system operable so as to cure the inkjet printable paint applied by the one or more inkjet printheads.

22. An anthropomorphic robotic assembly which includes the end effector according to claim 21.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ACCOMPANYING DRAWINGS

[0028] The disclosed embodiments of the present invention will be better and more completely understood by referring to the following detailed description of exemplary non-limiting illustrative embodiments in conjunction with the drawings of which:

[0029] FIG. 1 is a flow chart that is representative of an embodiment of a general method for surface application of inkjet printed coatings in accordance with the present invention;

[0030] FIG. 2 is a perspective view of one embodiment for painting exterior surfaces of an aircraft utilizing a robotic assembly moveable relative to such exterior surfaces via an automated guided vehicle (AGV);

[0031] FIG. 3 is an enlarged perspective view of the robotic assembly embodiment shown in FIG. 2 positioned adjacent to a section of the aircraft fuselage;

[0032] FIG. 4 is an enlarged partial perspective view of the robotic assembly employed in the embodiment of FIG. 2 and the end-effector thereof;

[0033] FIG. 4A is a schematic diagram of the ink tank system that may be employed in operative association with the inkjet printhead of the end-effector;

[0034] FIG. 5 schematically depicts the movement of the end-effector relative to the surface of the substrate being painted;

[0035] FIG. 6A is a schematic view of a paint layer configuration that may be applied onto the substrate surface by the end-effector shown in FIG. 4;

[0036] FIG. 6B is an enlarged schematic view showing a non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma modification of the inkjet printed layers;

[0037] FIG. 7 is an enlarged perspective view of an exemplary bell nozzle applicator system;

[0038] FIG. 8 is an illustration of another embodiment of an automated system in accordance with the invention showing a top plan view of an aircraft within a paint application booth having multiple robotic assemblies fixed to a longitudinally aligned track system for reciprocal movements relative to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft fuselage;

[0039] FIG. 9 is a perspective view of the application booth and robotic assemblies employed with the embodiment shown in FIG. 8;

[0040] FIG. 10 is a perspective view of an exemplary robotic assembly that may be employed with the embodiment shown in FIG. 8; and

[0041] FIG. 11 is a flow chart of the processing that may be accomplished using the system shown in FIG. 8.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

[0042] The general objective of the embodiments described herein is to present an inkjet painting method and system that can be applied in various sectors of industry, such as the automotive industry and the aeronautical industry. Such a method is schematically depicted in FIG. 1 as comprising the following steps: [0043] Step 1: a surface preparation step is conducted whereby the surface of the substrate may be washed and/or decontaminated, [0044] Step 2: an epoxy primer/polyurethane resin (PUR) basecoat painting step is conducted whereby an epoxy primer layer is applied onto the substrate surface followed by the application of a PUR basecoat layer onto the primer layer, [0045] Step 3: a painting surface treatment step is accomplished by subjecting the basecoat layer to plasma or laser treatments, [0046] Step 4: an UV inspection step is conducted whereby the treated painting surface is checked for deficiencies by UV radiation; [0047] Step 5: an inkjet printing step is conducted whereby one or more layers of inkjet printed paint is applied onto the surface treated base coat and allowed to cure (e.g., by subjecting the inkjet printed paint to UV radiation); and [0048] Step 6: a clearcoat application step is conducted which applies a clearcoat layer over the inkjet printed and cured layer(s).

[0049] An exemplary non-limiting embodiment of the invention described herein is a painting system that provides a final finishing according to aeronautical quality standards. For this purpose, an ultraviolet inkjet ink technology is employed together with a polyurethane painting system compatible with such ink to provide the quality of an aircraft final finishing. To guarantee the proper adhesion of the layers, a novel plasma treatment system is employed as will be described hereinbelow. The innovative process and systems employed in the embodiments of the invention as described further herein enable the automated painting of an aircraft's external surfaces, including an aircraft's fuselage, vertical stabilizer and/or rudder, in a single booth capable of performing all the steps for the painting, i.e., all the operations are performed in a single location and are completely automated.

[0050] The technology to treat the basecoat to modify the surface is most preferably a non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma, that can use air, nitrogen, oxygen, argon and/or helium as the plasma gas. Also, the use of laser technology is envisioned to treat the surface of the basecoat. For example, green-light lasers having a typical wavelength of about 532 nm, ultraviolet lasers having a typical wavelength of about 10 to 400 nm and CO2 lasers having a typical wavelength of about 10.6 micrometers (?m) may satisfactorily be employed.

[0051] As is shown in FIG. 2, an exemplary color printing robotic assembly 10 is employed which is mounted on and carried by the AGV 12 so as to be capable of being moved about the exterior of the aircraft fuselage AF to allow the exterior surfaces thereof to be painted with the desired logo and/or livery of the aircraft customer. A guided system or bumper 10a may be used for the movement of the AGV 12 close to the aircraft fuselage AF to avoid any collision. When the bumper 10a is employed, the AGV 12 may then be considered to be a rail guided vehicle RGV.

[0052] The robotic assembly 10 includes a platform 20 that is operatively coupled to the pedestal 22 for reciprocal vertical movements along the z-axis defined by the pedestal 22. The platform 20 carries a robotic swivel base assembly 24 operatively connected to a proximal end of the upper arm assembly 26 to allow pivotal movements therebetween. The distal end of the upper arm assembly 26 is in turn pivotally connected to the proximal end of the forearm assembly 28. A wrist assembly 28-1 is rotatably provided at the terminal end of the forearm assembly 28 and is connected to the end effector 30. One robotic assembly 10 that may suitably be employed in the practice of the embodiments disclosed herein is described more fully in U.S. Pat. No. 11,534,885 (the entire contents of which are expressly incorporated hereinto by reference).

[0053] The end effector 30 is especially adapted to accomplish the functions to be described in greater detail below. In especially preferred embodiments, the end effector 30 will be provided with an atmospheric pressure plasma applicator 32, one or more inkjet printheads 34, an ultraviolet (UV) light system 36 and a combined proximity sensor/video system 38. The non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma applicator 32 provides chemical and physical surface modification (oxidation and chain molecule decay and torsion) by penetrating deep into the pre-applied polyurethane resin (PUR) basecoat layer so as to reduce the contact angle of the inkjet printed paint applied thereon and increase the wetting energy, ensuring proper adhesion for inkjet ink pickup. The plasma generated by the applicator 32 preferably is formed by a sufficiently high pulsed voltage capable of breaking the electrical air constant and creating ionized compressed air.

[0054] The end effector 30 is also provided with one or more inkjet printheads 34 which function to inkjet print the ink paint according to a predetermined software design stored in the controller memory. In operation, the inkjet printhead 34 will receive the ink from the ink tanks 16-1, 16-2 located at the base 24 of the robotic assembly 10 or carried by the end-effector 30, respectively. As is schematically shown in FIG. 4A, the ink tank system 16-1 mounted on the robot base 24 and/or the ink tank system 16-2 carried by the end-effector 30 will typically contain the primary ink colors of cyan (C), magenta (M), yellow (Y), black (K) and white (W) for the application of specialized colors required for the livery application to the aircraft fuselage AF surface. According to the embodiments disclosed herein, the CMYK ink color system uses a subtractive process to create colors. The background (or canvas) is white color. When printing on a colored background other than white, the colors produced by the CMYK inks can be affected. In such cases, the white ink color is used together with CMYK system printing application.

[0055] The end effector 30 is also provided with an ultraviolet (UV) system 36 which provides the UV curing radiation simultaneously with the application of the inkjet paint via the printhead 34. The UV curing by the UV system 36 will preferably achieve about 80 to 90% of the total cure for the inkjet printed coatings applied by the printhead 34.

[0056] An operator input/control console 40a may be provided to allow an operator to visually follow the operations of the robotic assembly 10 and AGV 12 via the video system 38 (see FIG. 4). The operator control console 40a may suitably include a touch screen display that allows an operator to interact with a processor therein and thus control the robotic assembly 10 and AGV via signal outputs from an interfaced controller 40b. The touch screen display suitably presents graphical user interface components (not shown) for allowing the user to, for example, control the systems associated with the end effector 30; control the location of the robotic assembly 10 and its associated AGV 12 relative to the aircraft fuselage AF surface; control the action of the robotic assembly 10 and AGV 12, e.g., select an automated process, send the robotic assembly 10 and AGV 12 to a safe pause position, control and vie the speed of the robotic assembly 10 and/or AGV 12; and/or check the real time status of the process.

[0057] As is shown in FIG. 5, the application process using the end-effector 30 is performed in a substantially horizontal line-by-line (pixelated) application technique by following the substrate surface (e.g., the aircraft fuselage AF) while maintaining the proper separation distance from the surface. The proper separation distance from the surface is achieved by virtue of the proximity sensors 38 communicating with the controller 40b which responsively controls the robotic assembly 10 and/or the AGV 12 so as to adjust the distance between the surface and the effector 30.

[0058] The coating on the aircraft surface AF is schematically shown in FIG. 6A as being comprised of an initial epoxy primer layer 40 (having a typical thickness of between about 12 to about 25 ?m), and a polyurethane resin (PUR) basecoat layer 42 (having a typical thickness of between about 50 to about 65 ?m) applied on top of the primer layer 40. An inkjet printed colored paint layer 44 is then applied over the PUR basecoat layer 42 via the inkjet printhead 34 associated with the end effector 30. The inkjet printhead 34 has the ability to print in the color layer 44 all of the required color in only one pass. As noted previously, when printing on a colored background other than white, the colors produced by the CMYK inks can be affected. In such cases, the white ink color is used together with the CMYK ink system for printing the layer 44.

[0059] Once all of the inkjet printed color layers 44 are applied (as will be described in greater detail below with reference to FIG. 6A), a clearcoat layer 46 (having a typical thickness of between about 50 to about 65 ?m) will be applied so as to cover the inkjet printed color layers 44. The embodiments of the present invention involve modifying the base coat layer 42 and the inkjet printed color layers 44 such that the latter are present as a color layer between the polyurethane basecoat layer 42 and the clearcoat layer 46. In such a manner, therefore, the basecoat layer 42 will serve as the base for the color layer formed of the inkjet printed color layers 44 while the clearcoat layer 46 provides protection against environmental effects, ultraviolet effects and the like.

[0060] A bell nozzle system 34a (see FIG. 7) may be associated with a robotic coating assembly (schematically identified in FIG. 7 by reference numeral 50) associated with a separate AGV 52 to apply the epoxy primer layer 40, the polyurethane resin (PUR) basecoat layer 42 and the clearcoat layer 46 (see FIG. 6A). The bell nozzle system 34a may for example be capable of high-speed rotation (e.g., at about 80,000 RPM) so as to atomize and break up the polyurethane (PUR) paint to obtain a very smooth coat and reduce overspray during painting. The paints are loaded into one suitable tanks 50a located at the base of the robotic coating assembly 50 and/or carried by the AGV 52. After the application of the last coat, new fresh paint is loaded into the tanks 50a to maintain proper paint viscosity.

[0061] As is shown in the enlarged schematic view of FIG. 6B, the basecoat layer 42 is preferably subjected to a nonthermal (cold) atmospheric pressure plasma via the plasma applicator 32 associated with the end effector 30. The plasma treatment of the base coat 42 has the function to substantially increase the wetting energy of the basecoat layer 42, e.g., from about 25-35 mN/m to about 55-65 mN/m. Such an increased wetting energy thereby allows for the proper adhesion of the inkjet printed color layer 44 to the basecoat layer 42 thereby resulting in a resistant bond between the PUR basecoat layer 42 and the inkjet printed paint layers 44.

[0062] Following the surface treatment of the PUR basecoat layer 42 with atmospheric pressure non-thermal (cold) plasma applied via the plasma applicator 32 associated with the end effector 30, the inkjet printed paint layer 44 (which is formed from UV curable inkjet printable paint) is at least partially cured (polymerized) by irradiation with ultraviolet (UV) light from the UV system 36 associated with the end effector 30. In preferred forms, the plasma treatment of the surface of the basecoat 42, the application of the inkjet printed color layer(s) 44 and the application of UV light to such layer(s) 44 for the purpose of at least partially curing (polymerizing) the same are preformed sequentially by repeated sequential tracing of a path as shown in FIG. 6. However, the application of the inkjet printed color layer(s) 44 and the application of UV light to such layer(s) 44 for the purpose of at least partially curing (polymerizing) the same may be performed substantially simultaneously after the basecoat layer 42 has been treated with the nonthermal plasma.

[0063] The procedures noted above may also be performed utilizing a laser treatment of the basecoat layer 42, e.g., green-light lasers having a typical wavelength of about 532 nm and/or ultraviolet lasers having a typical wavelength of about 10 to about 400 nm and/or CO2 lasers having a typical wavelength of about 10.6 micrometers (?m) may satisfactorily be employed instead of the nonthermal atmospheric pressure plasma. Suffice it to say if laser treatment is employed then the plasma applicator 32 associated with the end effector 30 is replaced with a suitable laser light projecting system.

[0064] A fully automated process according to another embodiment of the invention is shown in FIGS. 8-10. As shown, the process may be performed in an elongated painting booth 100 which is sized and configured to accept therewithin the aircraft fuselage AF. The painting booth 100 will include pairs of the anthropomorphic first and second robotic assemblies 10, 50 as previously described which are respectively mounted to similar carriages 101 (see FIG. 9) operatively moveable on parallel rails 102 and 104 positioned on the port and starboard sides of the aircraft fuselage AF, respectively. As such, each of the robotic assemblies 10, 50 is capable of being rectilinearly traversed back and forth along the respective port and starboard sides of the aircraft fuselage AF.

[0065] To increase paint transfer efficiency, the aircraft fuselage AF is grounded and the second robotic assemblies 50 use the bell system 34a as shown in FIG. 7 rotating at about 80,000 RPM, to atomize and break up the polyurethane (PUR) paint to obtain a very smooth basecoat layer 42 over a previously applied epoxy primer layer 40 thereby reducing overspray during painting and then used to paint the clear coat 46 over the inkjet layer.

[0066] The movement of the robotic assemblies 10, 50 may be choreographed by the computer-controlled software stored in the computer control station 110a which communicates with the controller 110b so as to reach all external surface regions of the aircraft fuselage AF positioned within the painting booth 100 (FIG. 8). Specifically, the robotic assemblies 10, 50 are operably responsive to command signals generated by preprogrammed offline software stored in a non-volatile memory of a computer control station 110a operatively connected to the controller 110b. The computer control station 110a is thus capable of generating all paths and data for operation of the robotic assemblies 10, 50 using a 3D model of the aircraft fuselage AF based on operator input. In this way all planning and operation of the robotic assemblies 10, 50 may be defined in an offline 3D environment that allows for improvement in each step of the process.

[0067] The control station 110a will suitably include a touch screen display that allows a user to interact with a processor therein and thus control the robots. The touch screen display suitably presents graphical user interface components (not shown) which by way of example allow the user to: [0068] a) Control the application system; [0069] b) Control location of the robot base on the track; [0070] c) Control the action of the robots; select an automated process; send the robot to a safe pause position; control & view the speed of the robots; and control & view robot pressure; [0071] d) Check the real time status of the process; [0072] e) Check the status of the alarm fences; and [0073] f) Provide a safety fence which surrounds the work booth, i.e., by providing sensors at each door of the safety fence, for detecting intrusion into the work booth. If any of the sensors detect human intrusion, a shut-off signal is sent directly to the robot controller and the system stops immediately.

[0074] A more detailed exemplary flow chart sequence of the processing steps in accordance with the embodiment of the automated system depicted in FIGS. 8-10 is shown in accompanying FIG. 11. Specifically, as shown such an automated system may include the following steps.

[0075] The aircraft fuselage AF (or any other part to be painted) is initially moved in step 200 (FIG. 11) into the painting booth 100. Thereafter in step 210, the vision system 38 associated with the robotic assemblies 10, 50 performs positional correction of the fuselage AF within the interior space of the painting booth 100 which automatically generates the offsets of the offline programming paths, i.e., the variation of the fuselage AF in all directions roll, pitch and yaw which are properly modified to avoid any collision with the robotic assemblies 10, 50. If the location of the aircraft fuselage AF is out of the tolerance, it is then relocated by step 220 within the painting booth 100 with the vision system 38 being operated again until the confirmation is obtained that the aircraft fuselage AF is properly positioned.

[0076] Once the aircraft fuselage AF is properly positioned within the painting booth 100, a solvent-based epoxy primer paint is applied in step 230 using the bell system 34a associated with the robotics assembly 50. The application of the primer paint creates a primer paint layer 40 which covers the entire surface of the fuselage AF and provides a very smooth layer. Solvent flash-off begins as soon as the primer paint is applied. Thereafter, the primer paint may be fully cured by heating the interior of the painting booth 100.

[0077] A solvent based polyurethane resin (PUR) base paint is applied by the bell system 34a of the robotics assembly 50 in step 240 so as to cover the entire surface of the previously applied primer layer 40 and thereby provide a smooth basecoat layer 42 for accepting the inkjet printed paint layer 44. Solvent flash-off begins as soon as the primer paint is applied. Thereafter, the primer paint may be fully cured by heating the interior of the painting booth 100.

[0078] The vision image data collected by the controller 110b e.g., via the proximity sensor/video system 38 associated with the robotic assembly 10, may be transferred to the end effector 30 so allow the robotic assembly 10 to perform the surface treatment of the basecoat layer 42 using e.g., non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma emitted by the plasma applicator 32. The plasma treated surface of the basecoat layer 42 will thereby enable the application via inkjet printing of the prestored logo or livery according to the customer's specification and thus provides a surface with the proper wettability energy to receive the inkjet printed paint to form the layer(s) 44.

[0079] If the automated system fails during the plasma application a black light (UVA) flashlight may be used in step 260 to inspect if the plasma application was applied correctly on the surface of the basecoat layer 42. The black light may be provided as a component part of the end-effector 30 or may be a portable hand-held unit which an operator may use.

[0080] If the plasma application is determined to be acceptable after the UVA inspection, the process then proceed to the next step 280 whereby the inkjet printing application of a UV curable inkjet paint is carried out through the inkjet printhead 34 of the inkjet system located in the end effector 30. Manipulation of the end effector 30 mounted on the robotic assembly 10 thereby enables the application of the logo and color livery according to the customer's specifications. Curing of the inkjet paint may be carried out simultaneously by operation of the UV system 36 operably associated with the end effector 30 of the robotic assembly 10. The proximity sensor/video system 38 associated with the robotic assembly 10 is on the end effector 30 to maintain a precise distance between the inkjet printhead 34 and the surface of the basecoat layer 42 or previously applied inkjet layer 44.

[0081] A solvent based clearcoat paint may then be applied in step 290 using the bell system 34a associated with the robotic assemblies 50 so as to cover the entire surface of the painted aircraft fuselage to form the clearcoat layer 46 and thereby provide a gloss layer and protection for the inkjet printed color layer(s) 44 against ultraviolet radiation. Solvent flash-off of the clearcoat paint begins as soon as the paint is applied. Thereafter, the primer paint may be fully cured by heating the interior of the painting booth 100.

[0082] While reference has been made to particular embodiments of the invention, various modifications within the skill of those in the art may be envisioned. Therefore, it is to be understood that the invention is not to be limited to the disclosed embodiments, but on the contrary, is intended to cover various modifications and equivalent arrangements included within the spirit and scope thereof.