Method for producing dispersions of nanosheets

Abstract

The present invention provides a method for producing a solution of nanosheets, comprising the step of contacting an intercalated layered material with a polar aprotic solvent to produce a solution of nanosheets, wherein the intercalated layered material is prepared from a layered material selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal monochalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, a transition metal oxide, a metal halide, an oxychalcogenide, an oxypnictide, an oxyhalide of a transition metal, a trioxide, a perovskite, a niobate, a ruthenate, a layered III-VI semiconductor, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound. The invention also provides a solution of nanosheets and a plated material formed from nanosheets.

Claims

1. A method for producing a thermodynamically stable solution of nanosheets, comprising the step of contacting an intercalated layered material with a polar aprotic solvent to produce a solution of nanosheets, wherein the intercalated layered material is prepared from a layered material selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal monochalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, a transition metal oxide, a metal halide, an oxychalcogenide, an oxypnictide, an oxyhalide of a transition metal, a trioxide, a perovskite, a niobate, a ruthenate, a layered III-VI semiconductor, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound.

2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the layered material is selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal monochalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, a transition metal oxide, a layered III-VI semiconductor, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound.

3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the layered material is selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal monochalcogenide, a transition metal oxide, a layered III-VI semiconductor, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound.

4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the V-VI layered compound is selected from the group consisting of Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 and Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3.

5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the layered material is selected from the group consisting of MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, TiS.sub.2, NbSe.sub.2, NbTe.sub.2, TaS.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, MoTe.sub.2, WSe.sub.2, Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3, FeSe, GaS, GaSe, GaTe, In.sub.2Se.sub.3, TaSe.sub.2, SnS.sub.2, SnSe.sub.2, PbSnS.sub.2, NiTe.sub.3, SrRuO.sub.4, V.sub.2O.sub.5, ZrSe.sub.2, ZrS.sub.3, HfTe.sub.2, Sb.sub.2Te.sub.3 and black phosphorous.

6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the layered material is selected from the group consisting of MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, TiS.sub.2, Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, FeSe, V.sub.2O.sub.5, Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3, In.sub.2Se.sub.3, WSe.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, GaTe, Sb.sub.2Te.sub.3 and black phosphorous.

7. The method according to claim 1, wherein the polar aprotic solvent is selected from the group consisting of tetrahydrofuran, dimethyl sulfoxide, ethers, amides, N-methyl pyrrolidone, acetonitrile, CS.sub.2, N-cyclohexyl-2-pyrrolidone, dimethyl sulfoxide, ammonia, methylamine solvents and mixtures thereof.

8. The method according to claim 1, wherein the method further comprises the step of preparing the intercalated layered material by contacting a layered material with an electronic liquid to form an intercalated layered material.

9. The method according to claim 8, wherein the electronic liquid comprises a metal and a solvent.

10. The method according to claim 9, wherein the solvent is an amine solvent.

11. The method according to claim 9, wherein the metal is selected from the group consisting of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.

12. The method according to claim 1, wherein the nanosheets are unfunctionalised.

13. The method according to claim 1, wherein the nanosheets comprise four or less stacked monolayers.

14. The method according to claim 1, wherein the nanosheets have the in-plane crystal structure of the layered material from which they are derived.

15. The method according to claim 1, wherein the nanosheets substantially have the in-plane dimensions of the layers of the layered material from which they are derived.

16. The method according to claim 1, wherein the nanosheets are undistorted.

17. The method according to claim 1, wherein the nanosheets are unfolded.

18. The method according to claim 1, wherein the intercalated layered material spontaneously dissolves in the polar aprotic solvent to produce the solution of nanosheets.

19. The method according to claim 1, wherein the method further comprises the step of quenching the nanosheets to form a plated material.

20. The method of claim 19, wherein the quenching step comprises electrochemically quenching the nanosheets.

21. The method of claim 19, wherein the quenching step comprises chemically quenching the nanosheets.

22. The method according to claim 19, wherein the plated material has the in-plane crystal structure of the layered material from which it is derived.

23. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises the step of functionalising the nanosheets by contacting the nanosheets with RX, wherein R is a hydrocarbon group and X is a suitable leaving group.

24. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises the step of removing the solvent by freeze drying to produce an aerogel of the nanosheets.

Description

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

(1) Figures

(2) FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of the crystal structures of thirteen layered materials that may be used in the invention.

(3) FIG. 2 is an illustration of the method of the present invention.

(4) FIG. 3 is X-ray diffraction patterns of pristine bulk MoS.sub.2 and lithium intercalated MoS.sub.2.

(5) FIG. 4 is a series of photographs showing the spontaneous dissolution of Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 in DMF over a period of 3 days.

(6) FIG. 5 is a series of photographs of spontaneously dissolved solutions of made from seven layered materials.

(7) FIG. 6 is a) a timelapse series of photographs showing Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 dissolved in DMF crashing following exposure to air and b) solutions of six layered materials shown in FIG. 5 following exposure to air.

(8) FIGS. 7a-d is a series of AFM images and associated linescans of nanosheets formed from twelve layered materials.

(9) FIG. 8 is a series of TEM images/diffraction of nanosheets formed from seven layered materials.

(10) FIG. 9 (a-d) is electrochemically plated Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3: a) Optical micrographs of (a) positive electrode and (b) negative electrode showing grids of positions where Raman spectra were taken. c) Typical Raman spectra of deposited Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 nanosheets taken from (a). d) Intensity map of Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 Raman nanosheet feature for positions of the grid in (a). FIG. 9 (e-g) is electrochemically plated MoSe.sub.2: e) Optical micrograph of the positive electrode post plating f) Raman intensity map of the silicon peak at 520 cm.sup.1 (g) Raman intensity map of the MoSe.sub.2 peak at 241 cm.sup.1 (units on x and y are in microns).

(11) Various embodiments of the invention are described herein. It will be recognised that features specified in each embodiment may be combined with other specified features to provide further embodiments.

(12) Layered Material

(13) The term layered material is used herein to describe materials that exist in bulk form as stacks of 2D layers which form a 3D crystal. The layered material (and, therefore, the intercalated layered material) discussed herein is a non-carbon-containing layered material. In particular, the layered material is a non-graphite layered material, i.e. it is not graphite or a derivative thereof. Nevertheless, the layered material may contain carbon impurities, e.g. it may contain up to 1% i.e. 10000 ppm carbon impurities.

(14) In one embodiment, the layered material is an aprotic layered material. Specifically, in the same way that an aprotic solvent cannot donate a hydrogen ion (proton), an aprotic layered material is a material that does not have a protic surface, i.e. a surface with readily accessible H.sup.+ ions. In one embodiment, the aprotic layered material does not contain hydrogen in its structural unit (although the edges of the layers making up the material may be terminated with hydrogen). A mixture of layered materials may be used. The layered material may be used in any form, e.g. in the form of a powder, or a crystal, or the layered material may be provided as a film on a substrate. In one embodiment, the aprotic layered material does not contain protons that are capable of forming hydrogen bonds in solution.

(15) The layered material is selected from a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal monochalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, a transition metal oxide, a metal halide, an oxychalcogenide, an oxypnictide, an oxyhalide of a transition metal, a trioxide, a perovskite, a niobate, a ruthenate, a layered III-VI semiconductor, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound. In one embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, a transition metal oxide, a metal halide, an oxychalcogenide, an oxypnictide, an oxyhalide of a transition metal, a trioxide, a perovskite, a niobate, a layered III-VI semiconductor, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound. In another embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal monochalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, a transition metal oxide, a layered III-VI semiconductor, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound. In another embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal monochalcogenide, a transition metal oxide, a layered III-VI semiconductor, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound. In another embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, a layered III-VI semiconductor, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound. In another embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, a layered III-VI semiconductor, and a V-VI layered compound. In another embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound. In another embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide and a V-VI layered compound. In one embodiment, the layered material is a transition metal dichalcogenide. In another embodiment, the layered material is a V-VI layered compound. In another embodiment, the layered material is a transition metal monochalcogenide. In another embodiment, the layered material is a transition metal oxide. In another embodiment, the layered material is a layered III-VI semiconductor. In another embodiment, the layered material is black phosphorous. The V-VI layered compound may be selected from the group consisting of Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3, and Sb.sub.2Te.sub.3. The V-VI layered compound may be selected from the group consisting of Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 and Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3. In one embodiment, the transition metal is selected from the group consisting of Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Tc, Re, Ni, Pd and Pt. In one embodiment, the metal halide is a transition metal halide. In one embodiment, the halide is selected from a fluoride, a chloride, a bromide and an iodide. In a further embodiment, the halide is a chloride.

(16) In one embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, TiS.sub.2, NbSe.sub.2, NbTe.sub.2, TaS.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, MoTe.sub.2, WSe.sub.2, Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3, FeSe, GaS, GaSe, GaTe, In.sub.2Se.sub.3, TaSe.sub.2, SnS.sub.2, SnSe.sub.2, PbSnS.sub.2, NiTe.sub.3, SrRuO.sub.4, V.sub.2O.sub.5, ZrSe.sub.2, ZrS.sub.3, HfTe.sub.2, Sb.sub.2Te.sub.3 and black phosphorous. In one embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, TiS.sub.2, NbSe.sub.2, NbTe.sub.2, TaS.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, MoTe.sub.2, WSe.sub.2, Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3, FeSe, GaS, GaSe, In.sub.2Se.sub.3, TaSe.sub.2, SnS.sub.2, SnSe.sub.2, PbSnS.sub.2, NiTe.sub.3, SrRuO.sub.4, V.sub.2O.sub.5, ZrSe.sub.2 and black phosphorous. In one embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, TiS.sub.2, NbSe.sub.2, NbTe.sub.2, TaS.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, MoTe.sub.2, WSe.sub.2, Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3, GaS, GaSe, In.sub.2Se.sub.3, TaSe.sub.2, SnS.sub.2, SnSe.sub.2, PbSnS.sub.2, NiTe.sub.3, SrRuO.sub.4, V.sub.2O.sub.5, ZrSe.sub.2 and black phosphorous. In one embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, TiS.sub.2, Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, FeSe, V.sub.2O.sub.5, Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3, In.sub.2Se.sub.3, WSe.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, GaTe, ZrS.sub.3, HfTe.sub.2, Sb.sub.2Te.sub.3 and black phosphorous. In one embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, TiS.sub.2, Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, FeSe, V.sub.2O.sub.5, Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3, In.sub.2Se.sub.3, WSe.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, GaTe, Sb.sub.2Te.sub.3 and black phosphorous. In one embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, TiS.sub.2 and Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, FeSe, V.sub.2O.sub.5, Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3, In.sub.2Se.sub.3, WSe.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, and black phosphorous. In one embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, TiS.sub.2 and Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, V.sub.2O.sub.5, Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3, In.sub.2Se.sub.3, WSe.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, and black phosphorous. In another embodiment, the layered material is selected from the group consisting of MoS.sub.2, WS.sub.2, TiS.sub.2, and Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3. In a specific embodiment, the layered material is MoS.sub.2. In another specific embodiment, the layered material is WS.sub.2. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is TiS.sub.2. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is V.sub.2O.sub.5. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is In.sub.2Se.sub.3. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is WSe.sub.2. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is MoSe.sub.2. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is black phosphorous. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is FeSe. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is GaTe. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is ZrS.sub.3. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is HfTe.sub.2. In a further specific embodiment, the layered material is Sb.sub.2Te.sub.3.

(17) The term intercalated layered material is used herein to describe a layered material in which one or more guest species (i.e. a species that is not found in the layered material in its native form) is inserted between the layers of the material. The guest species may be an atomic, molecular or ionic species, such as an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal (the person skilled in the art will appreciate that metal atoms or metal ions may be intended according to the context in which alkali metal and alkaline earth metal are used). The intercalated layered material may be prepared by any suitable method. For instance, the intercalated layered material may be prepared by a method step selected from the group consisting of contacting a layered material with an electronic liquid, reduction of a layered material by a vapour phase of the intercalant, immersion of a layered material in a molten intercalant, use of a charge transfer agent, electrochemical driven intercalation, and reduction of a layered material by a polyaryl salt in an aprotic solvent. Methods of reduction by an alkali metal in the vapour phase, electrochemical driven intercalation and reduction by a polyaryl alkali salt are described in US2011/0130494 A1 (see, in particular, paragraphs [0020]-[0023]), which is incorporated herein by reference. In one embodiment, the intercalated layered material is formed by a method step selected from the group consisting of contacting a layered material with an electronic liquid, reduction of a layered material by a vapour phase of the intercalant, electrochemical intercalation of the layered material, intercalation via immersion of the layered material in molten intercalant, and intercalation of the layered material via use of a charge transfer agent for example, butyl-lithium or lithium borohydride. In one embodiment, the intercalated layered material is formed by intercalation of the layered material via use of a charge transfer agent. In another embodiment, the intercalated layered material is formed by reduction of a layered material by a vapour phase of the intercalant. In a preferred embodiment, the intercalated layered material is formed by contacting a layered material with an electronic liquid. In this embodiment, the guest species is the electronic liquid and hence metal, amine solvent and solvated electrons will be intercalated between the layers. This has the effect of charging the layers, i.e. the solvated electrons present in the electronic liquid reduce the layered material.

(18) The use of an electronic liquid is advantageous because it avoids the high temperatures required by some other routes for forming intercalated layered materials that would decompose some bulk materials. In addition, electronic liquids can be the only way certain layered materials can be intercalated. In addition, electronic liquids can be the only way to intercalate certain ions. In addition the solvent in the electronic liquid can also (as well as the ion) intercalate the layered material, which may be beneficial for subsequent exfoliation. Electronic liquids can also scavenge any impurities present (e.g. water, oxygen), which could degrade the resulting intercalated layered material, and reduces metal wastage as compared to some other routes (e.g. vapour transport). Furthermore, the use of an electronic liquid may facilitate the preparation of a homogenous intercalated layered material.

(19) In one embodiment, the guest species is selected from the group consisting of an alkali metal and an alkaline earth metal. In one embodiment, the guest species is an alkali metal. In one embodiment the guest species is a rare earth metal (e.g. Eu or Yb). The stoichiometric ratio of alkali metal:structural unit (e.g. MoS.sub.2 unit) of the layered material in the intercalated layered material may be about 5:1 or less, or from about 5:1 to about 1:200, or about 2:1 or less, or from about 2:1 to about 1:100, or about 1:1 or less, or from about 1:1 to about 1:100, or about 1:6 or less, or from about 1:6 to about 1:100, or about 1:8 or less, or from about 1:8 to about 1:100, or about 1:10 or less, or from about 1:10 to about 1:100, or about 1:15 or less, or from about 1:15 to about 1:100, or about 1:20 or less, or from about 1:20 to about 1:100, or about 1:30 or less, or from about 1:30 to about 1:100, or about 1:40 or less, or from about 1:40 to about 1:100, or about 1:50 or less, or from about 1:50 to about 1:75. The molar ratio of metal atoms to structural units can be determined from their relative masses by simple calculations with which the person skilled in the art will be familiar.

(20) Nanosheets

(21) The term nanosheets is used herein to describe products derived from layered materials that comprise or consist essentially of a monolayer (i.e. a single sheet or layer) of the parent layered material or a small number (ten or less) of stacked monolayers of the parent layered material. For instance, a monolayer of MoS.sub.2 comprises a single X-M-X stack or sheet. The nanosheets discussed herein are non-carbon-containing nanosheets. In particular, they are not graphenes or derivatives thereof. Nevertheless, the nanosheets may contain carbon impurities, e.g. they may contain up to 1% or 10000 ppm carbon impurities. The nanosheets produced by the method of the invention are charged, although this charge may subsequently be removed in a quenching step. The nanosheets may be derived from the layered materials listed above, e.g. the nanosheets may be derived from a layered material selected from the group consisting of a transition metal dichalcogenide, a transition metal monochalcogenide, a transition metal trichalcogenide, a transition metal oxide, a metal halide, an oxychalcogenide, an oxypnictide, an oxyhalide of a transition metal, a trioxide, a perovskite, a niobate, a ruthenate, a layered III-VI semiconductor, black phosphorous and a V-VI layered compound.

(22) In one embodiment, the nanosheets comprise ten or less stacked monolayers. In an alternative embodiment, the nanosheets comprise eight or less stacked monolayers. In an alternative embodiment, the nanosheets comprise six or less stacked monolayers. In an alternative embodiment, the nanosheets comprise four or less stacked monolayers. In an alternative embodiment, the nanosheets comprise three or less stacked monolayers. In an alternative embodiment, the nanosheets comprise two or less stacked monolayers. In an alternative embodiment, the nanosheets comprise monolayers. As a consequence of the method of the present invention, the nanosheets are dispersed, which means that each nanosheet, whether it is mono-layer, bi-layer, tri-layer etc. is a separate individual moiety, i.e. the solution is a solution of individual nanosheets. The solution of nanosheets produced by the method of the present invention may comprise a mixture of nanosheets, such as a mixture of mono-, bi-, tri- and 4-layer nanosheets. In an alternative embodiment, the solution comprises only mono-, bi- and tri-layer nanosheets. In a further embodiment, the solution comprises only trilayer nanosheets. In an alternative embodiment, the solution comprises only mono- and bi-layer nanosheets. In a further embodiment, the solution comprises only bilayer nanosheets. In an alternative embodiment, the solution comprises only monolayer nanosheets.

(23) The term mono-dispersed is used herein to describe a solution wherein the dispersed individual nanosheets comprised within the solution all have essentially the same dimensions i.e. the same size and shape. Thus, in one embodiment, the solution of nanosheets produced by the method of the present invention may comprise mono-dispersed nanosheets, such as mono-dispersed monolayers. In particular, the term mono-dispersed is used to describe a solution wherein the dimensions of the individual nanosheets which comprise the solution have a standard deviation of less than about 20%, in one embodiment, less than about 15%, in another embodiment, less than about 10%, in a further embodiment, less than about 5%.

(24) In one embodiment, the nanosheets are unfunctionalised nanosheets, i.e. there are no atoms or molecules covalently bonded to the nanosheets that were not part of the parent layered material. In other words, although the nanosheets may be charged, they are not otherwise chemically modified as compared to the sheets of the bulk layered material.

(25) In another embodiment, the nanosheets are undamaged, i.e. they substantially retain the original in-plane dimensions of the layers of the parent layered material (as opposed to the out-of-plane dimension, or thickness of the stack of layers making up the parent material) and/or the in-plane crystal structure of the parent layered material and/or are undistorted. More specifically, they may retain at least 95% of the in-plane dimensions of the layers of the parent layered material, or at least 90% of the in-plane dimensions of the layers of the parent layered material. In a further embodiment, the nanosheets are unfunctionalised and undamaged. In a further embodiment, the nanosheets are unfolded.

(26) The present invention provides a solution of nanosheets, in other words a homogeneous mixture in which the nanosheets are dissolved in a solvent. The solution may comprise a polar aprotic solvent. In one embodiment, the nanosheets are charged. In a further embodiment, the nanosheets are unfunctionalised. In a further embodiment, the nanosheets have the in-plane crystal structure of the parent layered material. In a further embodiment, the nanosheets are undistorted. In a further embodiment, the solution of nanosheets is thermodynamically stable. The term thermodynamically stable is used herein to refer to a solution in which the dissolved species do not precipitate or crash out (when the solution is retained under the conditions (e.g. temperature, pressure, atmosphere etc.) under which it was formed). In particular, the term thermodynamically stable is used to refer to a solution in which the dissolved species do not precipitate or crash out over a period of one month or more, or over a period of two months or more, or over a period of three months or more, or over a period of four months or more, or over a period of six months or more, or over a period of nine months or more, or over a period of a year or more.

(27) The solution may comprise nanosheets at a concentration of about 0.001 mg/ml or greater, about 0.01 mg/ml or greater, about 0.05 mg/ml or greater, about 0.1 mg/ml or greater, about 0.5 mg/ml or greater, about 1 mg/ml or greater, about 5 mg/ml or greater, about 10 mg/ml or greater, or about 100 mg/ml or greater.

(28) Polar Aprotic Solvent

(29) Polar aprotic solvents do not have an acidic hydrogen and are able to stabilize ions. The skilled person will be familiar with suitable polar aprotic solvents for use in the method of the present invention. The polar aprotic solvent may be selected from the group consisting of tetrahydrofuran (THF), dimethyl sulfoxide, ethers (such as dioxane), amides (such as dimethylformamide (DMF) and hexamethylphosphorotriamide), N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP), acetonitrile, CS.sub.2, N-cyclohexyl-2-pyrrolidone, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and amine solvents (such as ammonia and methylamine) and mixtures thereof. In one embodiment, the polar aprotic solvent is selected from tetrahydrofuran, dimethylformamide, N-methyl pyrrolidone and mixtures thereof. The polar aprotic solvent may be selected according to the layered material. Thus, in one embodiment, the layered material is MoS.sub.2 and the polar aprotic solvent is N-methyl pyrrolidone, tetrahydrofuran or dimethylformamide. In another embodiment, the layered material is Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 and the polar aprotic solvent is N-methyl pyrrolidone or dimethylformamide. In another embodiment, the layered material is WS.sub.2 and the polar aprotic solvent is tetrahydrofuran, N-methyl pyrrolidone, or dimethylformamide. In another embodiment, the layered material is TiS.sub.2 and the polar aprotic solvent is tetrahydrofuran, N-methyl pyrrolidone, or dimethylformamide. In another embodiment, the layered material is FeSe and the polar aprotic solvent is tetrahydrofuran, N-methyl pyrrolidone, or dimethylformamide. In another embodiment, the layered material is V.sub.2O.sub.5 and the polar aprotic solvent is tetrahydrofuran, N-methyl pyrrolidone, or dimethylformamide. In another embodiment, the layered material is Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3 and the polar aprotic solvent is tetrahydrofuran, N-methyl pyrrolidone, or dimethylformamide. In another embodiment, the layered material is In.sub.2Se.sub.3 and the polar aprotic solvent is tetrahydrofuran, N-methyl pyrrolidone, or dimethylformamide. In another embodiment, the layered material is black phosphorous and the polar aprotic solvent is tetrahydrofuran, N-methyl pyrrolidone, or dimethylformamide. In another embodiment, the layered material is WSe.sub.2 and the polar aprotic solvent is tetrahydrofuran, N-methyl pyrrolidone, or dimethylformamide. In another embodiment, the layered material is MoSe.sub.2 and the polar aprotic solvent is tetrahydrofuran, N-methyl pyrrolidone, or dimethylformamide. The polar aprotic solvent that is contacted with the intercalated layered material may be referred to herein as the first polar aprotic solvent to distinguish it from the second polar aprotic solvent, which is a component of the electronic liquid, discussed below.

(30) In one embodiment, the polar aprotic solvent used in the method of the present invention is a dry polar aprotic solvent. The term dry polar aprotic solvent as used herein means that the polar aprotic solvent may comprise about 1500 ppm water or less, or about 1000 ppm water or less, or about 500 ppm water or less, or about 200 ppm water or less, or about 100 ppm water or less, or about 50 ppm water or less, or about 25 ppm water or less, or about 20 ppm water or less, or about 15 ppm water or less, or about 10 ppm water or less, or about 5 ppm water or less, or about 2 ppm water or less, or about 1 ppm water or less. The person skilled in the art will be familiar with methods for obtaining dry solvents, e.g. by using molecular sieves.

(31) It is also preferred to exclude air from the system by ensuring that all materials are oxygen-free (i.e. that no oxygen is adsorbed to the materials). The skilled person will appreciate that it is not possible to establish a completely oxygen-free environment. Thus, as used herein, the term oxygen-free refers to an environment in which the content of oxygen is about 5 ppm or less. The steps of the method of the invention, e.g. the step of contacting an intercalated layered material with a polar aprotic solvent to produce a solution of nanosheets, may therefore be carried out in an oxygen-free environment. Similarly, the step of preparing the intercalated layered material by contacting a layered material with an electronic liquid to form an intercalated layered material may be carried out in an oxygen-free environment.

(32) The step of contacting the intercalated layered material with a polar aprotic solvent may take place over any suitable duration to effect dissolution of the nanosheets. For instance, the contacting step may take place over 1 minute or more, over 1 hour or more, or over 2 hours or more, or over 12 hours or more, or over 24 hours or more, or over 48 hours or more, or over a week or more, or over a month or more. The solutions of nanosheets are thermodynamically stable in the polar aprotic solvent and may thus be stored in it. Thus, the solutions of nanosheets may remain stable over a period of one month or more, or over a period of three months or more, or over a period of six months or more, or over a period of nine months or more, or over a period of a year or more.

(33) The conditions of the contacting step are chosen to ensure that the polar aprotic solvent is present as a liquid throughout. Specifically, the temperature and pressure of the contacting step are chosen to avoid the polar aprotic solvent boiling or freezing.

(34) According to the method of the present invention, a solution of nanosheets can be produced from an intercalated layered material by spontaneous dissolution, i.e. the intercalated layered material can spontaneously dissolve in the polar aprotic solvent to produce the solution of nanosheets. Therefore, agitation (including sonication, ultrasonication, stirring and/or thermal shock) is not required for a solution to be formed. Nevertheless, agitation may be used in method of the present invention to facilitate and/or accelerate dissolution, or to maximise the concentration of nanosheets in the solution. However, in one embodiment, the method of the present invention does not include a step of agitating the intercalated layered material by sonication or thermal shock, particularly to effect dissolution.

(35) Electronic Liquid

(36) The term electronic liquid is used herein to describe the liquids which are formed when a metal, such as an alkali metal (e.g. sodium), an alkaline earth metal (e.g. calcium), or a rare earth metal (e.g. Europium or Ytterbium), dissolves without chemical reaction into a polar aprotic solventthe prototypical example being ammonia. This process releases electrons into the solvent forming a highly reducing solution. In other words, the term electronic liquid may be used herein to describe a solution comprising solvated electrons.

(37) In one embodiment, the electronic liquid comprises a metal and a second polar aprotic solvent. The metal used in the method of the present invention is a metal which dissolves in a polar aprotic solvent, in particular an amine solvent, to form an electronic liquid. The person skilled in the art will be familiar with appropriate metals. Preferably, the metal is selected from the group consisting of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, rare earth metals and mixtures thereof. Preferably, the metal is selected from the group consisting of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals and mixtures thereof. Preferably, the metal is an alkali metal, in particular, lithium, sodium or potassium. In one embodiment, the metal is lithium. In another embodiment, the metal is sodium. In an alternative embodiment, the metal is potassium. Alternatively, the metal may be an alkaline earth metal such as calcium. In one embodiment, a mixture of metals may be used to form the electronic liquid.

(38) It is advantageous to control carefully the amount of metal included in the solution. The stoichiometric ratio of alkali metal:structural unit in the electronic liquid may be selected from those listed above for the stoichiometric ratio of alkali metal:structural unit of the layered material in the intercalated layered material.

(39) The second polar aprotic solvent may be selected from those listed above. In one embodiment, preferably the second polar aprotic solvent is an amine solvent. In some embodiments, the amine solvent may be ammonia or an alkylamine, such as a C.sub.1 to C.sub.12 amine, a C.sub.1 to C.sub.10 amine, a C.sub.1 to C.sub.8 amine, a C.sub.1 to C.sub.6 amine, or a C.sub.1 to C.sub.4 amine. The amine solvent is preferably selected from ammonia, methylamine or ethylamine. In one embodiment, the amine solvent is ammonia. In an alternative embodiment, the amine solvent is methylamine.

(40) In one embodiment, the electronic liquid is formed by contacting a metal with the second polar aprotic solvent, preferably an amine solvent in a ratio of about 1:2, about 1:3, about 1:4, about 1:5, about 1:6, or about 1:7. In one embodiment, the electronic liquid is formed by contacting a metal with a polar aprotic solvent, preferably an amine solvent, in a ratio in the range from about 1:2 to about 1:1000, or from about 1:2 to about 1:100, or about 1:2 to about 1:50, or about 1:2 to about 1:20, or about 1:3 to about 1:10, or about 1:4 to about 1:8.

(41) In one embodiment, the metal is an alkali metal and the second polar aprotic solvent is an amine solvent. In a specific embodiment, the metal is lithium and the amine solvent is ammonia. In one embodiment, the metal is sodium and the amine solvent is ammonia. In one embodiment, the metal is potassium and the amine solvent is ammonia. In one embodiment, the metal is sodium and the amine solvent is methylamine. In one embodiment, the metal is lithium and the amine solvent is methylamine. In one embodiment, the metal is potassium and the amine solvent is methylamine.

(42) In one embodiment, the intercalated layered material is isolated from the excess electronic liquid prior to contact with the polar aprotic solvent. In an alternative embodiment, the intercalated layered material is contacted with the polar aprotic solvent directly after contact with the electronic liquid i.e. without prior removal of the excess liquid such that all the second polar aprotic solvent is still present during the contacting with the polar aprotic solvent.

(43) Quenching

(44) Quenching refers to the removal of charge (partially or completely) from nanosheets.

(45) The quenching step of the method of the invention may comprise electrochemically quenching the nanosheets and/or chemically quenching the nanosheets to form a plated material. The term plated material is used herein to describe the material formed by depositing nanosheets derived from a layered material. The nanosheets may be deposited with the same structure as the parent layered material to form a restacked plated material. Alternatively, the nanosheets may be deposited with a different structure to the parent layered material to form a turbostratically stacked plated material. A further alternative, which may be obtained when the plated material is formed from a dilute solution of nanosheets, is for the nanosheets to be deposited so that they lie separately, i.e. an unstacked plated material. Therefore, in one embodiment, the plated material is selected from the group consisting of a restacked plated material, a turbostratically stacked plated material and an unstacked plated material. In one embodiment, the plated material (or, more specifically, the nanosheets that make up the plated material) is undistorted.

(46) In one embodiment, the quenching step comprises electrochemically quenching the nanosheets. In this case, the additional charge on the individual nanosheets is removed by applying a voltage to an (otherwise inert) electrode (e.g. a platinum-coated silicon wafer) placed in the solution of nanosheets. The nanosheets therefore plate out of solution onto the electrode. In this way, a plated material may be constructed on the electrode.

(47) By controlling the potential of the electrode, nanosheets of different electron affinities can be oxidised and precipitated onto the electrode, allowing selective deposition of nanosheets (e.g. those comprising bilayers). The electrode (or series of working electrodes) may be held at fixed potential(s), in potentiostatic mode, or increased from zero. A counter electrode may also be provided, preferably in a remote, though ionically-linked compartment, at which the metal counter ion is reduced and recovered. A reference electrode may be used to control the potential at the working electrode accurately.

(48) The electrochemical quenching step described above offers a controllably scalable method to deposit nanosheets, allowing large-scale, targeted, high-precision deposition of nanosheets; control over the thickness of nanosheets deposited; simultaneous removal of cations that might be detrimental to properties and difficult to remove using standard methods (e.g. spraying or dropcoating); and quenching of the charge without a potentially damaging chemical reaction. In particular, the inventors have found electrochemical quenching of the charged nanosheets from solution, onto patterned electrodes, can be used to efficiently assemble films of the plated material of nanosheets in a highly controllable way.

(49) In one embodiment, the quenching step comprises chemically quenching the nanosheets, which may be carried out by addition of a suitable quenching agent, including but not limited to O.sub.2, H.sub.2O, I.sub.2, and alcohols (or other protic species). As the quenching agent is added, the species with the highest energy electrons will be deposited from solution first. Thus, a plated material may be formed by the nanosheets deposited from solution.

(50) The gradual quenching of the charge by either of these methods (e.g. by controlling the potential of the electrode, or by adding appropriate stoichiometric quantities), may also allow desired fractions of nanosheets to be separated. For example, the fractions precipitated after neutralising predetermined amounts of the total charge may be collected.

(51) Alternatively, or in an additional step, the solvent may gradually be removed, causing the heaviest/least charged species to deposit first. These mechanisms allow separation by, for example, nanosheet dimensions on the one hand, and nanosheet electronic character on the other.

(52) Quenching agents including but not limited to RX, wherein R is a hydrocarbon group (e.g. C.sub.1-6alkyl) and X is a suitable leaving group (e.g. Cl, Br or I), can be used to chemically modify the nanosheets. Thus, in one embodiment, the method of the invention further comprises the step of functionalising the nanosheets by contacting the nanosheets with RX. By carrying out the reaction on solutions of individual nanosheets, an ideally uniform functionalisation is achieved over the nanosheet surface. In one embodiment, the method of the invention further comprises the step of functionalising the nanosheets by one or more graft(s) of functional groups.

(53) Optionally, two or more layered materials can be dissolved in the same solvent, which can then be subsequently removed to yield a restacked or turbostratically stacked composite material of the two different layered materials.

(54) In one embodiment, the method of the invention further comprises the step of removing the solvent by freeze drying to produce an aerogel of the nanosheets.

(55) General

(56) The term comprising encompasses including as well as consisting e.g. a composition comprising X may consist exclusively of X or may include something additional e.g. X+Y.

(57) The term about in relation to a numerical value x means, for example, x10%.

MODES FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

(58) Example

(59) Nanosheets

(60) The layered materials listed in Table 1 were outgassed by heating at the temperatures listed in Table 1 at pressures of <10.sup.6 mbar (obtained using a turbopump) in order to remove adsorbed species. The temperature is carefully controlled to be below that at which the layered material decomposes. The metal (as indicated in Table 1) was added to the outgassed layered material such that the stoichiometric ratio of alkali metal:structural unit in the layered material was typically 1:1 or less. Liquid ammonia was then condensed onto the outgassed layered material and metal at 230K. This was done using a pre-cleaned, pre-baked, high-integrity, leak-tight gas-handling manifold. The reaction was left for more than 24 hours for the intercalation to take place. Upon immediate condensation of the liquid ammonia onto the alkali metal, a deep blue liquid formed (FIG. 2). This is a well-known signature of the presence of solvated electrons. When the charge transfer/intercalation was complete, the solution colour turned from blue to colourless as the electrons transferred from solution and into to the layered material (FIG. 2). This was followed by removal of the ammonia to leave the intercalated layered material. The intercalation of lithium-ammonia into MoS.sub.2 was investigated using X-ray diffraction, which showed an increase of the interlayer spacing from 6.15 to 9.5 as expected as the intercalant was accommodated between the MoS.sub.2 sheets [xix] (FIG. 3). The intercalated layered material was then removed, without exposure to air, into a high integrity argon glovebox where it was contacted with anhydrous, polar aprotic solvent (as listed in Table 1) which had been dried further with molecular sieves. The resulting solutions were left to spontaneously dissolve, without exposure to air or moisture and without any form of mechanical agitation such as stirring or sonication. After one week of dissolution the properties of the solution were investigated.

(61) The above process is shown in FIG. 2.

(62) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Heating Aprotic Crystal Solution Layered material temperature solvent structure Metal Colour MoS.sub.2 (powder from 300 C. NMP or DMF FIG. 1 Li, Na, or K Yellow Aldrich < 2 m) or THF brown Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 (powder from 200 C. NMP or DMF FIG. 1 K Browny Aldrich 325 mesh) orange WS.sub.2 (powder from 300 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Li Yellow- Aldrich < 2 m) or DMF Orange TiS.sub.2 (powder from 300 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Li Browny Aldrich, 200 or DMF orange mesh < 75 m) FeSe (Alfa Aesar, 100 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Li Yellow- powder) or DMF Brown V.sub.2O.sub.5 (Aldrich, powder) 100 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Li Yellow or DMF Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3 (powder, Sigma- 100 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Li Yellow Aldrich) or DMF In.sub.2Se.sub.3 (powder, Sigma- 100 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Li Yellow- Aldrich) or DMF Brown Black Phosphorous 100 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Na, K Orange- (rough powder/crystals, or DMF Yellow Smart-elements GmbH) WSe.sub.2 (powder, VWR 150 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Li Pale International) or DMF yellow MoSe.sub.2 (powder, 150 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Li Yellow Sigma-Aldrich) or DMF Sb.sub.2Te.sub.3 (powder, Sigma- 100 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Li Dark Aldrich) or DMF brown/purple GaTe (VWR) chunks 100 C. THF or NMP FIG. 1 Li, K Pink or DMF

(63) The presence of dissolved species in solution was evident by the change in colour of the solutions; in all cases the solvent was originally colourless. A time sequence demonstrating the spontaneous dissolution in a quartz cell is shown in FIG. 4. The example solutions are all coloured and examples are shown in FIG. 5 and the colour of the solutions is detailed in Table 1. These solutions are stable if kept in a stringently air and moisture free environment (several of the solutions have been observed to be stable over a period of over one year at the time of writing). If a hand-held laser is shined through any of the nanosheet solutions (shown in FIG. 4 for In.sub.2Se.sub.3 and Bi.sub.2Se.sub.3), the laser is visibly scattered via the Tyndall effect, confirming the presence of dissolved nanoparticles. The requirement of these conditions is demonstrated by exposing the solutions to air after which the dissolved species crash out, as shown in FIG. 6. This is consistent with the solutions containing negatively charged nanosheets. Specifically, upon exposure to air the charge on the nanosheets is quenched by the oxygen in the air, thus the interaction of the nanosheets with the polar aprotic solvent, that resulted in their dissolution being thermodynamically favourable while the nanosheets were charged, no longer exists, and the solutions are no longer stable.

(64) Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was performed on all nanosheets deposited from the solutions onto mica substrates. The linescans from the AFM clearly demonstrate the expected plate-like structure of the nanosheets with heights of order of nm and lateral dimensions over an order of magnitude greater (see FIG. 7). For the majority of cases flakes of 1 nm height are visible, indicating individual monolayer nanosheets/platelets. For MoS.sub.2, the hexagonal form arising from the underlying symmetry of the nanosheet crystals is clearly visible; this indicates that the nanosheets are undamaged as this is the shape of the crystallites in pristine bulk samples of the parent layered material.

(65) Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) is a powerful technique which can image the nanosheets to nm scale resolution and also permits an electron diffraction pattern on the nanofocused image from which the crystallographic structure of the material can be determined. The presence of nanosheets in solution was confirmed by the TEM micrographs (FIG. 8). As also shown with AFM for MoS.sub.2 and very clearly for Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 and Sb.sub.2Te.sub.3, the hexagonal form of the nanosheet crystals in bulk form can be maintained confirming the process can yield solutions of undamaged nanosheets. Furthermore, the diffraction pattern taken from an entire nanosheet of MoS.sub.2 shows the presence of the single-crystal of hexagonal symmetry expected from a pristine MoS.sub.2 crystal. Analysis of the diffraction pattern yields the hexagonal lattice unit vector 3.17+/0.2 , identical to that of bulk MoS.sub.2 as measured by high resolution diffraction of 3.16 [xxi]. As well as confirming the nanosheet is indeed MoS.sub.2 and that the crystal structure of the bulk materials is maintained in the nanosheet form, the fact that there is a single set of spots indicates that this nanosheet is unfolded. It is also important to note that this diffraction pattern shows only diffraction spots expected from a pristine 2H-MoS.sub.2 crystal, the principal polymorph found in bulk MoS.sub.2. This is relevant because MoS.sub.2 which is exfoliated via intercalation followed by reaction with water yields nanosheets with a significant number of the (distorted) polymorph 1T-MoS.sub.2 [viii]. For 1T-MoS.sub.2, the distortion leads to an extra set of superlattice spots in the electron diffraction pattern [xxii]. The lack of these spots in the diffraction pattern in FIG. 8 confirms the presence of undistorted undamaged MoS.sub.2 nanosheet. Electron diffraction also confirms the crystal structure of the bulk layered material is maintained in the nanosheets deposited from solution in at least the cases of Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3, WS.sub.2, MoSe.sub.2, Sb.sub.2Te.sub.3 and V.sub.2O.sub.5. High resolution TEM was taken for MoS.sub.2 and V.sub.2O.sub.5(FIG. 8) revealing the expected (defect free) atomic lattice, indicating pristine nanosheets.

(66) Plated Material

(67) To quench the charge electrochemically, an electric field of 1 Vcm.sup.1 was applied across two platinum coated silicon electrodes, to a solution of spontaneously dissolved nanosheets, for 12 hours. Following this, the electrodes were removed from the solution, gently rinsed in pure solvent and dried under vacuum at 100 C. FIG. 9 shows optical micrographs of the part of the electrodes immersed in solution following plating for a solution of Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 nanosheets in DMF. The positive electrode (FIG. 9a) is coated in material whereas the negative electrode (FIG. 9b) is apparently clear. The Raman spectra taken from the positive electrode is shown in FIG. 9c alongside that for bulk Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3. For this material there is a significant difference between the Raman spectra for the bulk material to that of nanosheets. This is due to symmetry breaking as the Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 is reduced to ultrathin sizes, as measured in mechanically exfoliated and chemical grown nanosheets [xxiii, xxiv]. In fact, the data shown in FIG. 9c for the material plated on the positive electrode shows very close agreement with literature values for the uncharged Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 nanosheets. The presence of Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 nanosheets in solution as negatively charged species, as they are deposited on the positive electrode, is therefore confirmed. Raman scattering is probe of the vibronic spectrum of a material which is determined from the material's intrinsic crystal structure. Measuring the expected Raman spectra for Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 nanosheets confirms that crystal structure of the material is maintained and also that there is no significant functionalisation of the nanosheets themselves, which would damage the crystal structure. A Raman map scan was then performed near the edge of the electrode towards where the local electric field is stronger and the resulting, deposited film therefore thicker. It was found that accompanying increase in the film's visible increase in thickness is a monotonic increase in intensity of the nanosheet spectra as demonstrated by the intensity colour map of the Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 nanosheet peak at 120 cm.sup.1 in FIG. 9d. Despite this increase in thickness there is no accompanying recovery of spectra for bulk Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3. This indicates the deposited material comprises restacked undamaged crystals of nanosheets rather than a reforming of the original bulk Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 crystal. A map of >700 measurement positions (as shown by the grid on FIG. 9b) on the negative electrode over the same region showed no measurable signal. A similar process was carried out for a solution of charged MoSe.sub.2 nanosheets in DMF. In this case, the electrodes were such that the conductive platinum coating did not completely cover the underlaying silicon/SiO.sub.2 substrate, leaving an insulating region. Following the electroplating (in this case at 3 Vcm.sup.1 for 48 hours), a Raman map scan, using a 514.5 nm laser, was taken over the points on the grid shown in the optical micrograph FIG. 9e. This figure also clearly shows two distinct regions which conincide with where the substrate was bare (left hand side) and where it was coated with platinum (right hand side). Individual Raman spectra taken from the left hand side show the dominant silicon peak at 520 cm.sup.1 and no peak at 241 cm.sup.1 which would be expected to arise from deposited MoSe.sub.2 nanosheets [xxv]. In contrast, the spectra taken from the right side of the grid show sharp peaks at 241 cm.sup.1 confirming the presence of MoSe.sub.2. FIGS. 9f and 9g show the Raman intensity maps for the silicon peak and MoSe.sub.2 peak respectively, and confirm the MoSe.sub.2 is plated with precision only upon where the substrate is coated with platinum.

(68) Measurement Techniques

(69) X-ray diffraction was undertaken on an X-pert Philips diffractometer in reflection geometry with a Cu source (=1.54 ).

(70) AFM was undertaken on a Bruker Dimension 3100 or custom built High Speed AFM (HSAFM). The nanosheets were dropped from solution onto precleaved mica substrates; the solvent was removed by dynamic vacuum. Scans were performed in intermittent-contact mode with PPP-NCH silicon cantilevers (Nanosensors, Neuchtel Switzerland). HSAFM was undertaken using a Laser Doppler Vibrometer (Polytec VIB-A-510) to directly measure height using a (Bruker MSNL) silicon tip on Nitride lever in contact mode. Imaging was typically performed using a 4 um.sup.2 window, imaging at 2 fps.

(71) TEM was undertaken on a JEOL 1010 system at 80 keV or JEOL 2100 operated at 200 keV and images captured with a Gatan Orius SC200W. In the case of the images that include high resolution TEM, the imaging was performed with an FEI Titan operated at 300 kV. The electron diffraction was taken on a JEOL 100 keV system as well as the JEOL 2100 and the Titan. The nanosheets were dropped from solution onto Holey Carbon Films on 300 Mesh Copper Grids.

(72) Raman experiments were performed using a Renishaw inVia micro-Raman spectrometer using either a 785 nm, or a 514.5 nm or a 488 nm laser. The laser was focused to 3 m and the power at the sample was kept below 2 mW. Raman mapping was performed using an automatic stage permitting spectra to be taken at individual points on a grid. Raman spectroscopy measures the Raman active phonons close to the Brillouin zone centre, which depend on its crystal structure, and can therefore give a finger print of a particular material. Furthermore, Raman spectra can be sensitive to number of layers in a layered material for example, in Bi.sub.2Te.sub.3 [xxiii,xxiv] Small angle scattering is a powerful technique for probing the structure of nanosheets in solution.

(73) More specifically, small angle scattering can be used to determine whether the nanosheets are present as isolated species or in agglomerated form. Small angle scattering can provide information on the structure of large particles in solution. Specifically, it can provide unique information about the shape of dissolved particles and their concentration in solution. The small angle scattering intensity, I, is usually measured as a function of the momentum transfer Q. At intermediate Q-values, I(Q) is proportional to Q.sup.D, where D is the fractal dimension of the dissolved particles/nanosheets. Thus, the expected small angle scattering pattern for fully dispersed plate-like objects (i.e. D2) such as nanosheets is Q.sup.2 behaviour. Dispersions of otherwise, non-mono-dispersions of nanosheets, i.e. those consisting of agglomerates or scrolled or folded nanosheets will, on the other hand, exhibit larger fractal dimensions, typically from 3 to 5.

(74) The small angle scattering technique is very sensitive to the presence of larger particles and hence if agglomerates are present in the solution under test then the small angle scattering signal will be dominated by these agglomerates.

(75) Photoluminescence (PL) describes the process of light emission, after the absorption of photons. In a direct band gap semiconductor, photoluminescence (PL) can be used to determine the band gap energy when the energy of the incident photons is bigger than the band gap itself. For example for MoS.sub.2 the monolayer form of the 2H-MoS.sub.2 polymorph which is a direct bandgap semiconductor exhibits PL whereas bulk MoS.sub.2 or the monolayer 1T-MoS.sub.2 polymorph does not.

(76) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons and can yield information on the samples morphology to a resolution of 10 nm.

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