Centrifugation-assisted preparation of additive-free carbon-decorated magnetite electrodes

Abstract

Iron nanoparticles that are useful for constructing electrodes for lithium ion batteries and a method of making said particles is disclosed herein. The nanoparticles may include magnetite. The electrode may be constructed by centrifuging the nanoparticles to a current collector, such as a disc of copper, without the use of an extrinsic binder. The solvothermal method of making nanoparticles decreases the time of the procedure from about 24 hours to about 75 minutes. The method of making electrode decreases the complexity and number of steps compared to the conventional procedure to prepare an electrode, and eliminates the use of additives (binder and current enhancer) and toxic NMP solvents in the electrode preparation process.

Claims

1. An electrode for a lithium ion battery, the electrode comprising: a metal current collector having a first face and a second face opposite the first face; and a plurality of nanoparticles having a particulate form and comprising a composite of Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 and carbon, the nanoparticles being porous and having a substantially elliptical structure, the nanoparticles being bound directly to the first face of the metal current collector without a polymeric adhesive, the nanoparticles having a carbon content by weight of less than 4%, wherein the electrode has a specific capacity of at least about 750 mAh/g after about 240 charge-discharge cycles.

2. The electrode according to claim 1 wherein the nanoparticle has carbon dispersed through the nanoparticle.

3. The electrode according to claim 1, having a specific capacity of at least about 700 mAh/g when exposed to a current of about 1500 mA/g.

4. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the nanoparticle is about 300 to about 600 nanometers in length, and about 200 to about 400 nanometers in diameter.

5. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the carbon content by weight of the nanoparticle is less than 1%.

6. The electrode of claim 1, wherein -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 is not detected in the nanoparticle by x-ray diffraction.

7. The electrode of claim 1, wherein a length of the nanoparticle is greater than a diameter in a direction normal the length.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1A is a schematic representation of a step of a centrifugation-assisted process (CAP) for making an additive-free electrode;

(2) FIG. 1B is a schematic representation of another step of a centrifugation-assisted process for making an additive-free electrode;

(3) FIG. 1C is a schematic representation of another step of a centrifugation-assisted process for making an additive-free electrode;

(4) FIG. 1D is a view of the first faces of current collectors mentioned in the procedures of FIGS. 1A-1C;

(5) FIG. 1E is a view of the second faces opposite the first faces of the current collectors of FIG. 1D;

(6) FIG. 1F is a schematic representation of a centrifugation-assisted process for making an additive-free electrode;

(7) FIG. 2A is an x-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern characterizing an olive-like porous Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticle;

(8) FIG. 2B is a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) image of Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles;

(9) FIG. 2C is a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) image of Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles;

(10) FIG. 2D is a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) image of Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles;

(11) FIG. 2E is a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles;

(12) FIG. 2F is a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image of Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles;

(13) FIG. 2G is an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis of an olive-like Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticle;

(14) FIG. 3A is a FESEM image of porous Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure;

(15) FIG. 3B is a FESEM image of porous Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure;

(16) FIG. 3C is a FESEM image of porous Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure;

(17) FIG. 3D is a FESEM image of porous Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure;

(18) FIG. 3E is a FESEM image of porous Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure;

(19) FIG. 3F is a FESEM image of porous Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticles in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure;

(20) FIG. 4A is a schematic illustration of change in composition of nanoparticles between Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C to carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention;

(21) FIG. 4B is a schematic illustration of change in composition of nanoparticles between Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C to carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention;

(22) FIG. 5A is an XRD pattern characterizing a carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticle;

(23) FIG. 5B is a photograph of carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles with magnetic properties in a tube;

(24) FIG. 5C is a FESEM image of carbon-decorated porous Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure;

(25) FIG. 5D is a FESEM image of carbon-decorated porous Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure;

(26) FIG. 5E is a TEM image of carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure;

(27) FIG. 5F is a TEM image of carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles in accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure;

(28) FIG. 6A is a graphical representation of a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) profile of carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles in air to reveal the content of carbon and magnetite;

(29) FIG. 6B is an EDS analysis of carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles;

(30) FIG. 7A is a graphical representation of an electrochemical measure of the performance of an additive-free electrode including carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles formed by an additive-free centrifugation-assisted manufacturing process in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention;

(31) FIG. 7B is a graphical representation of another electrochemical measure of the performance of an additive-free electrode including carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles formed by an additive-free centrifugation-assisted manufacturing process in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention;

(32) FIG. 7C is a graphical representation of another electrochemical measure of the performance of an additive-free electrode including carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles formed by an additive-free centrifugation-assisted manufacturing process in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention;

(33) FIG. 7D is a graphical representation of another electrochemical measure of the performance of an additive-free electrode including carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles formed by an additive-free centrifugation-assisted manufacturing process in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention;

(34) FIG. 7E is a graphical representation of another electrochemical measure of the performance of an additive-free electrode including carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles formed by an additive-free centrifugation-assisted manufacturing process in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention;

(35) FIG. 8A is a graphical representation of an electrochemical measure of the performance of an electrode including carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles formed by a conventional manufacturing process with an inset image of said electrode;

(36) FIG. 8B is a graphical representation of another electrochemical measure of the performance of an electrode including carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles formed by a conventional manufacturing process;

(37) FIG. 8C is a graphical representation of another electrochemical measure of the performance of an electrode including carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles formed by a conventional manufacturing process;

(38) FIG. 9A is a graphical representation of an electrochemical measure of the performance of an additive-free electrode including -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon composite nanoparticles formed by a centrifugation-assisted manufacturing process in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention and an inset image of said electrode; and

(39) FIG. 9B is a graphical representation of another electrochemical measure of the performance of an additive-free electrode including -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon composite nanoparticles formed by a centrifugation-assisted manufacturing process in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS AND THE PRESENTLY PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

(40) As used herein with regard to a range, the term between is inclusive of the endpoints of said range, unless it is clear that the endpoints are excluded. For example, when an integer between 1 and 3 is recited, the integer may have a value of 1, or of 2, or of 3.

(41) As used herein, the terms substantially and about mean approximately but not necessarily equal to, and when used in the context of a numerical value or range set forth means a variation of 20%, or less, of the numerical value. For example, a value differing by 20%, 15%, 10%, or 5%, or any value in the range between 20% and +20%, would satisfy the definition of substantially or about.

(42) In one embodiment, the present disclosure provides a procedure to prepare porous olive-like carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 based additive-free electrodes with improved electrochemical performances. The porous Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C nanoparticle with olive-like particles obtained via ultrafast (about 75 minutes) one-pot synthesis was constructed by aggregation of short nanorods with a length of about 18 nm and a width of about 8 nm.

(43) A centrifugation-assisted deposition (CAD) method was developed to prepare additive-free carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 where active materials were directly prepared on the current collector. In other words, once the synthesis of active materials finished, the electrodes were ready. No binder, conductivity enhancer or solvent was employed. The electrodes can be directly assembled into cells without any post-synthesis processing. In contrast, traditional electrode preparation involves multiple steps of slurry preparation (mixing), roll-coating, compressing, drying in a vacuum, and additives (for example, polyvinylidene fluoride PVDF binder, carbon black conductivity enhancer, and N-methylpyrrolidone NMP solvent) are employed in the process, in addition to the conventional procedures to prepare the active electrode materials. The as-prepared additive-free porous carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 based electrodes exhibited superior electrochemical performances in LIBs. A specific capacity of over about 750 mA h g.sup.1, particularly about 800 mA h g.sup.1 could be maintained for at least 240 cycles with minimum capacity fading. Moreover, it exhibited excellent rate performance: specific capacities of 761, 752, and 727 mA h g.sup.1 were achieved at high currents of 500, 1000 and 1500 mA g.sup.1, respectively. The results suggest that the additive-free carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 based electrode obtained by CAD can be potentially used in high-rate LIBs.

(44) Disclosed herein is a facile procedure to prepare a novel additive-free carbon-decorated magnetite (Fe.sub.3O.sub.4) electrode with unique nanostructure, inclusive of a substantially ellipsoid or olive-like structure, for application in next-generation high-energy lithium-ion batteries. It includes an ultrafast solvothermal process to prepare a composite of porous -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 and carbon with a unique olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) nanostructure formed by aggregations of orderly aligned nanorods as building subunits as the precursor; a novel facile centrifugation-assisted preparation of additive-free electrode; in situ carbothermic partial reduction of -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 to carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 as additive-free electrode by a heating (or sintering, or calcination) process in argon; and superior performances in lithium storage for advanced lithium-ion batteries have been successfully demonstrated.

(45) A fast solvothermal method allows for preparation of porous -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon composite with unique olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) structures formed by aggregation of orderly-aligned nanorods. The -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanocomposite can be prepared in a water/alcohol mixture in a reaction time of only 75 minutes, instead of more than 24 hours which is normally used in solvothermal/hydrothermal synthesis widely reported in literature. The as-prepared porous -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanomaterials can be directly coated on a current collector, such as a metal, in particular a copper disc.

(46) A simple and fast centrifugation-assisted method (CAM) allows for preparation of additive-free electrodes used for lithium ion batteries. The additive-free -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon electrode can be simply prepared in 5 min by centrifuging copper disc current collector in ethanol solution of -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanomaterials. The as-prepared porous -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanomaterials can be selectively uniformly coated on one side of the copper disc current collector directly by the centrifugation of copper disc in ethanol solution of -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanomaterials, without any additives (e.g. PVDF binder, carbon black conductivity enhancer and NMP solvent). This represents a contrast to conventional electrode preparation. The existing traditional technology to prepare electrode involves multiple steps, including slurry preparation, coating, compressing, and drying in vacuum. Also, additives are used to prepare the traditional electrode. Organic polymer additive used as binder is mixed with conductive carbon black additive as conductive enhancer in toxic NMP solvent to coat the as-prepared active material on current collector.

(47) The in situ carbothermic partial reduction of -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon additive-free electrode to carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 additive-free electrode is achieved by heating (or calcining, or sintering) -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon additive-free electrode in argon in tube furnace. The -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon electrode can be selectively reduced to carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 electrode by a simple heating (or sintering, or calcination) process with the coating of materials firmly attached on the copper current collector.

(48) The additive-free carbon-decorated magnetite electrodes have superior electrochemical performance when compared to those made by conventional methods. The specific capacity can be maintained at about greater than 750 mAh g.sup.1, or about 800 mAh g.sup.1, after more than 240 cycles at current of 100 mA g.sup.1. Further, no significant capacity drop is observed when the electrode is charged/discharged at a much higher current of about 1500 mA g1 (or about 730 mA h g.sup.1). As compared to the graphitic carbon anode materials in commercial LIBs which have theoretical specific capacity of 372 mA h g.sup.1, a huge improvement in electrochemical performance is realized with these electrodes. The magnetite nanoparticles may be porous nanoparticles.

(49) The ultrafast solvothermal method allows for preparation of -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanomaterials in a water-alcohol system. Even though the solvothermal methods are widely applied to prepare nanomaterials, a relatively long reaction time (e.g. 24 hours or longer) is always required to obtain the materials. Here the preparation can be achieved in only about 75 minutes, which shorten the time of preparation significantly. This solvothermal process was used here to prepare active materials in a short time, which is more desirable in industry production; prepare -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanomaterials, precursors of carbon-decorated magnetite, which can be directly coated on copper current collector and is essential to prepare the additive-free electrode

(50) Contrarily, in a conventional electrode preparation, four steps are required to prepare additive-contained electrode, including (1) weighing and mixing of active materials and additives (e.g., PVDF binder, carbon black conductivity enhancer and NMP solvent), and preparation of slurry through grinding the mixture, (2) coating, (3) compressing and (4) drying processes. The polymer binder polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is an adhesive and traditionally used as binder to coat active materials on current collector. However, a relatively long period and vacuum is required to dry the binder-contained electrode, normally more than 12 hours at 120 C. in vacuum, due to the high boiling point of NMP solvent (202-204 C.). In the process to prepare additive-free carbon-decorated magnetite electrode, only two steps are required, including a centrifugation step to deposit of -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanomaterials on current collector and a heating (or sintering, or calcination) step to convert -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon to carbon-decorated magnetite. The centrifugation and heating (or sintering, or calcination) processes take 5 minutes and 220 minutes, respectively. No additives are required, so vacuum conditions and drying time of 12 or more hours is not required, which simplifies industrial production and saves money.

(51) The in situ carbothermic partial reduction of -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon additive-free electrode to carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 additive free electrode through a heating (or sintering, or calcination) process in argon: -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon additive-free electrodes can be selectively reduced to carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 electrode by a simple heating (or calcination, or sintering) process in argon, while the copper discs as current collector are stable and inert in the reaction to convert -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 to Fe.sub.3O.sub.4. The carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 was firmly and uniformly attached on copper current collector to form additive-free electrode and a superior cycling performance and rate performance were achieved in LIBs.

(52) The present disclosure provides for preparation of suitable nanostructured carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 for LIB applications, simplified electrode preparation technology, shortened electrode preparation time, and excellent electrochemical performances in lithium ion batteries.

(53) The procedure to prepare additive-free carbon-decorated magnetite based electrodes, including active materials preparation and electrode preparation, could find applications in lithium ion batteries for energy storage. Making electrodes for lithium ion batteries will in turn proceed at lower cost. Fabrication is simplified and superior electrochemical performances are realized. These materials can be used as anode materials for lithium ion batteries and achieve superior performance at reduced cost.

(54) It is rarely reported that the power materials can be directly and uniformly coated on current collector. Here, the ultrafast solvothermal method is used to prepare -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticle, which is in turn used to prepare the additive-free electrode. These -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticles can be easily coated on copper current collector through centrifugation.

(55) Porous nanostructured olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 (Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C) was prepared via in situ carbothermal treatment of the porous olive-like composite of -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon. The precursor porous olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticles are prepared through an ultrafast (75 minutes) one-pot solvothermal method. The porous olive-like Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C nanostructures are formed by joined (interconnected) nanorods, and its precursor -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanostructures, are formed by aggregation of orderly-aligned nanorods as building subunits. The successful conversion from -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon to Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C by in situ carbothermic partial reduction is evidenced by extensive characterization, as shown in the drawings and in the description below.

(56) The porous olive-like -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticles dispersed in ethanol are coated on Cu current collectors by centrifugation-assisted deposition (CAD) directly without any additives employed and subsequently heated to convert to a Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C coated current collector, such as a copper disc, which can be used as an electrode without any further processing. In contrast, traditional electrode preparation involves multiple steps of slurry preparation, coating, compressing, drying in a vacuum and additives (e.g., PVDF binder, carbon black conductivity enhancer and NMP solvent) are employed in the process.

(57) The as-prepared additive-free, porous, Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C based electrode constructed from nanoparticles having both iron and carbon within the nanoparticle exhibited superior electrochemical performances in lithium storage. Excellent cycling performance was achieved with a specific capacity at >800 mA h g.sup.1 for at least 240 cycles. Impressive rate performance was accomplished when tested under different currents: no significant capacity drop was observed when current was increased from 100 mA g.sup.1 to 1500 mA g.sup.1 and a specific capacity of 730 mA h g.sup.1 could be maintained at current of 1500 mA g.sup.1. The electrode in this embodiment did not include a magnetite nanoparticle that was coated with carbon, but rather a nanoparticle that contained both magnetite and carbon in a single particle.

(58) In a typical synthesis, an iron source is combined with a carbon source in an aqueous solution to define an iron-carbon solution. In one embodiment, about 0.4 mmol of FeCl.sub.3.6H.sub.2O and about 0.4 mmol of D-glucose were fully dissolved in 16 ml of deionized water. Many different iron compounds may be used, as may many different carbon sources. Particularly useful are iron halides, such as iron fluorides, iron chlorides, iron bromides, and so forth.

(59) Continuing with the exemplary embodiment, a porosity-increasing and structure-controlling compound is added. Without such a compound, the structure of the nanoparticle is solid, and has a different morphology (that is, the particle is no longer olive-like in structure.) In one embodiment, the porosity-increasing compound may be an anion or provide anions to the mixture. In one embodiment, the anion has a charge of 2. In one embodiment, the porosity-increasing compound is dimethyl oxalate. In the exemplary embodiment, about 0.4 mmol of dimethyl oxalate was fully dissolved in about 16 milliliters (ml) of 1-propanol. The former solution was added drop by drop to the later solution. The mixture was stirred for about 15 minutes, and then transferred into a 45 ml Teflon-lined autoclave and heated at 200 C. for about 75 minutes. Further variations may be used, such as a heating temperature range of about 160 C. to about 225 C., and a time of about 45 minutes to about 120 minutes. The solid products are collected and washed repeatedly with water and ethanol, and dried at about 80 C. in a vacuum oven overnight. This gives rise to a collection of olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) iron-carbon nanoparticles.

(60) The process of generating an electrode using said nanoparticles is illustrated in FIG. 1F, and in FIGS. 1A-1B. In one embodiment, a calculated amount of olive-like Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C powders is dispersed into about 5 ml of ethanol in a 50 ml centrifuge tube under ultrasonication to achieve a highly homogeneous suspension. A current collector, such as for example a piece of clean copper disc typically used as a current collector, is placed into the centrifuge tube and was centrifuged together with the mixture solution at about 6000 rpm for about 5 min. The olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticles were deposited by centrifugal force and coated firmly on only one side of the copper disc (see for example FIG. 1D, middle image). Centrifuging in this manner selectively coats a single face of the current collector (see FIG. 1E) which is a desirable outcome. The olive-like Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon coated copper disc is dried in a vacuum oven at 80 C. overnight, which could be further modified to a significantly shorter time due to the easy evaporation of ethanol solvent. To prepare an olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 based electrode, the coated copper disc was heated (or sintered, or calcined) in a tube furnace at a heating rate of about 6 C. per minute to a final temperature of about 600 C. and maintained at a predetermined sintering temperature for a predetermined time of about 2 hours under argon (see FIG. 1C, FIG. 4A-4B).

(61) Particles made according to the above protocol and generally in accordance with the principles of the present disclosure stick to a wide variety of surfaces: metals, glass, plastics, and so forth. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, this intrinsic stickiness may be due to functional groups on the carbons or the iron of the nanoparticle, or from decomposition of glucose, or the nanostructure that makes up the particle. Theory notwithstanding, this property of the composition is notable, as it allows for binding between the nanoparticle and the current collector with no binder, and no additive. Stated another way, the electrode is made by direct binding (or attachment) of the nanoparticle to a face of a current collector. This direct binding is made possible by properties particular to the nanoparticles disclosed herein, and is distinct from protocols and assemblies wherein a binder is used to affix nanoparticles to a surface. The elimination of binder can allow for a greater quantity, in some embodiments as measured by surface area, in other embodiments as measured by volume, of the active material which is made up of nanoparticles, rather than some of this surface area or volume being occupied by the binder or another additive.

(62) Without being bound by any theory, a porous nanoparticle, rather than a solid nanoparticle, may have certain advantages. For instance, the porosity may increase infiltration of the electrolyte of a LIB into the electrode, providing greater interaction between these two components.

(63) Furthermore, nanoparticles formed in this way constitute a type of nanoparticle which has both carbon and iron present at its surface. This stands in contrast to other types of nanoparticles which may be made of an iron-containing compound and which are coated with a layer of a carbon-containing compound after formation of the iron-based nanoparticle. As will be described below, these noncoated iron-carbon nanoparticles can be used in the construction of electrodes which have advantageous properties.

(64) Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) was carried out with a Rigaku Smartlab X-ray diffractometer using Cu K.sup. radiation (=0.15418 nm). The morphology of the materials was characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (JSM-7600 FE SEM, with an accelerating voltage of 15 kV) and by trans-mission electron microscopy (JEOL 2010 TEM instrument, with an accelerating voltage of 200 kV). See FIG. 2A. The energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was measured using Pegasus Apex 2 integrated EDS. See FIG. 2G. Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out with SDT Q600 (TA Instruments) under a dynamic air atmosphere with a ramping rate of 10 C. min.sup.1 to 900 C. See FIG. 6A, which shows TGA results of olive-like carbon-coated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 in air.

(65) The additive-free electrodes of olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 coated on a copper disc as obtained by CAP were assembled into testing cells directly. Electrochemical test cells were assembled in an argon-filled glove box using the additive-free electrode as the working electrode, metallic lithium foil as the counter and reference electrode, 1 Molar (M) solution of LiPF.sub.6 in a 50:50 v/v mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC) as the electrolyte, and PP/PE/PP trilayer membranes (Celgard 2320) as the separator. The cells were charged and discharged galvanostatically at room temperature in the voltage window of 0.01-3 V at different currents on a MTI BST8-WA battery tester.

(66) The overall preparation process of porous olive-like -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticles as precursors was achieved by 75 min of solvothermal reaction, in one embodiment in a sealed Teflon reactor in stainless steel autoclave. The as-obtained products are shown in FIGS. 2B and 2C. Porous olive-like carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticles with rough surfaces were obtained by heating (or sintering, or calcining) the porous olive-like -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon precursor under the protection of argon. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the carbon inside the olive-like Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticles likely played a role to partially reduce Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 to Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 during heating (or sintering, or calcination) of porous olive-like -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon due to carbothermic reactions.

(67) Porous olive-like Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticles, the precursor for making carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4, were prepared through a fast solvothermal reaction with a reaction time of only 75 min and characterized by XRD, FESEM and TEM (FIG. 2A-2F, 3A-3F). The XRD pattern of the as-prepared nanoparticle can be indexed to -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 with rhombohedral structure (JCPDS card no. 33-0664) and no impurities are detected in the pattern (FIG. 2A). The crystalline size calculated from the Scherrer equation based on (110) peaks is 18 nm, which is in accordance with the size of building subunits of the porous nanoparticles observed under FESEM (FIG. 2D) and TEM (FIG. 2F). The absence of carbon peaks suggests that the carbon from hydrothermally carbonized glucose is mainly amorphous. The carbon of the nanoparticles of the present disclosure is dispersed; there is not a large clustering which includes high-carbon regions as though the composite had been prepared by a different method, such as by inclusion of carbon quantum dots.

(68) The EDS (FIG. 2G) exhibits that the as-prepared particles contain the elements of carbon, iron and oxygen as expected. Carbon was produced through the carbonization of glucose during the solvothermal process above 160 C. The typical morphology and structure of the olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticles are clearly revealed by the FESEM images (FIG. 2B-2D). The overall morphology and size distribution of the olive-like Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticles are revealed by the low-magnification FESEM image (FIG. 2B). The aspect ratio of the olive-like structure is around 3:2, as shown in the high-magnification image (FIG. 2C).

(69) The olive-like -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticles are about 300-600 nm in length and about 200-400 nm in diameter. More details of the internal structure of the nanoparticle are shown in the zoom-in view FESEM image (FIG. 2D): the olive-like nanoparticle is formed by aggregation of ordered small nanorods with a length of about 18 nm and a width of about 8 nm (which was further confirmed by TEM). A broken olive-like structure at the center of the high-magnification FESEM image shows that the whole structure is highly porous, from the core to the surface. The structure of the -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon composite is further revealed by the TEM characterization (FIG. 2E and FIG. 2F).

(70) A set of experiments were carried out to study the effect of reaction times on the structure of the olive-like Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon precursors. Those nanoparticles obtained at different reaction times were characterized by FESEM and TEM (FIG. 3A-3F). When the reaction time was about 45 minutes, less porous olive-like nanoparticles were formed (FIGS. 3A-3B, and the inset of 3B). The nanorod subunits, with the length and width of around 18 and about 8 nm, respectively, were aggregated to form the olive-like structure and closely packed (FIG. 3B). All the subunits of nanorods are well aligned in the same way, radiating from the core to the outside, as shown in FIG. 3B. As the reaction time increased from 45 minutes to 75 minutes, the olive-like structure became more porous, as evidenced by the more distinguishable gaps between fat nanorod subunits in FIGS. 3C and 3D. The inset of FIG. 3D reveals that the whole olive-like structure is porous, which is consistent with the broken olive-like structure observed in the high magnification FESEM image (FIG. 2D).

(71) As the reaction time further increased to 3 hours, the porous nature was preserved, as shown in FIG. 3E and the inset of FIG. 3F. However, with a longer reaction time, the length and diameter of the nanorod subunits increase to about 23 nm and about 10 nm, respectively. Also, the orientations of the subunits become more random, as compared to the samples prepared with shorter reaction times of 45 minutes and about 75 minutes. Besides the reaction time, the porosity and the shape of the as-prepared olive-like structure can be affected by the amount of glucose. With 0.4 mmol or 0.2 mmol glucose, the olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) structures are highly porous with the nanorods as the basic building units. Occasionally, by-products of hollow nanoparticles were also observed. For comparison, with only 0.1 mmol glucose, the porosity of the olive-like structure is less than those obtained with 0.4 mmol or 0.2 mmol of glucose. A tunnel which connects the two ends of the olive-like structure and two open ends, instead of the highly porous structure was observed. We observed that the aspect ratio of the as prepared olive-like nanoparticles could be tuned through the control of the amount of glucose. The aspect ratio increases from about 3:2 to about 2:1 when the amount of glucose added is decreased from 0.4 mmol to 0.1 mmol. Without any glucose, a cocoon-like hollow structure with an aspect ratio of about 2.5:1 could be achieved.

(72) Based on the experimental observation, a plausible formation mechanism is proposed. The formation of porous olive-like nanoparticles starts from the hydrolysis of Fe.sup.3+ ions and nucleation in solution and the subsequent formation of nanorods. The nanorods as building units aggregate to form an olive-like structure and the nanorods are densely packed initially (FIG. 3A). The highly porous olive-like aggregates form with a longer reaction time (FIG. 3B). The small nanorod subunits, which possess higher surface energy in solution, tend to be dissolved more easily to minimize the total surface energy. Thus, the big nanorods grow with the continuous dissolving of small subunits and re-deposition on large subunits. With the decrease of the number of small nanorods and the increase of the size of the large nanorods, void spaces are generated and the particles become porous. Meanwhile, the aspect ratio and the porosity can be tuned through the control of glucose. It might be because the glucose or the deposited carbon may influence the surface property of the nanorod subunits and their aggregation. Thus, the orientated alignment of the subunits could be different from those in the system without glucose.

(73) The as-prepared olive-like Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon could be converted to carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 preserving the overall morphology well. The successful partial reduction of Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 was proved by the evidence that Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 was produced as revealed by XRD (FIG. 5A). All the peaks of the XRD pattern can be assigned to Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 (JCPDS card no. 75-0449), and no peak of a-Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 is observed, suggesting that carbothermic conversion of Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 into Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 was successful and complete. The crystalline sizes of as prepared Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 are about 45 nm, calculated based on the (220) peak, which is significantly larger than the crystallite size of the Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 nanoparticle at around 20 nm. The typical black color of Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 rather than the typical red color of Fe.sub.2O.sub.3, was obtained and all the black power of olive-like carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 attracted by a magnetic bar (FIG. 5B) demonstrate that Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 was successfully converted to Fe.sub.3O.sub.4. Note that the powder of carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 was obtained without being coated on the copper disc by CAP in this case and the nanoparticle powder was heat treated similarly under argon in a crucible. The conversion from Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 to Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 under inert gas also proves the existence of carbon produced by the solvothermal carbonization of glucose, which acts as the only reducing agent to convert Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 to Fe.sub.3O.sub.4.

(74) The morphology of as-synthesized olive-like carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 was revealed by FESEM and TEM images in FIG. 5C-5F. After the heating to (or sintering at or calcination at) 600 C. under argon, the olive-like (or substantially ellipsoid) structure was maintained (FIG. 5C and FIG. 5D). The porosity of the olive-like carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 is also preserved, revealed by the broken olive-like structure in FIG. 5D. The size of subunits of carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 increased to around 50 nm from about 18 nm subunits in the Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon nanoparticle (FIG. 5E and FIG. 5F), which is consistent with the sizes estimated from the XRD. The increase in size of subunits can be attributed to the high temperature annealing induced crystalline growth.

(75) As compared to the Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon aggregates assembled by aligned nanorods, carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 was constructed by joined subunits. The connection of building subunits may be attributed to the annealing process where subunits are joined by grain boundary diffusions which was also observed in the study of other metal oxide nanomaterials. It may also be attributed to the consumption of carbon in Fe.sub.2O.sub.3-carbon through the carbothermic reduction process which eliminates the impurities between grain boundaries. The SAED pattern (the inset of FIG. 5F) demonstrates that the olive-like carbon-decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 is crystalline with all the diffraction spots assigned to Fe.sub.3O.sub.4.

(76) The carbon content in the as-prepared Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C materials is quantitatively determined by the TGA analysis (FIG. 6A). The small weight loss below 150 C. is due to the evaporation of the adsorbed moisture or gaseous molecules. The combustion of carbon begins at around 300 C. Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 can be oxidized to Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 when heated in air, and the theoretical weight increase is 3.45%, based on the chemical reaction 4Fe.sub.3O.sub.4+O.sub.2.fwdarw.6Fe.sub.2O.sub.3. From TGA analysis, the carbon content of the carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticle was estimated to be 0.43%.

(77) The as-prepared olive-like carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanoparticle fabricated directly on a current collector (in this case, a copper disc) was used as an additive-free ready electrode and assembled into a coin-type cell directly and evaluated. The electrochemical properties of the as-prepared additive-free Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C electrode are shown in FIG. 7. An optical image of the additive-free carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 as a ready electrode for cell assembly is shown in the inset of FIG. 7A. The charge-discharge profiles of the first two cycles at the current of 100 mA g.sup.1 with a cutoff voltage window of 0.01-3.0 volts (V) are shown in FIG. 7A. In the first discharge curve, two potential plateaus at about 0.9 and 0.8 V are observed, which can be ascribed to the formation of a LiFeO compound, the conversion reaction of the LiFeO compound to Fe.sup.0 and the formation of the Li.sub.2O matrix. This profile is different from the first cycle discharge profile of Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 negative-electrode materials, which has two potential plateaus at around 1.6 volts and 0.8 V versus Li+/Li (FIG. 9A). For the Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C precursor, the potential plateau at around 1.6 V can be ascribed to the intercalation of Li.sup.+ into -Fe.sub.2O.sub.3, and the other potential plateau at around 0.8 V is due to the formation of Li.sub.2(Fe.sub.2O.sub.3) and the reduction of Fe ions to Fe.sup.0. The difference between the first cycle discharge profile of carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 (FIG. 7A) and the Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C precursor materials (FIG. 9A) illustrates the different electro-chemical reactions involved during the first cycle of Li insertion, which also indirectly proves the successful conversion from Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 to Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 by in situ partial carbothermic reduction. The voltage drop from below 0.8 to 0.01 V could be attributed to the formation of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) due to the decomposition of the solvent in the electrolyte.

(78) In the first cycle charge profile, the plateau around 1.7 V is attributed to the oxidation of Fe.sup.0 to Fe.sup.2+ and Fe.sup.3+. The first cycle discharge and charge capacities are 1579 and 917 mA h g.sup.1, respectively. The irreversible capacity loss of around 42% could be attributed to the decomposition of the electrolyte and formation of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). To better interpret the electrochemical reactions involved, the dQ/dV vs. V plots for the first two cycles are shown in FIG. 7B, which match well with plateaus discussed above. Additionally, the absence of the typical reduction peak at around 1.6 V widely observed for Fe.sub.2O.sub.3 proves that the electrode is based on Fe.sub.3O.sub.4. In the 2nd cycle, both reduction and oxidation peaks are positively shifted as compared to the 1st cycle.

(79) The charge-discharge voltage profiles at different currents of 100, 200, 500, 1000 and 1500 mA g.sup.1 are shown in FIG. 7C, which are at the 2nd, 12th, 22nd, 32nd, and 42nd cycle, respectively. The charge-discharge voltage profiles at different currents almost overlap, which demonstrates the same reversible electro-chemical reactions involved. The specific discharge capacities are 919, 772, 761, 752, and 727 mA h g.sup.1 at currents of 100, 200, 500, 1000 and 1500 mA g.sup.1, respectively. As we can see, the capacity fades slowly at the currents from 200 to 1500 mA g.sup.1, which has been rarely observed for metal oxides tested in LIBs. And even at a high current of 1500 mA g.sup.1, the specific discharge capacities can still be maintained at 727 mA h g.sup.1, which shows improved rate performance as-compared to most reported Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 nanomaterial based anodes.

(80) The rate performances of the additive-free Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C electrode was evaluated by charging-discharging the battery cells at different current densities for 10 cycles interval (FIG. 7D). The average Coulombic efficiency from the 2nd cycle is as high as 98.92%, which indicates the excellent electrochemical reversibility. The capacities are very stable and no distinguishable capacity drop can be observed at each current. It is interesting to highlight that no significant capacity drop was observed when current was increased from 100 mA g.sup.1 to 200, 500, 1000, and 1500 mA g.sup.1, which suggests that the electrodes could be used in fast charge LIBs. It is interesting to observe that the specific capacity was recovered to 835.5 mA h g.sup.1 after 60 cycles, when the current changed back to 100 mA g.sup.1. More interestingly, we observe an increase of capacity after the current is recovered to 100 mA g.sup.1 from 1500 mA g.sup.1. This could be explained by the continuous activating process of the electrode. Excellent cycling performance was achieved with a specific capacity at >about 800 mA h g.sup.1 for at least about 240 cycles (FIG. 7E). The superior electrochemical performances could be attributed to its porous structure induced good accessibility of Li.sup.+ ions and improved strain accommodation and the way electrode was prepared. In contrast, the conventional electrode prepared from the same Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C demonstrated poor cycling relative to the novel electrode (FIG. 8A-8C), which indicates the impact of the role of electrode preparation. Thus, the porosity, the additive-free nature, the aggregation of aligned nanorods, and the substantially ellipsoid shape may all play roles in improving electrode properties over solid nanoparticles. The olive-like shape could still be observed from the sample of Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C nanoparticles after cycling, indicating good stability. As a comparison, the additive-free Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C electrode shows very poor electrochemical performance (FIG. 9A-9B).

(81) Apart from being used in electrodes for energy storage, porous olive-like carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 and porous olive-like Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C precursor nanoparticles in accordance with the principles of the present disclosure may find use as catalysts, drug delivery, water-treatment, and sensors.

(82) In summary, porous olive-like carbon decorated Fe.sub.3O.sub.4 was successfully prepared from porous olive-like Fe.sub.2O.sub.3/C precursor nanoparticles. The precursor was obtained by a fast one-pot solvothermal method. The active materials were synthesized on a current collector by CAD directly without any binder, conductivity enhancer or solvent employed. When tested as negative-electrode materials for LIBs, the additive-free olive-like Fe.sub.3O.sub.4/C electrodes exhibited excellent electrochemical performances for lithium storage demonstrating their promising potential to be carbon alternatives for LIBs.