MULTIJUNCTION METAMORPHIC SOLAR CELLS

Abstract

A multijunction solar cell including interconnected first and second discrete semiconductor regions disposed adjacent and parallel to each other including first top solar subcell, second (and possibly third) lattice matched middle solar subcells; a graded interlayer adjacent to the last middle solar subcell; and a bottom solar subcell adjacent to said graded interlayer being lattice mismatched with respect to the last middle solar subcell; wherein an opening is provided from the bottom side of the semiconductor body to one or more of the solar subcells so as to allow a discrete electrical connector to be made extending in free space and to electrically connect contact pads on one or more of the solar subcells.

Claims

1. A multijunction solar cell comprising: (a) a semiconductor body having a top side and a bottom side; (b) a sequence of semiconductor layers grown on the top side of the semiconductor body, the sequence of semiconductor layers including: (i) an upper first solar subcell with respect to incoming illumination, (ii) at least one middle solar subcell disposed below the upper first solar subcell and having a top side and a bottom side, and (iii) a bottom solar subcell region disposed below the middle solar subcell and having a top side and a bottom side; wherein the semiconductor body includes first and second adjacent and parallel semiconductor regions, each of the regions further including the upper first solar subcell, the at least one middle solar subcell, and at least one bottom solar subcell in the bottom solar subcell region; and (c) a first opening in the semiconductor body extending from a bottom side of a substrate to an electrical contact on the at least one middle solar subcell; (d) a second opening in the semiconductor body overlapping the first opening and being wider than the first opening and extending from the bottom side of the substrate to an electrical contact on the at least one bottom solar subcell; and (e) a discrete electrical connector having a first end bonded to the electrical contact on the at least one middle solar subcell and a second end bonded to the electrical contact on the at least one bottom solar subcell and extending in free space through the first and second openings.

2. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 1, wherein, each of the first and second openings in the semiconductor body is a channel that extends from one side of the semiconductor body to an opposite side of the semiconductor body and that divides the semiconductor body into the first and second parallel semiconductor regions, with the bottom solar subcell region being divided by the channel to form discrete, spaced-apart first and second bottom solar subcells, respectively, in the respective first and second parallel semiconductor regions.

3. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 2, further comprising: (a) a first highly doped lateral conduction layer disposed adjacent to and above the bottom solar subcell region to allow discrete electrical contacts to be made to an emitter region of the first bottom solar subcell and an emitter region of the second bottom solar subcell; (b) a blocking p-n diode or insulating layer disposed adjacent to and above the first highly doped lateral conduction layer; and (c) a second highly doped lateral conduction layer disposed adjacent to and above the blocking p-n diode or insulating layer, the second highly doped lateral conduction layer having an upper surface and a bottom surface.

4. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 3, wherein the channel comprises: (i) a first portion that extends from the bottom side of the semiconductor body through the bottom solar subcell region, the first lateral conduction layer, and the blocking p-n diode or insulating layer, and terminates at the bottom surface of the second highly doped lateral conduction layer, thereby permitting an electrical contact to be made to the second highly doped lateral conduction layer from the bottom side of the semiconductor body, and wherein the first portion of the channel divides the first lateral conduction layer being disposed in the first semiconductor region and the second portion of the first lateral conduction layer being disposed in the second semiconductor region; (ii) a second portion that extends from the bottom side of the semiconductor body through the bottom solar subcell region, and terminates at a bottom surface of the first highly doped lateral conduction layer, thereby permitting a first electrical contact to be made to a first portion of the first lateral conduction layer, and a second electrical contact to be made to a second portion of the first lateral conduction layer from the bottom side of the semiconductor body, the second portion of the channel being wider than the first portion of the channel, and the first portion of the channel being contained within the second portion; and (iii) a third portion that extends from the bottom side of the semiconductor body through a portion of a base region of the first bottom solar subcell, thereby permitting an electrical contact to be made to the base region of the first bottom solar subcell from the bottom side of the semiconductor body, the third portion of the channel being wider than the second portion of the channel and having an edge on one side that corresponds to an edge of the second portion of the channel adjacent to the second semiconductor region.

5. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 3, wherein a portion of the first highly doped lateral conduction layer disposed adjacent to and above the first bottom solar subcell in the first semiconductor region forms a terminal of first polarity of the first bottom solar subcell, and wherein a portion of the first highly doped lateral conduction layer disposed adjacent to and above the second bottom solar subcell in the second region forms a terminal of first polarity of the second bottom solar subcell, the multijunction solar cell further comprising a first discrete metal interconnect extending across the channel and electrically connecting a terminal of second polarity of the first bottom solar subcell with a terminal of first polarity of the second bottom solar subcell, thereby forming a series of electrical connection between the first bottom solar subcell and the second bottom solar subcell.

6. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 3, wherein the blocking p-n diode or insulating layer disposed adjacent to and above the first highly doped lateral conduction layer operable to prevent current from flowing directly from the second semiconductor region into the second bottom solar subcell.

7. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 6 operable such that current generated in the second semiconductor region is entirely transferred to the first bottom solar subcell in the first semiconductor region, and the sequence of semiconductor layers in the second semiconductor region is electrically isolated from the second bottom solar subcell in the second semiconductor region by the p-n diode disposed above the first highly doped lateral conduction layer so that current does not flow into the second bottom solar subcell in the second semiconductor region through the semiconductor layers in the second semiconductor region.

8. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 6, wherein the second highly doped lateral conduction layer is disposed adjacent to and above the blocking p-n diode or insulating layer, the second highly doped lateral conduction layer having an upper surface and a bottom surface.

9. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 8, further comprising: a first metallic contact pad disposed on the first highly doped lateral conduction layer in each of the first and second semiconductor regions; a second metallic contact pad disposed on the second highly doped lateral conduction layer; and a discrete electrical interconnect extending in the free space of the opening in the semiconductor body and electrically connecting the first and second contact pads so that a series electrical connection is made between the first metallic contact pad and the second metallic contact pad.

10. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 4, wherein a succession of portions of the channel forms ledges on the first and second highly doped lateral conduction layers so that electrical contact may be made to the ledges on such respective layers.

11. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 10, wherein the second bottom solar subcell in the second semiconductor region includes a first metal contact pad on the top surface thereof, and a second metal contact pad on the bottom surface thereof, wherein an electrical contact pad is disposed on the base region of the first bottom solar subcell of the first semiconductor region and is electrically coupled with the first metal contact pad on the top surface of the second bottom solar subcell.

12. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 3, wherein the first opening in the semiconductor body terminates at the first highly doped lateral conduction layer, and an electrical contact pad is provided on a ledge on the first highly doped lateral conduction layer to enable a discrete electrical interconnect to be made thereto through one of the openings.

13. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 11, wherein the multijunction solar cell includes a terminal of first polarity connected to the upper first solar subcell in the first and second semiconductor regions, and a terminal of second polarity connected to the second metal contact of the second bottom solar subcell.

14. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 2, wherein the first bottom solar subcell of the first semiconductor region is connected in a series electrical circuit with the second bottom solar subcell of the second semiconductor region so that at least a four junction solar cell is formed by the electrically interconnected upper solar subcell, the first bottom solar subcell, the at least one middle solar subcell and the second bottom solar subcell.

15. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 3 including an electrical interconnection that includes, a discrete electrical interconnect extending in free space in an opening connecting the first portion of the first highly doped lateral conduction layer with the second highly doped lateral conduction layer so as to make a series electrical connection between the upper solar subcell and the first bottom solar subcell in the first semiconductor region.

16. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 1, wherein the semiconductor body includes three solar subcells in addition to the at least one bottom solar subcell, and wherein the at least one bottom solar subcell has a band gap of approximately 0.67 eV, a first middle solar subcell above the at least one bottom solar subcell has a band gap in the range of approximately 1.41 eV and 1.31 eV, a second middle solar subcell above the first middle solar subcell has a band gap in the range of approximately 1.65 to 1.8 eV, and the upper first solar subcell has a band gap in the range of 2.0 to 2.20 eV.

17. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 16, wherein the first middle solar subcell has a band gap of approximately 1.37 eV, the second middle solar subcell has a band gap in the range of approximately 1.73 eV and the upper first solar subcell has a band gap of approximately 2.10 eV.

18. A multijunction solar cell as defined in claim 16, wherein: the upper first solar subcell is composed of indium gallium aluminum phosphide or aluminum gallium arsenide, and has a base layer composed of aluminum gallium arsenide or indium gallium arsenide phosphide; the first middle solar subcell is composed of indium gallium arsenide; and the second middle solar subcell is composed of germanium or InGaAs, GaSb, GaAsSb, InAsP, InAlAs, SiGeSn, InGaAsN, InGaAsNSb, InGaAsNBi, InGaAsNSbBi, InGaSbN, InGaBiN, or InGaSbBiN; the multijunction solar cell further comprising a graded interlayer disposed between the first middle solar subcell and the bottom solar subcell region, wherein the graded interlayer is composed of (Al)In.sub.xGa.sub.1-xAs or In.sub.xGa.sub.1-xP with 0<x<1, and (Al) designates that aluminum is an optional constituent, and a band gap of the graded interlayer is in the range of 1.41 eV to 1.6 eV throughout its thickness.

19. A multijunction solar cell comprising: (a) a semiconductor substrate having a top side and a bottom side; (b) a sequence of semiconductor layers grown on the top side of the semiconductor substrate, the sequence of layers including: (i) an upper first solar subcell with respect to incoming illumination, (ii) at least one middle solar subcell disposed below the upper first solar subcell and having a top side and a bottom side, and (iii) a bottom solar subcell disposed below the middle solar subcell and having a top side and a bottom side; wherein the semiconductor body includes first and second adjacent and parallel semiconductor regions, each of the regions further including the upper first solar subcell, the at least one middle solar subcell, and the bottom solar subcell; and (c) an opening in the semiconductor substrate including (i) a first opening in the bottom side of the substrate extending from a bottom surface of the substrate to a first lateral conduction layer; (ii) a second opening in the semiconductor substrate extending from the bottom surface of the semiconductor substrate to a second lateral conduction layer; and (iii) a third opening in the semiconductor substrate extending from the bottom surface of the semiconductor substrate to a base region of the bottom solar subcell in the first semiconductor region, the first and second openings lying within the third opening, and the first opening lying within the second opening.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0097] The invention will be better and more fully appreciated by reference to the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

[0098] FIG. 1 is a graph representing the BOL value of the parameter E.sub.g/q−V.sub.oc at 28° C. plotted against the band gap of certain ternary and quaternary materials defined along the x-axis;

[0099] FIG. 2A is a cross-sectional view of a first embodiment of a semiconductor body including a four solar subcells after several stages of fabrication including the growth of certain semiconductor layers on the growth substrate up to the contact layer, according to the present disclosure;

[0100] FIG. 2B is a cross-sectional view of a second embodiment of a semiconductor body including a four solar subcells including two lattice mismatched subcells with a metamorphic layer between them, after several stages of fabrication including the growth of certain semiconductor layers on the growth substrate up to the contact layer, according to the present disclosure;

[0101] FIG. 2C is a cross-sectional view of the embodiment of FIG. 2B following the steps of etching contact ledges on various semiconductor layers according to a first implementation in the present disclosure;

[0102] FIG. 2D is a cross-sectional view of the embodiment of FIG. 2B following the steps of etching contact ledges on various semiconductor layers according to a second implementation in the present disclosure;

[0103] FIG. 2E is a cross-sectional view of the embodiment of FIG. 2D following electrical connection of the first and second semiconductor regions by discrete electrical interconnects according to the present disclosure;

[0104] FIG. 3 is a bottom plan view of the solar cell of FIG. 2E depicting the electrical interconnects;

[0105] FIG. 4 is a graph of the doping profile in the base and emitter layers of a subcell in the solar cell according to the present disclosure; and

[0106] FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of the five junction solar cell of FIG. 2E.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

[0107] “III-V compound semiconductor” refers to a compound semiconductor formed using at least one elements from group III of the periodic table and at least one element from group V of the periodic table. III-V compound semiconductors include binary, tertiary and quaternary compounds. Group III includes boron (B), aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In) and thallium (T). Group V includes nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) and bismuth (Bi).

[0108] “Band gap” refers to an energy difference (e.g., in electron volts (eV)) separating the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band of a semiconductor material.

[0109] “Beginning of Life (BOL)” refers to the time at which a photovoltaic power system is initially deployed in operation.

[0110] “Bottom subcell” refers to the subcell in a multijunction solar cell which is furthest from the primary light source for the solar cell.

[0111] “Compound semiconductor” refers to a semiconductor formed using two or more chemical elements.

[0112] “Current density” refers to the short circuit current density J.sub.sc through a solar subcell through a given planar area, or volume, of semiconductor material constituting the solar subcell.

[0113] “Deposited”, with respect to a layer of semiconductor material, refers to a layer of material which is epitaxially grown over another semiconductor layer.

[0114] “End of Life (EOL)” refers to a predetermined time or times after the Beginning of Life, during which the photovoltaic power system has been deployed and has been operational. The EOL time or times may, for example, be specified by the customer as part of the required technical performance specifications of the photovoltaic power system to allow the solar cell designer to define the solar cell subcells and sublayer compositions of the solar cell to meet the technical performance requirement at the specified time or times, in addition to other design objectives. The terminology “EOL” is not meant to suggest that the photovoltaic power system is not operational or does not produce power after the EOL time.

[0115] “Graded interlayer” (or “grading interlayer”)— see “metamorphic layer”.

[0116] “Inverted metamorphic multijunction solar cell” or “IMM solar cell” refers to a solar cell in which the subcells are deposited or grown on a substrate in a “reverse” sequence such that the higher band gap subcells, which would normally be the “top” subcells facing the solar radiation in the final deployment configuration, are deposited or grown on a growth substrate prior to depositing or growing the lower band gap subcells.

[0117] “Layer” refers to a relatively planar sheet or thickness of semiconductor or other material. The layer may be deposited or grown, e.g., by epitaxial or other techniques.

[0118] “Lattice mismatched” refers to two adjacently disposed materials or layers (with thicknesses of greater than 100 nm) having in-plane lattice constants of the materials in their fully relaxed state differing from one another by less than 0.02% in lattice constant. (Applicant expressly adopts this definition for the purpose of this disclosure, and notes that this definition is considerably more stringent than that proposed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 8,962,993, which suggests less than 0.6% lattice constant difference).

[0119] “Metamorphic layer” or “graded interlayer” refers to a layer that achieves a gradual transition in lattice constant generally throughout its thickness in a semiconductor structure.

[0120] “Middle subcell” refers to a subcell in a multijunction solar cell which is neither a Top Subcell (as defined herein) nor a Bottom Subcell (as defined herein).

[0121] “Short circuit current (I.sub.sc)” refers to the amount of electrical current through a solar cell or solar subcell when the voltage across the solar cell is zero volts, as represented and measured, for example, in units of milliamps.

[0122] “Short circuit current density”—see “current density”.

[0123] “Solar cell” refers to an electronic device operable to convert the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.

[0124] “Solar cell assembly” refers to two or more solar cell subassemblies interconnected electrically with one another.

[0125] “Solar cell subassembly” refers to a stacked sequence of layers including one or more solar subcells.

[0126] “Solar subcell” refers to a stacked sequence of layers including a p-n photoactive junction composed of semiconductor materials. A solar subcell is designed to convert photons over different spectral or wavelength bands to electrical current.

[0127] “Substantially current matched” refers to the short circuit current through adjacent solar subcells being substantially identical (i.e. within plus or minus 1%).

[0128] “Top subcell” or “upper subcell” refers to the subcell in a multijunction solar cell which is closest to the primary light source for the solar cell.

[0129] “ZTJ” refers to the product designation of a commercially available SolAero Technologies Corp. triple junction solar cell.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

[0130] Details of the present invention will now be described including exemplary aspects and embodiments thereof. Referring to the drawings and the following description, like reference numbers are used to identify like or functionally similar elements, and are intended to illustrate major features of exemplary embodiments in a highly simplified diagrammatic manner. Moreover, the drawings are not intended to depict every feature of the actual embodiment nor the relative dimensions of the depicted elements, and are not drawn to scale.

[0131] A variety of different features of multijunction solar cells (as well as inverted metamorphic multijunction solar cells) are disclosed in the related applications noted above. Some, many or all of such features may be included in the structures and processes associated with the non-inverted or “upright” solar cells of the present disclosure. However, more particularly, the present disclosure is directed to the fabrication of a multijunction lattice matched solar cell grown over a metamorphic layer which is grown on a single growth substrate which comprises two or more interconnected solar cell subassemblies. More specifically, however, in some embodiments, the present disclosure relates to a multijunction solar cell with direct band gaps in the range of 2.0 to 2.15 eV (or higher) for the top subcell, and (i) 1.65 to 1.8 eV, and (ii) 1.41 eV for the middle subcells, and 0.6 to 0.9 eV direct or indirect band gaps, for the bottom subcell(s), respectively, and the connection of two or more such subassemblies to form a solar cell assembly.

[0132] The conventional wisdom for many years has been that in a monolithic multijunction tandem solar cell, “ . . . the desired optical transparency and current conductivity between the top and bottom cells . . . would be best achieved by lattice matching the top cell material to the bottom cell material. Mismatches in the lattice constants create defects or dislocations in the crystal lattice where recombination centers can occur to cause the loss of photogenerated minority carriers, thus significantly degrading the photovoltaic quality of the device. More specifically, such effects will decrease the open circuit voltage (V.sub.oc), short circuit current (J.sub.sc), and fill factor (FF), which represents the relationship or balance between current and voltage for effective output” (Jerry M. Olson, U.S. Pat. No. 4,667,059, “Current and Lattice Matched Tandem Solar Cell”).

[0133] As progress has been made toward higher efficiency multijunction solar cells with four or more subcells, nevertheless, “it is conventionally assumed that substantially lattice-matched designs are desirable because they have proven reliability and because they use less semiconductor material than metamorphic solar cells, which require relatively thick buffer layers to accommodate differences in the lattice constants of the various materials” (Rebecca Elizabeth Jones-Albertus et al., U.S. Pat. No. 8,962,993).

[0134] Even more recently “ . . . current output in each subcell must be the same for optimum efficiency in the series-connected configuration” (Richard R. King et al., U.S. Pat. No. 9,099,595).

[0135] The present disclosure provides a solar cell subassembly with an unconventional four junction design (with three grown lattice matched subcells, which are lattice mismatched to the Ge substrate) that leads to significant performance improvement over that of traditional three junction solar cell on Ge despite the substantial current mismatch present between the top three junctions and the bottom Ge junction. This performance gain is especially realized at high temperature and after high exposure to space radiation by the proposal of incorporating high band gap semiconductors that are inherently more resistant to radiation and temperature.

[0136] As described in greater detail, the present application further notes that interconnecting two or more spatially split multijunction solar cell subassemblies (with each subassembly incorporating Applicant's unconventional design) can be even more advantageous. The spatial split can be provided for multiple solar cell subassemblies monolithically formed on the same substrate according to the present disclosure. Alternatively, the solar cell subassemblies can be fabricated as separate semiconductor chips that can be coupled together electrically, as described in related applications.

[0137] In general terms, a solar cell assembly in accordance with one aspect of the present disclosure, can include a terminal of first polarity and a terminal of second polarity. The solar cell assembly includes a first semiconductor subassembly including a tandem vertical stack of at least a first upper, a second, third and fourth bottom solar subcells, the first upper subcell having a top contact connected to the terminal of first polarity. A second semiconductor subassembly is disposed adjacent to the first semiconductor subassembly and includes a tandem vertical stack of at least a first upper, a second, third, and fourth bottom solar subcells, the fourth bottom subcell having a back side contact connected to the terminal of second polarity. The fourth subcell of the first semiconductor subassembly is connected in a series electrical circuit with the third subcell of the second semiconductor subassembly. Thus, a five-junction solar assembly is assembled from two four-junction solar cell subassemblies.

[0138] In some cases, the foregoing solar cell assembly can provide increased photoconversion efficiency in a multijunction solar cell for outer space or other applications over the operational life of the photovoltaic power system.

[0139] Another aspect of the present disclosure is that to provide a five junction solar cell assembly composed of an integral semiconductor body with two interconnected spatially separated four junction solar cell subassemblies or regions, the average band gap of all four subcells (i.e., the sum of the four band gaps of each subcell divided by 4) in each solar cell subassembly being greater than 1.44 eV.

[0140] Another descriptive aspect of the present disclosure is to characterize the fourth subcell as being composed of an indirect or direct band gap material such that the lowest direct band gap is greater than 0.75 eV, in some embodiments.

[0141] Another descriptive aspect of the present disclosure is to characterize the fourth subcell as being composed of a direct band gap material such that the lowest direct band gap is less than 0.90 eV, in some embodiments.

[0142] In some embodiments, the fourth subcell in each solar cell subassembly is germanium, while in other embodiments the fourth subcell is InGaAs, GaAsSb, InAsP, InAlAs, or SiGeSn, InGaAsN, InGaAsNSb, InGaAsNBi, InGaAsNSbBi, InGaSbN, InGaBiN, InGaSbBiN or other III-V or II-VI compound semiconductor material.

[0143] The indirect band gap of germanium at room temperature is about 0.66 eV, while the direct band gap of germanium at room temperature is 0.8 eV. Those skilled in the art will normally refer to the “band gap” of germanium as 0.66 eV, since it is lower than the direct band gap value of 0.8 eV.

[0144] The recitation that “the fourth subcell has a direct band gap of greater than 0.75 eV” is therefore expressly meant to include germanium as a possible semiconductor for the fourth subcell, although other semiconductor materials can be used as well.

[0145] More specifically, the present disclosure intends to provide a relatively simple and reproducible technique that does not employ inverted processing associated with inverted metamorphic multijunction solar cells, and is suitable for use in a high volume production environment in which various semiconductor layers are grown on a growth substrate in an MOCVD reactor, and subsequent processing steps are defined and selected to minimize any physical damage to the quality of the deposited layers, thereby ensuring a relatively high yield of operable solar cells meeting specifications at the conclusion of the fabrication processes.

[0146] The lattice constants and electrical properties of the layers in the semiconductor structure are preferably controlled by specification of appropriate reactor growth temperatures and times, and by use of appropriate chemical composition and dopants. The use of a deposition method, such as Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE), Organo Metallic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (OMVPE), Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD), or other vapor deposition methods for the growth may enable the layers in the monolithic semiconductor structure forming the cell to be grown with the required thickness, elemental composition, dopant concentration and grading and conductivity type.

[0147] The present disclosure is directed to, in one embodiment, a growth process using a metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) process in a standard, commercially available reactor suitable for high volume production. More particularly, the present disclosure is directed to the materials and fabrication steps that are particularly suitable for producing commercially viable multijunction solar cells using commercially available equipment and established high-volume fabrication processes, as contrasted with merely academic expositions of laboratory or experimental results.

[0148] Prior to discussing the specific embodiments of the present disclosure, a brief discussion of some of the issues associated with the design of multijunction solar cells, and in particular metamorphic solar cells, and the context of the composition or deposition of various specific layers in embodiments of the product as specified and defined by Applicant is in order.

[0149] There are a multitude of properties that should be considered in specifying and selecting the composition of, inter alia, a specific semiconductor layer, the back metal layer, the adhesive or bonding material, or the composition of the supporting material for mounting a solar cell thereon. For example, some of the properties that should be considered when selecting a particular layer or material are electrical properties (e.g. conductivity), optical properties (e.g., band gap, absorbance and reflectance), structural properties (e.g., thickness, strength, flexibility, Young's modulus, etc.), chemical properties (e.g., growth rates, the “sticking coefficient” or ability of one layer to adhere to another, stability of dopants and constituent materials with respect to adjacent layers and subsequent processes, etc.), thermal properties (e.g., thermal stability under temperature changes, coefficient of thermal expansion), and manufacturability (e.g., availability of materials, process complexity, process variability and tolerances, reproducibility of results over high volume, reliability and quality control issues).

[0150] In view of the trade-offs among these properties, it is not always evident that the selection of a material based on one of its characteristic properties is always or typically “the best” or “optimum” from a commercial standpoint or for Applicant's purposes. For example, theoretical studies may suggest the use of a quaternary material with a certain band gap for a particular subcell would be the optimum choice for that subcell layer based on fundamental semiconductor physics. As an example, the teachings of academic papers and related proposals for the design of very high efficiency (over 40%) solar cells may therefore suggest that a solar cell designer specify the use of a quaternary material (e.g., InGaAsP) for the active layer of a subcell. A few such devices may actually be fabricated by other researchers, efficiency measurements made, and the results published as an example of the ability of such researchers to advance the progress of science by increasing the demonstrated efficiency of a compound semiconductor multijunction solar cell. Although such experiments and publications are of “academic” interest, from the practical perspective of the Applicants in designing a compound semiconductor multijunction solar cell to be produced in high volume at reasonable cost and subject to manufacturing tolerances and variability inherent in the production processes and suited for specific applications such as the space environment where the efficiency over the entire operational life is an important goal, such an “optimum” design from an academic perspective is not necessarily the most desirable design in practice, and the teachings of such studies more likely than not point in the wrong direction and lead away from the proper design direction. Stated another way, such references may actually “teach away” from Applicant's research efforts and the ultimate solar cell design proposed by the Applicants.

[0151] In view of the foregoing, it is further evident that the identification of one particular constituent element (e.g. indium, or aluminum) in a particular subcell, or the thickness, band gap, doping, or other characteristic of the incorporation of that material in a particular subcell, is not a single, simple “result effective variable” that one skilled in the art can simply specify and incrementally adjust to a particular level and thereby increase the efficiency of a solar cell at the beginning of life or the end of life, or over a particular time span of operational use. The efficiency of a solar cell is not a simple linear algebraic equation as a function of band gap, or the amount of gallium or aluminum or other element in a particular layer. The growth of each of the epitaxial layers of a solar cell in an MOCVD reactor is a non-equilibrium thermodynamic process with dynamically changing spatial and temporal boundary conditions that is not readily or predictably modeled. The formulation and solution of the relevant simultaneous partial differential equations covering such processes are not within the ambit of those of ordinary skill in the art in the field of solar cell design.

[0152] Another aspect of the disclosure is to match the larger short circuit current of the bottom subcell of the solar cell assembly with two or three parallel stacks of solar subcells, i.e. a configuration in which the value of the short circuit current of the bottom subcell is at least twice, or at least three times, that of the solar subcells in each parallel stack which are connected in series with the bottom subcell. Stated another way, given the choice of the composition of the bottom subcell, and thereby the short circuit current of the bottom subcell, the upper subcell stack is specified and designated to have a short circuit current which is one-third or less or is one-half or less than that of the bottom subcell.

[0153] Even when it is known that particular variables have an impact on electrical, optical, chemical, thermal or other characteristics, the nature of the impact often cannot be predicted with much accuracy, particularly when the variables interact in complex ways, leading to unexpected results and unintended consequences. Thus, significant trial and error, which may include the fabrication and evaluative testing of many prototype devices, often over a period of time of months if not years, is required to determine whether a proposed structure with layers of particular compositions, actually will operate as intended, in a given environment over the operational life, let alone whether it can be fabricated in a reproducible high volume manner within the manufacturing tolerances and variability inherent in the production process, and necessary for the design of a commercially viable device.

[0154] Furthermore, as in the case here, where multiple variables interact in unpredictable ways, the proper choice of the combination of variables can produce new and “unexpected results”, and constitute an “inventive step” in designing and specifying a solar cell to operate in a predetermined environment (such as space), not only at the beginning of life, but over the entire defined operational lifetime.

[0155] Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, the appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments.

[0156] One aspect of the present disclosure relates to the use and amount of aluminum in the active layers of the upper subcells in a multijunction solar cell (i.e. the subcells that are closest to the primary light source). The effects of increasing amounts of aluminum as a constituent element in an active layer of a subcell affects the photovoltaic device performance. One measure of the “quality” or “goodness” of a solar cell subcell or junction is the difference between the band gap of the semiconductor material in that subcell or junction and the V.sub.oc, or open circuit voltage, of that same junction. The smaller the difference, the higher the V.sub.oc of the solar cell junction relative to the band gap, and the better the performance of the device. V.sub.oc is very sensitive to semiconductor material quality, so the smaller the E.sub.g/q−V.sub.oc of a device, the higher the quality of the material in that device. There is a theoretical limit to this difference, known as the Shockley-Queisser limit. That is the best voltage that a solar cell junction can produce under a given concentration of light at a given temperature.

[0157] The experimental data obtained for single junction (Al)GaInP solar cells indicates that increasing the Al content of the junction leads to a larger E.sub.g/q−V.sub.oc difference, indicating that the material quality of the junction decreases with increasing Al content. FIG. 1 shows this effect. The three compositions cited in the Figure are all lattice matched to GaAs, but have differing Al composition. As seen by the different compositions represented, with increasing amount of aluminum represented by the x-axis, adding more Al to the semiconductor composition increases the band gap of the junction, but in so doing also increases E.sub.g/q−V.sub.oc. Hence, we draw the conclusion that adding Al to a semiconductor material degrades that material such that a solar cell device made out of that material does not perform relatively as well as a junction with less Al.

[0158] Thus, contrary to the conventional wisdom as indicated above, the present application utilizes a substantial amount of aluminum, i.e., over 20% aluminum by mole fraction in at least the top subcell, and in some embodiments in one or more of the middle subcells.

[0159] Turning to the fabrication of the multijunction solar cell assembly of the present disclosure, and in particular a five-junction solar cell assembly, FIG. 2A is a cross-sectional view of a first embodiment of a semiconductor body 500 after several stages of fabrication including the growth of certain semiconductor layers on the growth substrate, and formation of grids and contacts on the contact layer of the top side (i.e., the light-facing side) of the semiconductor body.

[0160] As shown in the illustrated example of FIG. 2A, the bottom subcell (which we refer to initially as subcell D) includes a substrate 600 formed of p-type germanium (“Ge”) in some embodiments, which also serves as a base layer of the subcell (i.e., the p-polarity layer of a “base-emitter” photovoltaic junction formed by adjacent layers of opposite conductivity type).

[0161] In some embodiments, the bottom subcell D is germanium, while in other embodiments the fourth subcell is InGaAs, GaAsSb, InAsP, InAlAs, or SiGeSn, InGaAsN, InGaAsNSb, InGaAsNBi, InGaAsNSbBi, InGaSbN, InGaBiN, InGaSbBiN or other III-V or II-VI compound semiconductor material.

[0162] The bottom subcell D, further includes, for example, a highly doped n-type Ge emitter layer 601, and an n-type indium gallium arsenide (“InGaAs”) nucleation layer 602. The nucleation layer or buffer 602 is deposited over the base layer, and the emitter layer 601 is formed in the substrate by diffusion of atoms from the nucleation layer 602 into the Ge substrate, thereby forming the n-type Ge layer 601b.

[0163] A highly doped first lateral conduction layer 603 is deposited over layer 602, and a blocking p-n diode or insulating layer 604 is deposited over the layer 603. A second highly doped lateral conduction layer 605 is then deposited over layer 604.

[0164] Heavily doped p-type aluminum gallium arsenide (“AlGaAs”) and heavily doped n-type indium gallium arsenide (“(In)GaAs”) tunneling junction layers 606, 607 may be deposited over the second lateral conduction layer 605 to provide a low resistance pathway between the bottom D and the middle subcell C.

[0165] In some embodiments, distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) layers 608 are then grown adjacent to and between the tunnel junction 606/607 and the third solar subcell C.sub.1. The DBR layers 608 are arranged so that light can enter and pass through the third solar subcell C.sub.1 and at least a portion of which can be reflected back into the third solar subcell C.sub.1 by the DBR layers 608. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 2A, the distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) layers 608 are specifically located between the third solar subcell C and tunnel junction layers 607; in other embodiments, the distributed Bragg reflector tunnel diode layers 606/607 may be located between DBR layer 608 and the third subcell C.sub.1. In another embodiment, depicted in FIG. 2C, the tunnel diode layer 670/671 are located between the lateral conduction layer 602d and the first alpha layer 606.

[0166] For some embodiments, distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) layers 608 can be composed of a plurality of alternating layers 608a through 608z of lattice matched materials with discontinuities in their respective indices of refraction. For certain embodiments, the difference in refractive indices between alternating layers is maximized in order to minimize the number of periods required to achieve a given reflectivity, and the thickness and refractive index of each period determines the stop band and its limiting wavelength.

[0167] For some embodiments, distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) layers 608a through 608z includes a first DBR layer composed of a plurality of p type Al.sub.x(In)Ga.sub.1-xAs layers, and a second DBR layer disposed over the first DBR layer and composed of a plurality of p type Al.sub.y(In)Ga.sub.1-yAs layers, where y is greater than x, with 0<x<1, 0<y<1.

[0168] On top of the DBR layers 608 the subcell C.sub.1 is grown.

[0169] In the illustrated example of FIG. 2A, the subcell C.sub.1 includes a highly doped p-type aluminum gallium arsenide (“Al(In)GaAs”) back surface field (“BSF”) layer 609, a p-type InGaAs base layer 610, a highly doped n-type indium gallium phosphide (“InGaP.sub.2”) emitter layer 611 and a highly doped n-type indium aluminum phosphide (“AlInP.sub.2”) window layer 612. The InGaAs base layer 610 of the subcell C.sub.1 can include, for example, approximately 1.5% In. Other compositions may be used as well. The base layer 610 is formed over the BSF layer 609 after the BSF layer is deposited over the DBR layers 608a through 608z.

[0170] The window layer 612 is deposited on the emitter layer 611 of the subcell C.sub.1. The window layer 612 in the subcell C.sub.1 also helps reduce the recombination loss and improves passivation of the cell surface of the underlying junctions. Before depositing the layers of the subcell B, heavily doped n-type InGaP and p-type Al(In)GaAs (or other suitable compositions) tunneling junction layers 613, 614 may be deposited over the subcell C.sub.1.

[0171] The middle subcell B.sub.1 includes a highly doped p-type aluminum (indium) gallium arsenide (“Al(In)GaAs”) back surface field (“BSF”) layer 615, a p-type Al(In)GaAs base layer 616, a highly doped n-type indium gallium phosphide (“InGaP.sub.2”) or Al(In)GaAs layer 617 and a highly doped n-type indium gallium aluminum phosphide (“AlGaAlP”) window layer 618. The InGaP emitter layer 617 of the subcell B.sub.1 can include, for example, approximately 50% In. Other compositions may be used as well.

[0172] Before depositing the layers of the top cell A.sub.1, heavily doped n-type InGaP and p-type Al(In)GaAs tunneling junction layers 619, 620 may be deposited over the subcell B.

[0173] In the illustrated example, the top subcell A.sub.1 includes a highly doped p-type indium aluminum phosphide (“InAlP”) BSF layer 621, a p-type InGaAlP base layer 622, a highly doped n-type InGaAlP emitter layer 623 and a highly doped n-type InAlP.sub.2 window layer 624. The base layer 623 of the top subcell A.sub.1 is deposited over the BSF layer 621 after the BSF layer 621 is formed over the tunneling junction layers 619, 620 of the subcell B.sub.1. The window layer 624 is deposited over the emitter layer 623 of the top subcell A.sub.1 after the emitter layer 623 is formed over the base layer 622.

[0174] In some embodiments, the amount of aluminum in the top subcell A, is 20% or more by mole fraction.

[0175] A cap or contact layer 625 may be deposited and patterned into separate contact regions over the window layer 624 of the top subcell A.sub.1. After further processing to be described in subsequent Figures, the solar cell assembly 500 can be provided with grid lines, interconnecting bus lines, and contact pads on the top surface. The geometry and number of the grid lines, bus lines and/or contacts may vary in different implementations.

[0176] The cap or contact layer 625 serves as an electrical contact from the top subcell A.sub.1 to metal grid 626. The doped cap or contact layer 625 can be a semiconductor layer such as, for example, a GaAs or InGaAs layer.

[0177] After the cap or contact layer 625 is deposited, the grid lines 626 are formed via evaporation and lithographically patterned and deposited over the cap or contact layer 625.

[0178] A contact pad 627 connected to the grid 626 is formed on one edge of the subassembly 500 to allow an electrical interconnection to be made, inter alia, to an adjacent subassembly.

[0179] The subcells A.sub.2, B.sub.2, C.sub.2 of the solar cell subassembly 500 can be configured so that the short circuit current densities of the three subcells A.sub.2, B.sub.2, C.sub.2 have a substantially equal predetermined first value (i.e., J1=J2=J3), and the short circuit current density (J4) of the bottom subcell D.sub.2 is at least twice that of the predetermined first value.

[0180] FIG. 2B is a cross-sectional view of a second embodiment of a semiconductor body including a four solar subcells including two lattice mismatched subcells with a metamorphic layer between them, after several stages of fabrication including the growth of certain semiconductor layers on the growth substrate up to the contact layer, according to the present disclosure.

[0181] As shown in the previously illustrated example of FIG. 2A, the bottom subcell (which we refer to initially as subcell D) includes a substrate 600 formed of p-type germanium (“Ge”) in some embodiments, which also serves as a base layer, and since the layers 601 through 605 are substantially the same as described in connection with FIG. 2A, they will not be described in detail here for brevity.

[0182] In the embodiment of FIG. 2B, a first alpha layer 606a, composed of n-type (Al)GaIn(As)P, is deposited over the first lateral conduction layer 605, to a thickness of between 0.25 and 1.0 micron. Such an alpha layer is intended to prevent threading dislocations from propagating, either opposite to the direction of growth into the bottom subcell D, or in the direction of growth into the subcell C, and is more particularly described in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2009/0078309 A1 (Cornfeld et al.).

[0183] A metamorphic layer (or graded interlayer) 606b is deposited over the first alpha layer 606a using a surfactant. Layer 604 is preferably a compositionally step-graded series of InGaAlAs layers, preferably with monotonically changing lattice constant, so as to achieve a gradual transition in lattice constant in the semiconductor structure from subcell D.sub.1 to subcell C.sub.1 while minimizing threading dislocations from occurring. The band gap of layer 606b is either constant throughout its thickness, in one embodiment approximately equal to 1.42 to 1.62 eV, or otherwise consistent with a value slightly greater than the band gap of the middle subcell C.sub.1, or may vary within the above noted region. One embodiment of the graded interlayer may also be expressed as being composed of (Al)In.sub.xGa.sub.1-xAs, with 0<x<1, and x selected such that the band gap of the interlayer is in the range of at approximately 1.42 to 1.62 eV or other appropriate band gap.

[0184] In the surfactant assisted growth of the metamorphic layer 606b, a suitable chemical element is introduced into the reactor during the growth of layer 606b to improve the surface characteristics of the layer. In one embodiment, such element may be a dopant or donor atom such as selenium (Se) or tellurium (Te). Small amounts of Se or Te are therefore incorporated in the metamorphic layer 604, and remain in the finished solar cell. Although Se or Te are the preferred n-type dopant atoms, other non-isoelectronic surfactants may be used as well.

[0185] Surfactant assisted growth results in a much smoother or planarized surface. Since the surface topography affects the bulk properties of the semiconductor material as it grows and the layer becomes thicker, the use of the surfactants minimizes threading dislocations in the active regions, and therefore improves overall solar cell efficiency.

[0186] As an alternative to the use of non-isoelectronic one may use an isoelectronic surfactant. The term “isoelectronic” refers to surfactants such as antimony (Sb) or bismuth (Bi), since such elements have the same number of valence electrons as the P atom of InGaP, or the As atom in InGaAlAs, in the metamorphic buffer layer. Such Sb or Bi surfactants will not typically be incorporated into the metamorphic layer 606b.

[0187] In one embodiment of the present disclosure, the layer 606b is composed of a plurality of layers of (Al)InGaAs, with monotonically changing lattice constant, each layer having a band gap, approximately in the range of 1.42 to 1.62 eV. In some embodiments, the band gap is in the range of 1.45 to 1.55 eV. In some embodiments, the band gap is in the range of 1.5 to 1.52 eV.

[0188] The advantage of utilizing the embodiment of a constant band gap material such as InGaAs is that arsenide-based semiconductor material is much easier to process in standard commercial MOCVD reactors.

[0189] Although the preferred embodiment of the present disclosure utilizes a plurality of layers of (Al)InGaAs for the metamorphic layer 606b for reasons of manufacturability and radiation transparency, other embodiments of the present disclosure may utilize different material systems to achieve a change in lattice constant from subcell C.sub.1 to subcell D. Other embodiments of the present disclosure may utilize continuously graded, as opposed to step graded, materials. More generally, the graded interlayer may be composed of any of the As, P, N, Sb based III-V compound semiconductors subject to the constraints of having the in-plane lattice parameter greater than or equal to that of the third solar cell and less than or equal to that of the fourth solar cell, and having a band gap energy greater than that of the third solar cell.

[0190] A second alpha layer 606c, composed of n+ type GaInP, is deposited over metamorphic buffer layer 606b, to a thickness of between 0.25 and about 1.0 micron. Such second alpha layer is intended to prevent threading dislocations from propagating, either opposite to the direction of growth into the subcell D, or in the direction of growth into the subcell C.sub.1, and is more particularly described in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2009/0078309 A1 (Cornfeld et al.).

[0191] A second embodiment of the second solar cell subassembly similar to that of FIG. 2C is another configuration (not shown) with that the metamorphic buffer layer 604 is disposed above the tunnel diode layers 706, 707 and below the DBR layers 708 (not illustrated).

[0192] Heavily doped p-type aluminum gallium arsenide (“AlGaAs”) and heavily doped n-type indium gallium arsenide (“(In)GaAs”) tunneling junction layers 607a, 607b may be deposited over the alpha layer 606c to provide a low resistance pathway between the bottom and middle subcells D and C.sub.1.

[0193] Since the tunnel diode layers 607a, 607b, and the subsequently grown layers 608 through 625 are substantially the same as described in connection with FIG. 2A, they will not be described here in detail for brevity.

[0194] Turing to FIG. 2C, following the deposition of the semiconductor layers 602 through 625, the semiconductor body 501 is partially etched from the backside (i.e., through the substrate 600) to form a channel 670 that partially bisects the wafer or semiconductor body, and several ledges or platforms are formed on intermediate layers so that electrical contact may be made thereto, in particular, in one embodiment depicted in this Figure, ledges 666, and 667.

[0195] To this end, the solar cell assembly can include a plurality of openings in the semiconductor body, each of the openings extending from a bottom surface of the semiconductor body to a different respective layer in the semiconductor body. Such “openings” may include recesses, cavities, holes, gaps, cut-outs, or similar structures, but for simplicity we will subsequently just use the term “opening” throughout this disclosure. In other implementations, we can etch through the top or the side of the substrate and have some or all the openings come from one or more sides. This approach may be more efficient than etching from the top side as it does not shadow the top two or top three solar subcells, and results in a solar epitaxial structure of only a few tens of microns in thickness.

[0196] FIG. 2D is a cross-sectional view of the embodiment of FIG. 2B following the steps of etching contact ledges on various semiconductor layers according to a second implementation in the present disclosure. In particular, in addition to the two ledges 667 and 666 depicted in FIG. 2C, there is a third ledge 668 in the substrate 600 which is etched to allow electrical contact to be made to the p terminal of subcell D.

[0197] As a result of the etching process depicted in FIG. 2C or FIG. 2D, the semiconductor body 501 is divided into two semiconductor regions, with one depicted on the left hand side of the Figure and one on the right hand side. The bottom surface of a portion of the highly doped second lateral conduction layer 605 is exposed by the etching process and forms a ledge 667. The blocking p-n diode or insulating layer 604 is divided into two portions, with one in each of the respective semiconductor region, one portion 604a being on the left and one portion 604b being on the right of the Figure. Similarly, the first highly doped lateral conduction layer 603 is divided into two parts, with one in each respective semiconductor region, one portion 603a on the left and one portion 603b on the right of the Figure. A ledge 666 is formed on the left portion 603a of the first highly doped lateral conduction layer 603, and a ledge 669 is formed on the right portion 603b of the first highly doped lateral conduction layer 603.

[0198] The buffer layer 602 and the subcell D 600/601 is divided into two semiconductor regions. One portion 602a of the buffer layer on the left hand side of the Figure and one portion 602b of the buffer layer on the right hand side. One portion 600a/601a of the solar subcell D (which we now designate as solar subcell D.sub.1) on the left hand side of the Figure and one portion 600a/601a of the solar cell D (which we now designate as solar subcell D.sub.2) the right hand side. A ledge 668 is formed on the left portion 600a of the subcell D.sub.1.

[0199] After the cap or contact layer 625 is deposited, the grid lines 626 are formed via evaporation and lithographically patterned and deposited over the cap or contact layer 625.

[0200] A contact pad 627 connected to the grid 626 is formed on one edge of the subassembly 500 to allow an electrical interconnection to be made, inter alia, to an adjacent subassembly.

[0201] As with the first solar cell subassembly 500, the subcells A.sub.2, B.sub.2, C.sub.2 of the second solar cell subassembly 700 can be configured so that the short circuit current densities of the three subcells A.sub.2, B.sub.2, C.sub.2 have a substantially equal predetermined first value (J1<=J2<=J3), and the short circuit current density (J4) of the bottom subcell D.sub.2 is at least twice that of the predetermined first value.

[0202] FIG. 2E is a cross-sectional view of the multijunction solar cell subassembly 500 of FIG. 2A after additional stages of fabrication including the deposition of metal contact pads on the ledges depicted in FIG. 2D.

[0203] A metal contact pad 680 is deposited on the surface of the ledge of 667 which exposes a portion of the bottom surface of the lateral conduction layer 605b. This pad 680 allows electrical contact to be made to the bottom of the stack of subcells A.sub.1 through C.sub.1.

[0204] A metal contact pad 681 is deposited on the surface of the ledge of 666 which exposes a portion of the bottom surface of the lateral conduction layer 603a. This pad 681 allows electrical contact to be made to the n-polarity terminal of subcell D.sub.1.

[0205] A metal contact pad 682 is deposited on the surface of the ledge of 669 which exposes a portion of the bottom surface of the lateral conduction layer 603b. This pad 682 allows electrical contact to be made to the n-polarity terminal of subcell D.sub.2.

[0206] A metal contact pad 683 is deposited on the surface of the ledge of 668 which exposes a portion of the surface of the p-polarity region of subcell D.sub.1. Alternatively, contact may be made to a part of the back metal layer 684, which allows electrical contact to be made to the p-terminal of subcell D.sub.1.

[0207] For example, as shown in the bottom plan view depicted in FIG. 3, conductive (e.g., metal) interconnections 690 (i.e., 690a and 690b), and 691 (i.e., 691a and 691b) can be made between different layers of the solar cell subregions. Similarly, the interconnection 691 connects together a contact 683 on the p-region 600a of the solar subcell D.sub.1 to a contact 682 on the lateral conduction layer 603b associated with the solar subcell D.sub.2. Likewise, the interconnection 690 connects together a contact 681 on the lateral conduction layer 603a associated with the solar subcell D.sub.1 to a contact 680 on the lateral conduction layer 605a and 605b.

[0208] As noted above, the solar cell assembly includes a first electrical contact of a first polarity and a second electrical contact of a second polarity. In some embodiments, the first electrical contact 695 is connected to the metal contact 627 on the solar cell subassembly 500 by an interconnection 694, and the second electrical contact 693 is connected to the back metal contact of the solar subcell D.sub.2 by interconnection 692.

[0209] As illustrated in FIG. 3, two or more solar cell subregions 684 and 685 can be connected electrically as described above to obtain a multijunction (e.g. a four-, five- or six-junction) solar cell assembly.

[0210] Some implementations provide that at least the base of at least one of the first, second or third solar subcells has a graded doping, i.e., the level of doping varies from one surface to the other throughout the thickness of the base layer. In some embodiments, the gradation in doping is exponential. In some embodiments, the gradation in doping is incremental and monotonic.

[0211] In some embodiments, the emitter of at least one of the first, second or third solar subcells also has a graded doping, i.e., the level of doping varies from one surface to the other throughout the thickness of the emitter layer. In some embodiments, the gradation in doping is linear or monotonically decreasing.

[0212] As a specific example, the doping profile of the emitter and base layers may be illustrated in FIG. 4, which depicts the amount of doping in the emitter region and the base region of a subcell. N-type dopants include silicon, selenium, sulfur, germanium or tin. P-type dopants include silicon, zinc, chromium, or germanium.

[0213] In the example of FIG. 4, in some embodiments, one or more of the subcells have a base region having a gradation in doping that increases from a value in the range of 1×10.sup.15 to 1×10.sup.18 free carriers per cubic centimeter adjacent the p-n junction to a value in the range of 1×10.sup.16 to 4×10.sup.18 free carriers per cubic centimeter adjacent to the adjoining layer at the rear of the base, and an emitter region having a gradation in doping that decreases from a value in the range of approximately 5×10.sup.18 to 1×10.sup.17 free carriers per cubic centimeter in the region immediately adjacent the adjoining layer to a value in the range of 5×10.sup.15 to 1×10.sup.18 free carriers per cubic centimeter in the region adjacent to the p-n junction.

[0214] FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of the five junction solar cell assembly of FIG. 2E that includes two solar cell semiconductor regions, each of which includes four subcells. The bottom (i.e., fourth) subcell D.sub.1 of the left region 684 is connected in a series electrical circuit with the bottom (i.e., fourth) subcell D.sub.2 of the right region 685. On the other hand, the upper and middle subcells are connected in parallel with one another (i.e., subcells A.sub.1, B.sub.1, C.sub.1 are connected in parallel with subcells A.sub.2, B.sub.2, C.sub.2).

[0215] In some implementations of a five-junction solar cell assembly, such as in the example of FIG. 5, the short circuit density (J.sub.sc) of the upper first subcells (A.sub.1 and A.sub.2) and the middle subcells (B.sub.1, B.sub.2, C.sub.1, C.sub.2) is about 11 mA/cm.sup.2, and the short circuit current density (J.sub.sc) of the bottom subcells (D.sub.1 and D.sub.2) is about 22 mA/cm.sup.2 or greater. Other implementations may have different values.

[0216] The present disclosure like that of the parallel applications, U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 14/828,206 and 15/213,594, provides a multijunction solar cell that follows a design rule that one should incorporate as many high band gap subcells as possible to achieve the goal to increase the efficiency at high temperature EOL. For example, high band gap subcells may retain a greater percentage of cell voltage as temperature increases, thereby offering lower power loss as temperature increases. As a result, both high temperatures beginning-of-life (HT-BOL) and HT-EOL performance of the exemplary multijunction solar cell, according to the present disclosure, may be expected to be greater than traditional cells.

[0217] The open circuit voltage (V.sub.oc) of a compound semiconductor subcell loses approximately 2 mV per degree C. as the temperature rises, so the design rule taught by the present disclosure takes advantage of the fact that a higher band gap (and therefore higher voltage) subcell loses a lower percentage of its V.sub.oc with temperature. For example, a subcell that produces a 1.50 volts at 28° C. produces 1.50−42*(0.0023)=1.403 volts at 70° C. which is a 6.4% voltage loss, A cell that produces 0.25 volts at 28° C. produces 0.25−42*(0.0018)=0.174 volts at 70° which is a 30.2% voltage loss.

[0218] For example, the cell efficiency (%) measured at room temperature (RT) 28° C. and high temperature (HT) 70° C., at beginning of life (BOL) and end of life (EOL), for a standard three junction commercial solar cell (e.g. a SolAero Technologies Corp. Model ZTJ), such as depicted in FIG. 2 of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/828,206, is as follows:

TABLE-US-00001 Condition Efficiency BOL 28° C. 29.1% BOL 70° C. 26.4% EOL 70° C. 23.4% After 5E14 e/cm.sup.2 radiation EOL 70° C. 22.0% After 1E15 e/cm.sup.2 radiation

[0219] For the 5J solar cell assembly (comprising two interconnected four-junction subassemblies) described in the present disclosure, the corresponding data is as follows:

TABLE-US-00002 Condition Efficiency BOL 28° C. 30.6% BOL 70° C. 27.8% EOL 70° C. 26.6% After 5E14 e/cm.sup.2 radiation EOL 70° C. 26.1% After 1E15 e/cm.sup.2 radiation

[0220] The new solar cell of the present disclosure has a slightly higher cell efficiency than the standard commercial solar cell (ZTJ) at BOL at 70° C. However, more importantly, the solar cell described in the present disclosure exhibits substantially improved cell efficiency (%) over the standard commercial solar cell (ZTJ) at 1 MeV electron equivalent fluence of 5×10.sup.14 e/cm.sup.2, and dramatically improved cell efficiency (%) over the standard commercial solar cell (ZTJ) at 1 MeV electron equivalent fluence of 1×10.sup.15 e/cm.sup.2.

[0221] The selected radiation exposure levels noted above are meant to simulate the environmental conditions of typical satellites in earth orbit. A low earth orbit (LEO) satellite will typically experience radiation equivalent to 5×10.sup.14 e/cm.sup.2 over a five year lifetime. A geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO) satellite will typically experience radiation in the range of 5×10.sup.14 e/cm.sup.2 to 1×10 e/cm.sup.2 over a fifteen year lifetime.

[0222] The wide range of electron and proton energies present in the space environment necessitates a method of describing the effects of various types of radiation in terms of a radiation environment which can be produced under laboratory conditions. The methods for estimating solar cell degradation in space are based on the techniques described by Brown et al. [Brown, W. L., J. D. Gabbe, and W. Rosenzweig, Results of the Telstar Radiation Experiments, Bell System Technical J., 42, 1505, 1963] and Tada [Tada, H. Y., J. R. Carter, Jr., B. E. Anspaugh, and R. G. Downing, Solar Cell Radiation Handbook, Third Edition, JPL Publication 82-69, 1982]. In summary, the omnidirectional space radiation is converted to a damage equivalent unidirectional fluence at a normalised energy and in terms of a specific radiation particle. This equivalent fluence will produce the same damage as that produced by omnidirectional space radiation considered when the relative damage coefficient (RDC) is properly defined to allow the conversion. The relative damage coefficients (RDCs) of a particular solar cell structure are measured a priori under many energy and fluence levels. When the equivalent fluence is determined for a given space environment, the parameter degradation can be evaluated in the laboratory by irradiating the solar cell with the calculated fluence level of unidirectional normally incident flux. The equivalent fluence is normally expressed in terms of 1 MeV electrons or 10 MeV protons.

[0223] The software package Spenvis (www.spenvis.oma.be) is used to calculate the specific electron and proton fluence that a solar cell is exposed to during a specific satellite mission as defined by the duration, altitude, azimuth, etc. Spenvis employs the EQFLUX program, developed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) to calculate 1 MeV and 10 MeV damage equivalent electron and proton fluences, respectively, for exposure to the fluences predicted by the trapped radiation and solar proton models for a specified mission environment duration. The conversion to damage equivalent fluences is based on the relative damage coefficients determined for multijunction cells [Marvin, D. C., Assessment of Multijunction Solar Cell Performance in Radiation Environments, Aerospace Report No. TOR-2000 (1210)-1, 2000]. A widely accepted total mission equivalent fluence for a geosynchronous satellite mission of 15 year duration is 1 MeV 1×10.sup.15 electrons/cm.sup.2.

[0224] The exemplary solar cell described herein may require the use of aluminum in the semiconductor composition of each of the top two subcells. Aluminum incorporation is widely known in the III-V compound semiconductor industry to degrade BOL subcell performance due to deep level donor defects, higher doping compensation, shorter minority carrier lifetimes, and lower cell voltage and an increased BOL E.sub.g/q−V.sub.oc metric. However, consideration of the EOL E.sub.g/q−V.sub.oc metric, or more generally, total power output over a defined predetermined operational life, in the present disclosure presents a different approach. In short, increased BOL E.sub.g/q−V.sub.oc may be the most problematic shortcoming of aluminum containing subcells; the other limitations can be mitigated by modifying the doping schedule or thinning base thicknesses.

[0225] It will be understood that each of the elements described above, or two or more together, also may find a useful application in other types of structures or constructions differing from the types of structures or constructions described above.

[0226] Although described embodiments of the present disclosure utilizes a vertical tandem stack of four subcells, various aspects and features of the present disclosure can apply to tandem stacks with fewer or greater number of subcells, i.e. two junction cells, three junction cells, five junction cells, etc.

[0227] In addition, although the disclosed embodiments are configured with top and bottom electrical contacts, the subcells may alternatively be contacted by means of metal contacts to laterally conductive semiconductor layers between the subcells. Such arrangements may be used to form 3-terminal, 4-terminal, and in general, n-terminal devices. The subcells can be interconnected in circuits using these additional terminals such that most of the available photogenerated current density in each subcell can be used effectively, leading to high efficiency for the multijunction cell, notwithstanding that the photogenerated current densities are typically different in the various subcells.

[0228] As noted above, the solar cell described in the present disclosure may utilize an arrangement of one or more, or all, homojunction cells or subcells, i.e., a cell or subcell in which the p-n junction is formed between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor both of which have the same chemical composition and the same band gap, differing only in the dopant species and types, and one or more heterojunction cells or subcells. Subcell A, with p-type and n+ type InGaAlP is one example of a homojunction subcell.

[0229] In some cells, a thin so-called “intrinsic layer” may be placed between the emitter layer and base layer, with the same or different composition from either the emitter or the base layer. The intrinsic layer may function to suppress minority-carrier recombination in the space-charge region. Similarly, either the base layer or the emitter layer may also be intrinsic or not-intentionally-doped (“NID”) over part or all of its thickness.

[0230] The composition of the window or BSF layers may utilize other semiconductor compounds, subject to lattice constant and band gap requirements, and may include AlInP, AlAs, AlP, GaP, InP, GaSb, AlSb, InAs, InSb, ZnSe, AlGaInP, AlGaAsP, AlGalnAs, AIGaInPAs, GaInP, GaInAs, GaInPAs, AlGaAs, AiInAs, AlInPAs, GaAsSb, AlAsSb, GaAlAsSb, AlInSb, GaInSb, AlGaInSb, AlN, GaN, InN, GaInN, AlGaInN, GaInNAs, GaInNAsSb, GaNAsSb, GaNAsInBi, GaNAsSbBi, GaNAsInBiSb, AlGaInNAs, ZnSSe, CdSSe, SiGe, SiGeSn, and similar materials, and still fall within the spirit of the present invention.

[0231] While the solar cell described in the present disclosure has been illustrated and described as embodied in a conventional multijunction solar cell, it is not intended to be limited to the details shown, since it is also applicable to inverted metamorphic solar cells, and various modifications and structural changes may be made without departing in any way from the spirit of the present invention.

[0232] Thus, while the description of the semiconductor device described in the present disclosure has focused primarily on solar cells or photovoltaic devices, persons skilled in the art know that other optoelectronic devices, such as thermophotovoltaic (TPV) cells, photodetectors and light-emitting diodes (LEDS), are very similar in structure, physics, and materials to photovoltaic devices with some minor variations in doping and the minority carrier lifetime. For example, photodetectors can be the same materials and structures as the photovoltaic devices described above, but perhaps more lightly-doped for sensitivity rather than power production. On the other hand LEDs can also be made with similar structures and materials, but perhaps more heavily-doped to shorten recombination time, thus radiative lifetime to produce light instead of power. Therefore, this invention also applies to photodetectors and LEDs with structures, compositions of matter, articles of manufacture, and improvements as described above for photovoltaic cells.

[0233] Without further analysis, from the foregoing others can, by applying current knowledge, readily adapt the present invention for various applications. Such adaptations should and are intended to be comprehended within the meaning and range of equivalence of the following claims.