Backscatter communication among commodity WiFi radios

Abstract

A backscatter tag communicate device includes, in part, a receiver configured to receive a WiFi packet conforming to a communication protocol defining a multitude of codewords, a mapper configured to map at least a first subset of the multitude of codewords disposed in the packet to a second multitude of codewords defined by the protocol, and a frequency shifter configured to shift a frequency of the second multitude of codewords such that the frequency shifted codewords are characterized by a single sideband spectrum. The communication protocol may be the 802.11b communication protocol. The mapper may optionally map the first subset of the multitude of codewords by changing phases of the first subset of the multitude of codewords.

Claims

1. A backscatter tag communicate device comprising: a receiver configured to receive a WiFi packet conforming to a communication protocol defining a plurality of codewords; a mapper configured to map at least a first subset of the plurality of codewords disposed in the packet to a second plurality of codewords defined by the protocol; a frequency shifter configured to shift a frequency of the second plurality of codewords such that the frequency shifted codewords are characterized by a single sideband spectrum; a first signal splitter configured to split a WiFi signal representative of the WiFi packet into first and second signals; a first on-off keying block disposed in a first path and adapted to receive the first signal; and a second on-off keying block disposed in a second path and adapted to receive the second signal.

2. The backscatter tag communication device of claim 1 wherein said communication protocol is the 802.11b communication protocol.

3. The backscatter tag communication device of claim 2 wherein said mapper is further configured to map the at least first subset of the plurality of codewords by changing phases of the at least first subset of the plurality of codewords.

4. The backscatter tag communication device of claim 1 further comprising: a delay element adapted to delay the first signal to generate a third signal.

5. The backscatter tag communication device of claim 4 further comprising a coupler configured to: receive an output of the first on-off keying block; receive a delayed output of the second on-off keying block; shift a phase of the delayed output of the second on-off keying block; and combine the output of the first on-off keying block with the phase-shifted delayed output of the second on-off-keying block, said combined output being the single sideband signal of the backscatter tag communication device.

6. The backscatter tag communication device of claim 5 further comprising: a second signal splitter adapted to receive the WiFi signal from a receive antenna and supply the received WiFi signal to the first signal splitter; and a signal integrator adapted to integrate the WiFi signal received from the second splitter and deliver the integrated signal to a control logic.

7. The backscatter tag communication device of claim 6 further comprising: a multiplexer configure to select between an oscillating signal or a delayed replica of the oscillating signal in response to a select signal the multiplexer receives from the control logic.

8. The backscatter tag communication device of claim 7 wherein said multiplexer is further configure to deliver the selected signal to the control logic.

9. A method of communication via a backscatter tag, the method comprising: receiving a packet conforming to a WiFi communication protocol defining a plurality of codewords; mapping at least a first subset of the plurality of codewords disposed in the packet to a second plurality of codewords defined by the protocol; shifting a frequency of the second plurality of codewords such that the frequency shifted codewords are characterized by a single sideband spectrum; splitting a WiFi signal representative of the WiFi packet into first and second signals using a first signal splitter; supplying the first signal to a first on-off keying block disposed in a first path; and supplying the second signal to a second on-off keying block disposed in a second path.

10. The method of claim 9 wherein said communication protocol is the 802.11b communication protocol.

11. The method of claim 10 further comprising: mapping the at least first subset of the plurality of codewords to a second plurality of codewords by changing phases of the at least first subset of the plurality of codewords.

12. The method of claim 9 further comprising: delaying the first signal to generate a third signal.

13. The method of claim 12 further comprising: receiving an output of the first on-off keying block; receiving a delayed output of the second on-off keying block; shifting a phase of the delayed output of the second on-off keying block; and combining the output of the first on-off keying block with the phase-shifted delayed output of the second on-off-keying block to generate the single sideband signal at an output of the backscatter tag.

14. The method of claim 13 further comprising: splitting the received the WiFi signal from a receive antenna using a second splitter; supplying a first WiFi signal split by the second splitter to the first signal splitter; and integrating the second WiFi signal split by the second splitter; and delivering the integrated signal to a control logic.

15. The method of claim 14 further comprising: selecting between an oscillating signal or a delayed replica of the oscillating signal in response to a control signal supplied by the control logic.

16. The method of claim 15 further comprising: delivering the selected signal to the control logic.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 is a simplified view of a backscatter communication system in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

(2) FIG. 2 is a simplified view of a backscatter tag communication system, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

(3) FIG. 3 is a simplified view of a backscatter tag communication system that uses a single AP receiver, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

(4) FIG. 4 is a plot of the strength of a self-interference signal and a backscattered signal, according to one experimental set up, as a function of the distance between the backscatter tag and the AP receiver shown in FIG. 3.

(5) FIG. 5 is a plot of a measured 802.11b transmission spectrum empirically acquired.

(6) FIG. 6 shown the strength of an 802.11b signal obtained using a simple frequency shifting technique.

(7) FIG. 7 is a simplified block diagram of a single side-band backscatter tag communication system, in accordance with one exemplary embodiment of the present invention.

(8) FIG. 8 shows a sequency of 802.11 signal transmission.

(9) FIG. 9 is a plot of the number of corrupted backscatter data per packet due to synchronization delays.

(10) FIGS. 10A and 10 B show floorplans and experimental set up of a backscatter tag system respectively in a line-of-sight (LOS) environment and in a non-line-of-sight (NLOS) environment, according to one embodiment of the present invention.

(11) FIG. 11A shows the throughput of a backscatter tag communication system used in an LOS environment, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, as a function of distance for two different frequency shifts.

(12) FIG. 11B shows the bit error rates of a backscatter tag communication system, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, as a function of distance.

(13) FIG. 11C shows the signal strength of a backscatter tag communication system, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, as a function of distance.

(14) FIG. 12A shows the throughput of a backscatter tag communication system deployed in an NLOS arrangement, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, as a function of distance.

(15) FIG. 12B shows the bit error rate of a backscatter tag communication system deployed in an NLOS arrangement, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, as a function of distance.

(16) FIG. 12C shows the signal strength of a backscatter tag communication system deployed in an NLOS arrangement, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, as a function of distance.

(17) FIGS. 13A, 13B, and 13C respectively show the throughput, bit error rate and RSSI of a backscattered signal when 0.6 s to 32 s jitter is introduced, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

(18) FIG. 14 shows the communication range between a theoretical calculation and empirically acquired data from a backscatter tag system, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

(19) FIG. 15 shows a breakdown of the power consumed by different components of a backscatter tag, in accordance with one exemplary embodiment of the present invention.

(20) FIG. 16 shows the WiFi throughput between the two laptops for two conditions when a backscatter tag is present and absent, in accordance with one exemplary embodiment of the present invention.

(21) FIG. 17 shows the impact of an active WiFi transmission between two laptops on the throughput of a backscatter tag, in accordance with one exemplary embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

(22) Embodiments of the present invention provide a system and method of communication that is complaint with an existing communications protocol, such as WiFi 802.11b, by backscattering another WiFi compliant packet and modulating its data on the resulting packet by codeword translation. According to some embodiments, applications can be built on existing wireless devices carrying 802.11b packets. A low-power backscatter communications system (hereinafter alternatively referred to as XoRFi, backscatter tag, or tag) is configured, in part, to receive a valid codeword disposed in the transmitted, for example, 802.11b packet and translate it to a different valid codeword from the, for example, 802.11b codebook. The specific translation encodes the bit that the backscatter tag seeks to transmit. The backscattered packet is therefore like any other 802.11b packet, albeit with a sequence of translated codewords depending on the data that backscatter tag seeks to communicate. Consequently it can be decoded by any standard 802.11b receiver. The following description of the embodiments of the present invention is provided with reference to 802.11b communications protocol or standards. It is understood however that embodiments of the present invention are equally applicable to many other communication protocols.

(23) Realizing codewords translation, decoding and recovering the backscattered signals pose a number of challenges. One challenge is the additional hardware and power consumption introduced by a conventional backscattering communication system. Another challenge is the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) inherent from the original transmitted signal co-existing in the resultant signals. If the backscatter tag simply reflects the transmitted 802.11b packet, the receiver cannot likely decode the backscattered packet since it is received simultaneously on the same channel as the original transmission. This leads to strong self-interference from the original 802.11b transmission that can cause decoding failure. To tackle this challenge, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, frequency shifting is performed such that the backscattered packet is shifted and transmitted on an adjacent non-overlapping WiFi channel. However such frequency shifting techniques generates two sidebands, one of which is the desired adjacent channel backscatter transmission whereas the other is an unwanted and wasted sideband that can interference. In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, the unwanted sideband is suppressed.

(24) FIG. 1 is a simplified view of a backscatter communication system 100 according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the description below it is assumed that excitation device 110 transmits 802.11b compliant WiFi packets that backscatter tag 120 and access points 130 and 140 are adapted to operate with. It is understood that the embodiments of the present invention are no so limited and that a backscatter communication system, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, may operate with other similar communication standards. Therefore, although the following description of the invention is provided with reference to the 802.11b communication protocol, it is understood that the embodiments of the present invention are applicable to any other communication protocol.

(25) Excitation device 119 is shown as being a mobile phone with a standard WiFi radio but it is understood that any other device configured to communicate via a WiFi radio may be used. Mobile phone 110 is shown as transmitting an 802.11b packet 85 to WiFi Access Point (AP) 130which is listening on the original channel established between mobile phone 110 and access point 130configured to recognize and process the 802.11b packets. Backscatter tag 120, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, also receives packets 85 transmitted by mobile phone 110 and implements codeword translation, as described below, and further shifts the frequency of the backscatter signal to another channel, thereby to generate and transmit backscattered packets 95. In other words, packets 95 remain compatible with the 802.11b standard but are transmitted with a frequency that is different from the transmission frequency of packets 85. AP 140 is configured to listen in on and thus receive packets transmitted at the frequency shifted channel. AP 140 is hence adapted to receive and process packets 95. Both AP 130 and AP 140 transmit the packets they process to XOR block 150. In response, XOR block 150 compares the two packers to recover the data placed by backscatter tag 120 onto packet 95, i.e. the backscatter packets. Therefore, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, backscatter tag 120 is configure to send data by placing them on the packets generated by mobile device 110. In embodiments where only one AP is available, mobile device 110 can transmit a known 802.11b packet (e.g. a packet of all 1s). Thereafter, any WiFi radio receiving the backscattered packet can XOR that packet with the known 802.11b packet and recover the backscatter data.

(26) As is known, an 802.11b radio uses a finite set of codewords to encode packets. For example, the 1 Mbps 802.11b transmission uses only two code-words, code.sub.0 and code.sub.1, as shown in equation 1. Data zero and one are encoded as code.sub.0 and code.sub.1 respectively. The only difference between the two codewords is a 180 phase offset, which indicates whether a zero or a one is being transmitted. The barker code used by the two codewords is a sequence similar to the PN sequence used in the CDMA system. It is designed to significantly increase the SNR at the decoder. For example, 802.11b decoder can decode 1 Mbps at 95 dBm.
code.sub.0=barker
code.sub.1=barkere.sup.j(1)

(27) Instead of using only two codewords, 2 Mbps 802.11b uses four codewords in its codebook to encode packets as shown in equation 2. Data 00, 01, 11, and 10 are encoded as code.sub.0, code.sub.1, code.sub.2, and code.sub.3 respectively. The data are embedded in the phase of the codewords, as shown below:
code.sub.0=barker
code.sub.1=barkere.sup.j/2
code.sub.2=barkere.sup.j
code.sub.1=barkere.sup.j3/2(2)

(28) As is known, the 5.5 Mbps and 11 Mbps CCK transmission protocols use a larger set of codewords compared to the 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps transmission protocols. Equation 3 shows the codewords used by the 5.5 Mbps transmission protocol. To transmit at 5.5 Mbps, CCK divides the bit stream into blocks of four bits. The first two bits are used to determine the phase of the codeword, which varies among 0,

(29) $\frac{}{2},$
, and

(30) $\frac{3}{2}.$
The last two bits are used to choose one of the four barker codes. The 11 Mbps CCK transmission protocol uses a similar technique where the data stream is divided into blocks of 8 bits. The first two bits are used to select the phase, and the last six bits are used to choose one of the 64 Barker codes.
code.sub.0=barker.sub.0e.sup.j.sup.0
. . . .
code.sub.15=barker.sub.15e.sup.j.sup.15(3)

(31) In other words, the 802.11b WiFi communication protocol uses a finite set of codewords to encode packets. A backscatter system, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, leverages the fact that only a finite set of codewords are used. Since a backscatter tag, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, is configured to translate the codeword code.sub.i used by the 802.11b transmitter to another codeword code.sub.j within the same set, then any 802.11b receiver can decode the backscattered packet.

(32) As described above, in accordance with one aspect of the present invention, code-word translation or mapping is performed. Conceptually, any modulation scheme (including the modulation schemes used in WiFi) is a mapping between bits and codewords from a discrete codebook. Decoding is the inverse operation which involves mapping from a received codeword to the actual bit. For a commodity WiFi receiver to decode the backscattered packet, its codewords need to come from the same codebook as WiFi's. In other words, if the backscatter tag can act as a codeword translator or mapper (i.e. translate or map the codewords from the original 802.11b packet to other codewords in the 802.11b codebook) then a standard 802.11b receiver will be able to decode the packet, and a standard 802.11b transmitter can transmit original data. For example, equation 4 below shows how the codeword for 1 and codeword for 0 are related; in other words codeword 0 can be translated into codeword 1. Therefore, translation or mapping is performed in accordance with the bits the backscatter tag decides to transmit and such that the 802.11b receiver can recover the applied translation/mapping and therefore recover the bits transmitted by the backscatter tag:
codeword 0=1barker
codeword 1=1barker=codeword 0e.sup.j(4)

(33) For backscattering 802.11b 1 Mbps signals, the backscatter tag implements a simple translation. To backscatter bit zero, the backscatter tag may perform no translation and simply reflect the original codeword. To backscatter bit one, the backscatter tag may translate the received codeword to the only other valid codeword in the 802.11b 1 Mbps codebook. To do so, the backscatter tag may simply shift the phase of the received codeword by 180 degrees as shown in equation 5 below. Therefore, if the original 802.11b bit is a 0, a 1 is backscattered. Conversely, if the original 802.11b bit is a 1, a 0 is backscattered. Further description of how the tag implements the codeword translation/mapping is provided below.
Tag data 0=802.11b data
Tag data 1=802.11b datae.sup.j(5)
XOR Decoder

(34) The 802.11b receiver, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, may decode the backscattered packets since all the codewords are valid codewords from the 802.11b 1 Mbps codebook. However, to recover the bits that the backscatter tag transmitted, the receiver needs to be aware of the translations that were applied to the original 802.11b bits by the backscatter tag.

(35) As described below, the recovery of the data generated by the translation/mapping is equivalent to performing an XOR operation of the decoded packet with the original 802.11b packet. If the original bit is a 1 and the backscatter tag wants to send a 1, then a translation was applied. This amounts to phase shifting by 180 degrees twice (once at the transmitter and again at the backscatter tag), thus resulting into backscattering of codeword corresponding to a 0. If the original bit is 1 and the tag wants to send 0, then no translation is applied (no phase shift), resulting in backscattering of a 1. The other two combinations are shown in Table 1 below:

(36) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE I Decoded bit 802.11b bit Backscatter bit 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

(37) As is seen, the decoded bit is a logic XOR operation of the original 802.11 bit with the backscatter bit, as is also shown in equation 6 below:
decoded data=original data(XOR)backscatter data(6)

(38) Hence, to recover the backscatter bits, the receiver simply has to invert the XOR with original 802.11b packet. To do so however, it needs to know the original 802.11b packet. Assume that the backscatter tag is deployed in a setting similar to that shown in FIG. 1, where mobile phone 110 transmits the original 802.11b packet to WiFi AP 130 listening on the Channel 1 (established between the mobile phone 110 and WiFi AP 130.) The backscatter tag implements codeword translation, as described above, and shifts the backscatter signal frequency to a different channel, e.g. channel 6. The backscattered packet is decoded by AP 140 which is listening on e.g., channel 6. AP 140 sends the decoded backscattered packet to XOR block 150 which then implements the XOR operation to recover the backscattered bits from the tag.

(39) It is understood that the same concept of codeword translation may be applied to any of the 802.11b transmissions rates up to, for example, 2 Mbps since similar code-word translation may be implemented for other transmission rates by phase shifting techniques. Accordingly, the 802.11b WiFi protocol uses a finite set of codewords to encode packets. The backscatter tag leverages the fact that only a finite set of codewords are used. Because the tag can translate the codeword code.sub.i used by the 802.11b transmitter to another codeword code.sub.1 within the same set, any 802.11b receiver can decode the backscattered packet, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention.

(40) Frequency Shifting

(41) FIG. 2 shows, in part, a backscatter tag 220 according to an embodiment of the present invention. A commodity WiFi radio 210 transmits an 802.11b WiFi packet 85 that is shown as being received by backscatter tag 220. In response, backscatter tag retransmits packet 95 to another 802.11b WiFi radio receiver 230 after translating/mapping the codeword and shifting the frequency of the packet to an adjacent WiFi channel/frequency. The 802.11b receiver 230 listening in on the adjacent WiFi channel receives the WiFi packet retransmitted by backscatter tag 220, decodes the packet using the normal WiFi decoding technique, and then extracts the backscattered information from the decoded bit stream.

(42) FIG. 3 shows a backscatter tag communications system 300 that uses a single AP receiver 330. Backscatter tag 320 is configured to map/translate code words between 802.11b transmitter 310 and 802.11b receiver 330, as described above. When AP receiver 330 receives the backscattered signal, it also receives the signal from the transmitter 310. This 802.11b signal acts as a strong interference because it shares the same frequency band as the backscattered signal and is usually 30 dB higher than the backscattered signal, thereby compounding the interference problem.

(43) FIG. 4 is a plot of the strength of self-interference signal 485 and backscattered signal 475, according to one experimental set up, as a function of the distance between the backscatter tag and the AP receiver as shown in FIG. 3. As is seen, for example, at 10 m the self-interference is 40 dB higher than the backscattered signal, thus making the backscattered signal difficult to decode.

(44) A conventional technique for mitigating this problem is a full-duplex communication technique. However, this technique requires hardware modification on existing 802.11b radios, which is not desirable. Embodiments of the present invention avoid the self-interference problem by enabling the backscatter tag to frequency shift the backscattered signal to an adjacent, non-overlapping WiFi channel. However a non-overlapping WiFi channel does not imply absence of self-interference because the WiFi transmission also emits energy in adjacent channels.

(45) FIG. 5 is a plot of a measured 802.11b transmission spectrum empirically acquired. The plot shows that there is signal leakage into the adjacent band at nearly 11 MHz away from the center of the channel being a 30 dB smaller in magnitude. The leaked signal strength degrades further away from the center. For example, there is 50 dB signal degradation at 22 MHz away from the center.

(46) To implement frequency shifting, a tag backscatter in accordance with the present invention, multiplies the 802.11b incident signal S.sub.802.11b with a square wave generated by the tag as S.sub.802.11bS.sub.tag. When the frequency of the 802.11b incident signal is f.sub.c and the tag square wave frequency is f.sub.t, the backscattered signal is shifted to the f.sub.cf.sub.t band, which is f.sub.t away from the original 802.11b signal. In one implementation, the tag generates a square wave at 30 MHz in order to move the backscattered signal 30 MHz away from the incident 802.11b signal.

(47) Generating Single Side-Band Backscatter

(48) A simple frequency shifting technique generates copies of the 802.11b signal on both sides 695 of the main lobe 685 of the signal shown in FIG. 6. In this measurement, an 802.11b transmitter was used to transmit with a central frequency of 2.462 GHz. The backscatter tag shifts the backscattered signal 50 MHz away from the 802.11b signal. Such frequency shifting generates copies on both 2.462 GHz50 MHz. Such double sided backscatter signal generates unwanted interference in the other band. A backscatter tag, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, generates a single side band backscatter signal with its data only on that single side.

(49) When the backscatter tag toggles the RF switch at f.sub.t frequency, it uses a square wave S.sub.tag(f.sub.tt) to modulate the incident 802.11b signal, which is a multiplication operation. The square wave signal can be presented using Fourier series as shown in equation 7 below:

(50) $S_{\mathrm{tag}}\left(f_{t}t\right)=\frac{4}{}\underset{n=1,3,5\mathrm{.Math.}\mathrm{odd}}{\overset{}{.Math.}}\frac{1}{n}\sin \left(2f_{t}t\right)$

(51) In equation (8) shown below, the 802.11b signal received at the backscatter tag is represented by S.sub.802.11b, and the signal backscattered by the tag is represented by r(t). From equation 8, sidebands may be seen on both sides of the spectrum cos(2(f.sub.cnf.sub.t)t and cos(2(f.sub.c+nf.sub.t)t) with center frequencies f.sub.c+nf.sub.t and f.sub.cnf.sub.t present in the backscatter signal. In accordance with embodiments of the present invention, the unwanted sideband signal is eliminated, as described further below.

(52) $\begin{array}{cc}\begin{array}{c}r\left(\right)=S_{802.11b}{S}_{\mathrm{tag}}\left(f_{t}t\right)\\ =\sin \left(2f_{c}t\right)S_{\mathrm{tag}}\left(f_{t}t\right)\\ =\frac{4}{}\underset{n=1,3,5,\mathrm{.Math.}\mathrm{odd}}{\overset{}{.Math.}}\frac{1}{n}\sin \left(2f_{c}t\right)\sin \left(2{\mathrm{nf}}_{t}t\right)\\ =\frac{2}{}\underset{n=1,3,5,\mathrm{.Math.}\mathrm{odd}}{\overset{}{.Math.}}\frac{1}{n}\end{array}& \left(8\right)\end{array}$

(53) In other words, in accordance with one aspect of the present invention, single side band backscatter signal is achieved, while having low power consumption and introducing negligible loss on the backscattered signal strength.

(54) FIG. 7 is a simplified block diagram of a single side-band backscatter tag communications system 700, in accordance with one exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Backscatter 700 is shown as including, in part, a receive antenna 725, a signal integrator 728, a frequency generator 710, a first delay element 712, a multiplexer 714, first and second signal splitters 731 and 732, a pair of on-off keying elements 751, a second delay element 775, a control logic 741, a coupler 771, and a transmit antenna 735.

(55) Frequency generator 710 generates an oscillating signal that is delivered to multiplexer directly 714 via path A. The oscillating signal generated by frequency generator 710 is further delayed by delay element 712 and applied to a second terminal of multiplexer 714 via path B. Logic block 741 controls the select input terminal of multiplexer 714. The output of multiplexer 714 is applied to an input terminal of control logic 741.

(56) The WiFi signal is received by receive antenna 725 and delivered to splitter 732. A first portion of the signal split by splitter 732 is delivered to signal integrator 728. Signal integrator 728 is adapted to integrate the WiFi signal received by the receive antenna 725 to generate an envelope WiFi signal applied to control logic 741 and adapted to detect the start of a WiFi packet. The second portion of the signal split by splitter 732 is split by splitter 731 into two signals, one of which is delivered to on-off keying block 751, and another one of which is delivered to on-off keying block 761. Each of on-off keying blocks 751 and 761 multiplies the data received from the splitter by the backscatter tag data (not shown), thereby to generate double side-band signal on paths 651 and 661, respectively. The signal on path 661 is delayed by delay element 775, the amount of which delay is varied by control logic 741. The output of delay element 775 is shifted by 90 degrees and added to the output of on-off keying block 751 by coupler 771 to generate output signal r(t) of backscatter tag 700 which is transmitted by transmit antenna 735. As is described further below, the signal on one path has a negative copy on the one side-band and the same copy on the other side-band. The sum of the signals from the two paths, as generated by coupler 771, eliminates the signal on one side-band and increases the signal on the other side-band, in accordance with one aspect of the present invention.

(57) As described above, both paths receive the same copy of the transmitted signal via splitter 731. The signal in each path is passed through an on-off keying block which is a square-wave multiplier to multiply the received WiFi signal with the data supplied by the backscatter tag (not shown) to shift their respective frequencies. The square wave signal generated on path 651 as a result of this multiplication (frequency shifting) is shown as r.sub.1(t). The square wave signal generated on path 661 as a result of this multiplication is further delayed by

(58) $\frac{1}{4f_t}$
in the time domain (which is equivalent to

(59) $\frac{\mathrm{pi}}{2}$
phase shift) by delay element 775, and shown below as signal r.sub.2(t).

(60) The mathematical formulation of signal r.sub.2(t) is shown in equation 10 while that of signal r.sub.1(t) is shown in equation 9. As is seen signal r.sub.2(t) has

(61) $\frac{+}{2}\mathrm{and}\frac{-}{2}$
phase offset compared to r.sub.1(t) on f.sub.cnf.sub.t and f.sub.c+nf.sub.t, respectively because of the delay of r.sub.2(t). The different phase offset on f.sub.cnf.sub.t and f.sub.c+nf.sub.t eliminates one of the sidebands.

(62) $\begin{array}{cc}\begin{array}{c}{r}_1\left(t\right)=\sin \left(2f_{c}t\right)s_{\mathrm{tag}}\left(f_{o}t\right)\\ =\frac{4}{}\underset{n=1,3,5,\mathrm{.Math.}\mathrm{odd}}{\overset{}{.Math.}}\frac{1}{n}\left(2f_{c}t\right)\sin \left(2{\mathrm{nf}}_{t}t\right)\\ =\frac{2}{}\underset{n=1,3,5,\mathrm{.Math.}\mathrm{odd}}{\overset{}{.Math.}}\frac{1}{n}\{\cos \left(2\left(f_c-{\mathrm{nf}}_t\right)t\right)-\\ \cos \left(\left(2\left(f_c+{\mathrm{nf}}_t\right)t\right)\right)\}\end{array}& \left(9\right)\\ \begin{array}{c}{r}_2\left(t\right)=\sin \left(2f_{c}t\right)S_{\mathrm{tag}}(f_t\left(t-\frac{1}{4f_t}\right)\\ =\frac{4}{}\underset{n=1,3,5,\mathrm{.Math.}\mathrm{odd}}{\overset{}{.Math.}}\frac{1}{n}\sin \left(2f_{c}t\right)\sin \left(2{\mathrm{nf}}_{t}t-\frac{n}{2}\right)\\ =\frac{2}{}\underset{n=1,3,5,\mathrm{.Math.}\mathrm{odd}}{\overset{}{.Math.}}\frac{1}{n}(\cos \left(2\left(f_c-{\mathrm{nf}}_t\right)t+\frac{n}{2}\right)-\\ \cos \left(\left(2\left(f_c+{\mathrm{nf}}_t\right)t-\frac{n}{2}\right)\right\}\end{array}& \left(10\right)\end{array}$

(63) In equations (9) and (10) above, signal sin(2f.sub.ct) is representative of the WiFi signal received by the backscatter tag, signal S.sub.tag(f.sub.0t) represents the data applied by the backscatter tag to on-off keying block 751, and signal S.sub.tag

(64) $\left(f_t\left(t-\frac{1}{4f_t}\right)\right)$
represents the data applied by the backscatter tag to on-off keying block 761.

(65) As described above, signal r.sub.1(t) and phase-shifted r.sub.2 (t) are added so as to cancel f.sub.cnf.sub.t. In other words, r.sub.2 (t) is phase shifted (delay it by

(66) 0$\frac{}{2}$
in time domain) and then added to r.sub.1(t) to generate the backscattered output signal r(t).

(67) It is understood that another

(68) $\frac{+}{2}$
phase offset is introduced on the f.sub.cnf.sub.t frequency component on the delayed path carrying signal r.sub.2 (t). Therefore, in total, radians of phase shift is generated on the f.sub.cnf.sub.t frequency for the delayed path associated with r.sub.2 (t) relative to the first path associated with r.sub.1(t), thus f.sub.cnf.sub.t frequency component gets canceled upon addition with r.sub.1(t). The backscattered signal r(t) is represented as shown in equation 11.

(69) On the other hand the frequency component at f.sub.cf.sub.t has phase shift

(70) $\frac{-}{2}$
at the delayed path associated with r.sub.2(t), which undergoes

(71) $\frac{+}{2}$
in RF domain before addition, thereby resulting in the phase shift of 0 relative to the r.sub.1(t). Therefore, f.sub.c+f.sub.t component gets added constructively and is the only component left uncanceled. As shown in equation 11, the backscattered signal r(t) only contains frequency components in one side band f.sub.c+nf.sub.t. FIG. 6 shows the empirically measured backscatter signal strength. As is seen, the single side band design eliminates at least 20 dB of other side band.

(72) $\begin{array}{cc}r\left(t\right)=r_1\left(t\right)+r_2\left(t\right)\frac{}{2}=\frac{2}{}\underset{n-1,3,5\mathrm{.Math.}\mathrm{odd}}{\overset{}{.Math.}}\{-\cos \left(\left(2\left(f_c+n{f}_t\right)t\right)\right\}+\{& \left(11\right)\\ r\left(t\right)=r_1\left(t\right)+r_2\left(t\right)\frac{}{2}=\frac{2}{n}\underset{n-1,3,5\mathrm{.Math.}\mathrm{odd}}{\overset{}{.Math.}}\left\{-\cos \left(\left(2\left(f_c+f_t\right)t\right)\right\}+\left\{\right)-\cos \left(2\left(f_c+f_t\right)t\right)-\frac{}{2}+\frac{}{2}\right\}=-\frac{4}{}\cos \left(2\left(f_c+f_t\right)t\right)& \left(12\right)\end{array}$

(73) FIG. 5 shows the spectrum of the result of an experiment whereby 802.11b signal was transmitted from the transmitter with the backscatter tag, as shown in the Figures and described above, positioned at half a meter from the transmitter and the receiver positioned at 1 meter from the tag. It is seen that a single side band design, in accordance with the embodiments of the present invention, as described above, eliminates at least 30 dB of other side band.

(74) In order to synchronize with the backscatter tag for uplink transmission, an 802.11b transmitter sends a sequence of short 802.11b packets in the predetermined packet slots marked as P.sub.1, P.sub.2, . . . , P.sub.n, 810, as shown in FIG. 8. The presence and absence of packets in these predefined slots indicate the data transmitted to the backscatter tag using On-Off keying (OOK) modulation. In order to send data 1, the 802.11b transmitter sends a packet in one time slot. In contrast, the 802.11b transmitter does not send a packet to encode data 0. This 1 and 0 sequence transmitted by the 802.11b transmitter can be identified by the backscatter tag using an analog envelop detector, such as the signal integrator 728 shown in FIG. 7, which generates the sequence 820. The envelop detector runs continuously on the backscatter tag which outputs a signal when the amplitude of the monitored signal is larger or smaller than a threshold. Once the backscatter tag decodes a predefined sequence from the 802.11b transmitter, it embeds the backscattered bits on the next coming WiFi packet, called an excitation packet. Signal 830 is used to enable the transmit sequence and signal 840 is used to enable modulation.

(75) After sending the sequence of short packets for synchronizing with the backscatter tag, the 802.11b transmitter will start sending excitation packets, which are normal 802.11b packets. The backscatter tag captures the rising edge of each excitation packet and embeds the backscattered information on the packet. In order to prevent the backscatter bit stream from corrupting the preamble of the 802.11b packet, the backscatter tag waits for a deterministic time after the backscatter tag detects the starting point of an excitation packet, which is 400 s in the implementation because the 802.11b packet header is 384 bits and takes 384 s for transmission. At the end of a tag transmission, the tag embeds an end of packet message in the backscattered data to inform both the 802.11b transmitter and the receiver that the backscatter communication is done.

(76) Referring to FIG. 7, in one embodiment, the clock source used in frequency generator 710 is a ring oscillator supplying a 30 MHz clock signal. The 30 MHz clock is divided into two paths where one is directly connected to multiplexer 714 and the other goes through a delay element 712 before being applied to the multiplexer. This scheme enables the backscatter tag to modulate the 802.11b packets with 0 or 180 degree phase shifting. The 30 MHz clock on the first path carrying signal A is used to shift the 802.11b signal by 30 MHz with 0 degree phase offset. The clock on the second path carrying signal B is used to shift the 802.11b signal by 30 MHz and introduces a 180 phase offset.

(77) As described above, multiplexer 714 is controlled by control logic 741 which may be an FPGA, such as an Igloo Nano AGLN250 FPGA, in one embodiment. To transmit a 0, control logic 741 selects the first path clock where 30 MHz clock with 0 phase offset is used. Similarly, to transmit a 1, control logic 714 selects the second path clock where 30 MHz clock with 180 phase offset is used.

(78) FIG. 9 is a plot of the number of corrupted backscatter data per packet due to the synchronization delay, as described above. This artificial and controlled delay is introduced by sending 802.11b packets via an SMBV100A signal generator, which allows using a wire to inform the backscatter tag of the starting point of an 802.11b transmission with a deterministic delay. When the delay is smaller than 8 ps, zero bytes of data are corrupted. However, when the delay is between 8 s and 12 s, 1 byte of data is corrupted. The number of corrupted data becomes larger when the delay is larger.

(79) FIGS. 10A and 10 B show floorplans and experimental set up of a backscatter tag system respectively in a line-of-sight (LOS) environment and in a non-line-of-sight (NLOS) environment, according to one embodiment of the present invention. In FIG. 10A, all devices are deployed in a hall way. In FIG. 10B, the 802.11b transmitter and the backscatter tag are deployed in a room while the 802.11b receiver is deployed in the hall way, which is separated from the backscatter tag by one or two walls depending on distance. The tag is first positioned 1 m away from the 802.11b transmitter. After, the 802.11b receiver is moved away from the backscatter tag, the achieved throughput, BER and RSSI, are measured across various distances.

(80) In one embodiment, system performance is quantified using three metrics: throughput, bit error rate (BER), and received signal strength indicator (RSSI). FIG. 11A shows the throughput of the backscatter tag system with increasing range in an LOS environment for both 25 MHz (plot 850) and 30 MHz (plot 855) frequency shifts. The maximal operational distance of the system is shown as 50 m, which is 1.5 to 2 time longer than the range reported by Passive WiFi that leverages a single tone using dedicated hardware as the carrier signal for generating the backscattered 802.11b packets. Furthermore, nearly 1 Mbps throughput is achieve when the 802.11b receiver is 8 m from the backscatter tag. Such throughput meets the requirement of many applications of wearables and Internet of Things where sensor data are collected at a rate of 100 kbps.

(81) When the 802.11b receiver is moved away from the tag, backscatter tag throughput decreases because the backscattered signal strength decreases as shown in plots 870 and 875 of FIG. 11C associated respectively with 25 MHz and 30 MHz frequency shifts. When the 802.11b receiver is more than 20 m away from the backscatter tag, the received backscatter signal strength is below 80 dBm, thus making the decoding more challenging. Plots 860 and 865 of FIG. 11B associated respectively with 25 MHz and 30 MHz frequency shifts show that bit error rate increases from 10.sup.2 to 10.sup.1 at longer distances, and as a result throughput decreases.

(82) A trade-off exists between the suppression of self-interference and the backscatter tag power consumption. Compared with the 30 MHz frequency shift, 25 MHz reduces tag power consumption while introducing more self-interference. FIG. 11A shows the throughput of a tag when it shifts the backscattered signal by 25 MHz. Different from the 30 MHz frequency shifting where a tag is able to achieve close to 1 Mbps throughput at close distances, the tag with 25 MHz frequency shifting achieves close to zero throughput when the distance between the tag and the 802.11b receiver is smaller than 6 m. Such a significant difference is caused by the fact that the side lobe of the incident 802.11b signal is relatively strong even when the backscattered signal is 25 MHz away. As a result, severe self-interference is experienced. When the receiver moves further from the tag, self-interference reduces. As a result, the receiver is able to obtain nearly 800 kbps throughput when it is 16 m away from the tag. When the 802.11b receiver is even farther away, the backscattered signal strength decreases. As a result, the backscatter throughput drops again at longer distances.

(83) FIG. 12A shows the backscatter throughput as a function of distance for a tag deployed in an NLOS arrangement. As is seen, the maximum communication distance achieved is 16 m which is longer than the maximum distance reported by Passive WiFi. Moreover, between 100-300 kbps throughput is achieved when the 802.11b receiver is positioned within 8 m from the tag.

(84) As expected, the throughput and range of a backscatter system degrades in a NLOS deployment compared with the LOS deployment. For example, the maximum communication distance shown as achieved is 16 m, which is shorter than the 52 m for the LOS deployment. Such performance degradation is caused by the lower backscattered signal strength as shown in FIG. 12C. The backscattered signal strength is shown as being 76 dBm when the 802.11b receiver is positioned 1 m away from the tag, which is 10 dB lower than the LOS deployment because there is a wall between the tag and the 802.11b receiver in the NLOS deployment. When the distance between the tag and the 802.11b receiver increases, the backscattered signal strength drops sharply. When the 802.11b receiver is more than 10 meters away, the backscattered signal strength is around 88 dBm, close to the noise floor. As a result, decoding backscattered signal becomes much harder. FIG. 12B shows the BER for the NLOS system, as shown in FIG. 10B.

(85) FIGS. 13A, 13B, and 13C respectively show the throughput, BER, and RSSI of a backscattered signal when 0.6 s to 32 s jitter is introduced. The backscatter throughput decreases when the jitter value increases. However, the throughput degradation is not seen as significant. The reason is that only the first several bits of a backscatter packet are corrupted. The rest of the backscatter packet are decoded correctly. In addition, the empirically measured jitter is less than 2 s across distances. Therefore, the throughput degradation is even smaller. FIGS. 13B and 13C show a similar conclusion where similar bit error rate, as well as received backscattered signal strength is achieved when the jitter value changes from 0.6 s to 32 s.

(86) FIG. 14 shows the communication range data between theoretical calculation 910 and empirically acquired data 912 from a backscatter tag system, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Since a backscatter tag performance depends on both the 802.11b transmitter-to-tag distance and the 802.11b receiver-to-tag distance, in an experimental setup first the 802.11b TX-to-tag distance is fixed and the maximum 802.11b RX-to-tag distance where backscatter decoding succeeds is measured. This measurement is repeated for a number of 802.11b transmitter-to-tag distances. FIG. 14 shows the empirically measured communication range of such a system. Backscatter communication still succeeds when the tag is 50 m away from the 802.11b receiver or 6 m away from the 802.11b transmitter. In this setting, the backscatter tag failed to operate properly at very long distances from the 802.11b transmitter because the backscatter tag could not identify the excitation packet sent by the transmitter. In addition, the backscatter tag may not be far away from both of the 802.11b transmitter and receiver either. For example, when the backscatter tag is 6 m away from the 802.11b transmitter, the maximum distance between the 802.11b receiver and the backscatter tag is 8 m. The theoretical communication range of the system using the Friis model is calculated and the backscattered signal strength measured when the tag is 50 m away from the 802.11b transmitter. As shown in FIG. 17, the theoretical curve 910 matches the empirically measured curve 912 well except that the empirically measured communication distance is shorter.

(87) Power Consumption

(88) FIG. 15 shows a breakdown of the power consumed by different components of the tag, which is obtained by using a 45 nm power analysis tool in one experimental setup. The clock module, which generates a 30 MHz clock for the rest of the system, is shown as consuming 4 W of power. The data modulator, which embeds backscattered bits on top of the 30 MHz clock, is shown as consuming 1 W of power. The module which is responsible for generating the single side-band backscatter is shown as consuming 28 W of power. The total power consumed by the system is 33 W, which is less than 59.2 W consumed by a Passive WiFi system. In addition, many energy harvesting system, such as small solar panel, are able to provide continuous power above 33 W even in indoor environment. Therefore, the tag has the potential of being deployed without batteries.

(89) Co-Existence with Wi-Fi Networks

(90) To determine the extent to which a backscatter tag, in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, may co-exists concurrently with another WiFi communication system, the following experiment is performed. In this experiment, a backscatter tag is deployed 4 m away from an 802.11b transmitter. The 802.11b transmitter is positioned 3 m away from a laptop, which transmits continuous WiFi packets to another laptop that is positioned 5 m away from the 802.11b transmitter. The 802.11b transmitter sends 802.11b packets on channel 7 (2.442 GHz), the tag shifts the backscattered signal by 30 MHz to channel 13 (2.472 GHz), and WiFi stream is run between the two laptops on channel 1 (2.412 GHz).

(91) FIG. 16 shows the WiFi throughput between the two laptops when backscatter is present and absent. When the backscatter transmission is turned off, as shown in plot 920, the median WiFi throughput achieved is 33.9 Mbps. The WiFi throughput varies between 22 Mbps and 38 Mbps because of human movement nearby. When the backscatter is present, as shown in plot 922, the median WiFi throughput drops by 5% to 32 Mbps. As a result, the backscatter does not cause severe interference on the WiFi streams. The reason is that the backscattered signal does not have overlapping spectrum with the active WiFi transmission. Further, the backscattered signal strength is usually below 70 dBm, much lower than the signal strength of the active WiFi transmission. As a result, backscatter communication does not severely impact active WiFi transmission

(92) To determine the impact of an active WiFi transmission between two laptops on the throughput of backscatter communication, the backscatter throughput when the WiFi stream between the two laptops is present and absent is measured as shown in FIG. 17. When as the WiFi stream on the laptops is turned off, as shown in plot 930, the median backscatter throughput achieved is 0.71 Mbps. When the WiFi stream is present, as shown in plot 932, the median backscatter throughput drops by 7% to 0.66 Mbps. The impact is relatively small because the backscattered signal is 60 MHz away from the WiFi stream on the frequency domain and any interference leaking in the frequency domain is quite small.

IMPLEMENTATION

(93) In the above experimental setup, an 802.11b receiver of a Mac-book Pro laptop, which has a WiFi card that runs the 802.11a/b/g/n/ac protocols is used. A sniffer tool is embedded in the Wireless Diagnostics application to set the desired channel to receive the backscattered signal. A tcpdump was used to analyze the received WiFi packets and extract the backscattered information. A signal generator is used as the standard 802.11b transmitter. The signal generator is able to output a marker signal that indicates the beginning of an 802.11b packet. The above experiments show the following. The prototype tag achieves an uplink backscatter range of 50 m in line-of-sight scenarios, which is twice better than conventional backscatter systems such as Passive WiFi In non-line-of-sight (NLOS) deployment. The prototype system achieves a range of 16 m even when the backscatter signal has to pass through two walls. The prototype tag achieves close to 1 Mbps throughput when the receiver is less than 8 m from the tag in LOS deployment. At farther distances and NLOS deployment, the prototype achieves an average of 273 kbps and 144 kbps throughput respectively. This shows that backscatter decoding operates properly even when the tag is 6 m away from the 802.11b transmitter. The prototype tag consumes power on the order of 33 W despite the fact that it moves the backscattered signal into another band.

(94) One factor that potentially impacts the performance of the system is the time-domain jitter between the tag bits stream and the 802.11b bits stream. In the above experiments, a signal generator is used to transmit 802.11b packets. This signal generator outputs a signal that indicates the start of an 802.11b packet. A wire feeds this signal to the tag and informs the tag when the 802.11b packet transmission starts. More importantly, a deterministic delay is introduced on this signal to emulate the time-domain jitters experienced by the tag.

(95) The above descriptions of embodiments of the present invention are illustrative and not limitative. For example, the various embodiments of the present inventions are not limited by the communication protocol, 802.11b or otherwise, used for signal transmission. Other modifications and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art and are intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims.