Electro-optic displays including redox compounds

Abstract

An electro-optic display having a viewing surface through which a user views the display, a bistable, electrophoretic medium, and at least one electrode arranged to apply an electric field to the electrophoretic medium, the display further comprising at least 10 micromoles per square meter of the viewing surface of at least one compound having an oxidation potential more negative that about 150 mV with respect to a standard hydrogen electrode, as measured at pH 8, where the compound is a sulfite salt or a salt of titanium (III), vanadium (II), iron (II), cobalt (II) or copper (I), a hydroquinone, a catechol, a dihydropyridine or a metallocene.

Claims

1. An electro-optic display comprising: a viewing surface through which a user views the display; a layer of bistable, electrophoretic medium; an electrode arranged to apply an electric field to the electrophoretic medium; and a polymer layer interposed between the electrophoretic medium and the electrode, the polymer layer comprising at least 10 micromoles per square meter of the viewing surface of a sulfite salt or a salt of titanium (III), vanadium (II), iron (II), cobalt (II) or copper (I), wherein the sulfite salt or the salt of titanium (III), vanadium (II), iron (II), cobalt (II) or copper (I) has an oxidation potential more negative than 150 mV with respect to a standard hydrogen electrode, as measured at pH 8, at 20° C. and atmospheric pressure.

2. The electro-optic display of claim 1, wherein the sulfite salt or the salt of titanium (III), vanadium (II), iron (II), cobalt (II) or copper (I) has a reduction potential (of the oxidized form) that is not greater than 1.0 V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

3. The electro-optic display of claim 1, wherein the polymer layer comprises both the oxidized and the reduced forms of the sulfite salt or the salt of titanium (III), vanadium (II), iron (II), cobalt (II) or copper (I).

4. The electro-optic display of claim 1, wherein the electrophoretic medium comprises a fluid and a plurality of electrically charged particles dispersed in the fluid.

5. The electro-optic display of claim 4, wherein the electrically charged particles and the fluid are confined within a plurality of capsules or microcells.

6. The electro-optic display of claim 4, wherein the electrically charged particles and the fluid are present as a plurality of discrete droplets surrounded by a continuous phase comprising a polymeric material.

7. An electro-optic display comprising: a viewing surface through which a user views the display; a layer of bistable, electrophoretic medium; an electrode arranged to apply an electric field to the electrophoretic medium; and a polymer layer interposed between the electrophoretic medium and the electrode, the polymer layer comprising at least 10 micromoles per square meter of the viewing surface of a hydroquinone, a catechol, a dihydropyridine or a metallocene, and wherein the hydroquinone, the catechol, the dihydropyridine or the metallocene has an oxidation potential more negative than 150 mV with respect to a standard hydrogen electrode, as measured at pH 8, at 20° C. and atmospheric pressure.

8. The electro-optic display of claim 7, wherein the hydroquinone, the catechol, the dihydropyridine or the metallocene has a reduction potential (of the oxidized form) that is not greater than 1.0 V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode.

9. The electro-optic display of claim 7, wherein the polymer layer comprises both the oxidized and the reduced forms of the hydroquinone, the catechol, the dihydropyridine or the metallocene.

10. The electro-optic display of claim 7, wherein the electrophoretic medium comprises a fluid and a plurality of electrically charged particles dispersed in the fluid.

11. The electro-optic display of claim 10, wherein the electrically charged particles and the fluid are confined within a plurality of capsules or microcells.

12. The electro-optic display of claim 10, wherein the electrically charged particles and the fluid are present as a plurality of discrete droplets surrounded by a continuous phase comprising a polymeric material.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 is a schematic cross-section through an electrophoretic display of the invention.

(2) FIGS. 2 and 3 illustrate in simplified form the flux of charged materials that may occur in a display 100 in response to an electric field.

(3) FIG. 4 is a graph showing the open circuit voltage (“remnant voltage”) following DC-balanced and DC-imbalanced driving for electrophoretic displays of the present invention and prior art control displays.

(4) FIG. 5 is a graph shows the electrode degradation, as indicated by yellowing, for the same series of experiments as FIG. 4.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(5) FIG. 1 shows a schematic cross-section through an encapsulated electrophoretic display 100, which may as described in, for example, the aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 6,982,178. The display 100 comprises a light-transmissive substrate 102 that conveniently has the form of a transparent plastic film, such as a sheet of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) between 25 and 200 μm in thickness. Although not shown in FIG. 1, the substrate 102 (the upper surface of which, as illustrated in FIG. 1, forms the viewing surface of the display) may comprise one or more additional layers, for example a protective layer to absorb ultra-violet radiation, barrier layers to prevent ingress of oxygen or moisture into the display, and anti-reflection coatings to improve the optical properties of the display.

(6) The substrate 102 carries a thin, light-transmissive, electrically-conductive layer 104 that acts as the front electrode of the display. Layer 104 may comprise a continuous coating of electrically-conductive material with minimal intrinsic absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectral range such as indium tin oxide (ITO), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), graphene or the like, or may be a discontinuous layer of a material such as silver (in the form of, for example, nanowires or printed grids) or carbon (for example in nanotube form) that absorb or reflect visible light but are present at a surface coverage such that the layer as a whole is effectively transparent.

(7) A layer (generally designated 108) of an electro-optic medium is in electrical contact with the conductive layer 104 via a polymeric layer or layers 106 (which may be omitted). The electro-optic layer 108 is preferably an opposite charge, dual particle encapsulated electrophoretic medium of the type described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,822,782, and may comprise a plurality of microcapsules, each of which may comprise a capsule wall containing a hydrocarbon-based liquid in which are suspended negatively charged white particles and positively charged black particles. The microcapsules may be retained within a polymeric binder. Upon application of an electrical field across the layer 108, the white particles move towards the positive electrode and the black particles move towards the negative electrode, so that the layer 108 appears, to an observer viewing the display through the substrate 102, white or black depending upon whether the layer 104 is positive or negative relative to the backplane electrode 112.

(8) Alternatively, layer 108 may be fully encapsulated or comprise sealed micro-cells or micro-cups, or may be non-encapsulated. Layer 108 may comprise particles that move through a liquid solvent or a gas, or particles that rotate within a solvent or a gas, or may modulate light by displacement of a solvent, for example by electro-wetting.

(9) As described for example in U.S. Pat. No. 6,982,178, the display 100 further comprises a layer 110 of lamination adhesive coated over the electro-optic layer 108. The lamination adhesive makes possible the construction of an electro-optic display by combining two subassemblies, namely a backplane 118 that comprises an array of pixel electrodes 112 and an appropriate arrangement of conductors to connect the pixel electrodes to drive circuitry, and a front plane 116 that comprises the substrate 102 bearing the transparent electrode 104, the electro-optic material 108, the lamination adhesive 110 and optional additional components such as polymeric layer or layers 106. To form the final display, the front plane 116 is laminated to the backplane 118 using lamination adhesive 110. The lamination adhesive may be cured thermally or by actinic radiation (for example, by UV curing) or may be uncured.

(10) Since the lamination adhesive 110 is in the electrical path separating the backplane electrodes 112 from the front plane electrode 104 its electrical properties must be carefully tailored. As described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,012,735 the lamination adhesive may comprise, in addition to a polymeric material, an ionic dopant that may be an additive selected from a salt, a polyelectrolyte, a polymer electrolyte, a solid electrolyte, a conductive metal powder, a ferrofluid, a non-reactive solvent, a conductive organic compound, and combinations thereof. The volume resistivities of encapsulated electrophoretic media are typically around 10.sup.10 ohm cm, and the resistivities of other electro-optic media are usually of the same order of magnitude. Accordingly, the volume resistivity of the lamination adhesive is normally around 10.sup.8 to 10.sup.12 ohm cm at the operating temperature of the display, typically around 20° C.

(11) Polymeric layer 106 may be a lamination adhesive layer with similar properties to those described above with reference to lamination adhesive layer 110, except that, since polymeric layer 106 is adjacent to the non-pixelated, light-transmissive common electrode 104, its electrical conductivity may be higher than that of lamination adhesive layer 110, which is adjacent to the pixelated back plane electrodes 112 and cannot be so conductive as to lead to significant currents flowing from one backplane electrode to its neighbors when they are held at different potentials during switching of the display. When polymeric layer 106 is a lamination adhesive it may be used to affix electro-optic layer 108 to electrode layer 104 during manufacture of the front plane as described in detail in the aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 6,982,178.

(12) FIG. 2 illustrates in simplified form the flux of charged materials that may occur in display 100 in response to an electric field applied by means of electrodes 104 and 112. For convenience, only polymeric layer 106, electro-optic medium 108 and lamination adhesive 110 are shown, although, as will be clear to one of ordinary skill in the art, other layers are present in the display (for example, if the electro-optic medium 108 is encapsulated, the capsule walls). Mobile charged species in each layer are shown generically as positively-charged species A, C and E, and negatively-charged species B, D and F. Species A and B in polymeric layer 106 could arise, for example, from an ionic dopant added to enhance the conductivity of layer 106 or could be present adventitiously in the materials used to form layer 106. For example, if water is present in layer 106 species A could correspond to a proton arising from ionization of the water. Species A may comprise more than one mobile, cationic species; in this discussion A refers to any mobile, positively-charged species in layer 106. Likewise, species E and F refer to positively- and negatively-charged mobile species in lamination adhesive layer 110. Species C and D refer to mobile, charged entities in the electro-optic medium 108; such entities include charged pigment particles, whose motion changes the optical state of the display, and charged species whose motion has no direct optical effect, such as micellar charges that are well known in the art.

(13) Charged species may cross the boundaries between the various layers of the display. This is shown schematically in FIG. 2, wherein positively-charged species E is shown as crossing the boundary between the lamination adhesive 110 and the electro-optic medium 108 and negatively-charged species B is shown as crossing the boundary between layers 106 and 108. If charged entities are displaced within their respective layers and cannot cross the boundaries between layers, charge will accumulate at the impermeable boundary, being stored as if in an electrolytic capacitor. After the applied electric field is removed and electrodes 104 and 112 are grounded, discharge of the stored charge at boundaries within the display will occur, changing the electric field experienced by the electro-optic layer 108 and potentially changing the optical state of the display.

(14) Even if mobile ionic charges can flow freely across the boundaries between the layers within the display (without accumulating at the internal boundaries), there is still the difficulty that ionic species cannot cross the boundaries between the interior layers of the display and the electrodes 104 and 112. The only likely mechanism for charge transfer across these boundaries is electron transfer, i.e., reduction/oxidation chemical processes. If electron transfer between electrodes 104 and 112 and the interior layers is blocked, ionic charges will inevitably build up at the boundaries between electrode 104 and layer 106 and between layer 110 and electrode 112. If the display is driven with a DC imbalanced drive scheme a substantial charge build-up at these locations may occur. Relaxation of the built-up charge when the electrodes are brought to a common potential may lead to a flow of charge carriers through the electro-optic medium 108. This flow of charge carriers may lead to a change in the optical state of the display.

(15) In practical encapsulated or microcell displays of the prior art, parallel pathways for ionic conduction are provided by the walls of the containers (microcapsules or microcell walls) for the electro-optic material 108, and thresholds of various kinds may be incorporated into electro-optic media so that return currents do not necessarily involve the displacement of pigments. Such thresholds may be provided by incorporation of polymer into the fluid of the electrophoretic medium, as described for example in U.S. Pat. No. 7,170,670. Providing parallel conduction paths, thresholds, or other stabilization mechanisms always results in compromising the performance of the display, however, either in speed or in optical quality. It is therefore desirable to avoid accumulation of charge at electrode boundaries.

(16) More subtle problems may arise in the reproducibility of optical states attained by the display in response to a given electrical impulse if charge displacements induced during the previous history of switching of the display are not completely nullified. Such problems are manifested as “ghosting” in which traces of previously-displayed images are still visible many switching cycles after their original rendering. As discussed in more detail below, charge displacements within layers 106 and 110 may persist for considerable lengths of time.

(17) As shown in FIG. 3, in the present invention charge accumulation at electrode interfaces is reduced or eliminated by electrochemical oxidation/reduction reactions involving electron transfer from the electrodes to materials within layers 106 and 110. At the cathode an electron is transferred to reduce a component in the adjacent layer (reduction of neutral species G to provide anion G− is illustrated), while at the anode an electron is transferred to the electrode resulting in oxidation of a component in the adjacent layer (electron transfer from neutral species J to produce cation J+ is shown). The injected charges are of the opposite sign to the charges displaced during initial polarization of the display, and thus the charge buildup at the electrode interfaces is reduced or eliminated.

(18) When a potential is applied to a device such as the display 100 illustrated in FIG. 3, migration of ions towards the electrodes leads to accumulation of charge in thin diffuse layers near the electrodes, the thickness of these layers being of the order of the Debye screening length, as is well known in the electrochemical art. Within these diffuse layers the gradients in electrical potential are very steep. After a certain time, the potential gradient becomes sufficient to cause electron transfer reactions. The ease of electron transfer is determined by, among other things, the redox potentials of the materials present in the vicinity of the electrodes and their concentrations.

(19) Chemical materials that may be used as redox compounds in the displays of the present invention will now be discussed in detail. Such materials find use in other electrochemical devices, for example, batteries, photovoltaic cells, fuel cells, electrochromic display elements, and the like.

(20) In general it is preferred that a redox compound used in the display of the present invention have a reduction potential (of the oxidized form) that is not greater than 1.0 V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode, that the redox material contain at least one carbon atom, and that its molecular weight not exceed 1000 Daltons. Particularly preferred redox compounds have a reduction potential that is not greater than 0.2 V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode, contain at least one carbon atom, and have a molecular weight not exceeding 1000 Daltons. Materials meeting these criteria have been found to be compatible with typical lamination adhesives (i.e., layers 106 and 110 in FIG. 1), to diffuse through the adhesive sufficiently quickly to participate in electrochemical reactions at the electrodes, and to be sufficiently easily oxidized that remnant voltages observed following extended DC-imbalanced driving do not exceed about 1 V.

(21) It is believed (though the invention is in no way limited by this belief) that, in the absence of a redox compound in accordance with the present invention, oxidation of water to form oxygen (a half-cell reaction with a standard reduction potential of more than 1 V) may occur. Because the redox compounds used in the present invention are more easily reduced than water, when such redox compounds are present less ionic polarization is required to produce a sufficiently steep potential gradient in the electrode double layer for electron transfer to take place, and the remnant voltage experienced by the electro-optic material is consequently lower.

(22) In some preferred embodiments of the present invention a mixture of oxidized and reduced forms of a redox material is used; in other embodiments it may be sufficient to use only the reduced form, in which case it is thought that the corresponding reduction reaction at the second electrode may involve an adventitious material present in the display, possibly a proton arising from water commonly present in polymeric materials.

(23) Specific preferred redox compounds useful in the present invention will now be described. Compounds of Formulae I-III above comprise one preferred class of redox compounds. The oxidation of such materials involves two electrons and results in the liberation of two protons and the formation of a benzoquinone (although, as is well known in the chemical art, single electron reactions resulting in semiquinone structures are also possible). Substituents R.sub.1-R.sub.15 may be substituted or unsubstituted alkyl or aryl groups, or heteroatomic groups containing hetero atoms of Groups V-VII of the periodic table (hereinafter for convenience abbreviated as “heteroatomic groups of Groups V-VII”). Substituents R.sub.1 and R.sub.2 (taken together), and/or R.sub.3 and R.sub.4, and/or R.sub.5 and R.sub.6, and/or R.sub.7 and R.sub.8, and/or R.sub.10 and R.sub.11, and/or R.sub.12 and R.sub.13, may form a ring. Particularly preferred materials of this class include tetramethylhydroquinone, trimethylhydroquinone, and 2,4- and 2,5-di-tert-butyl hydroquinone. Particularly preferred materials of this class have substituents at every position R.sub.1-R.sub.4, or R.sub.5-R.sub.8, or R.sub.10-R.sub.13 which are preferably alkyl or aryl substituents. Such materials are less prone to the formation of colored byproducts.

(24) Compounds of Formulae IV-VI above comprise a second preferred class of redox compounds for use in the present invention, this class comprising an unsaturated 1,2-dihydroxy (or a nitrogen-containing equivalent) substructure. Although a cis isomer is illustrated, trans isomers may also be used. Substituents R.sub.16-R.sub.22 may be substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or aryl groups, or heteroatomic groups of Groups V-VII. Substituents R.sub.16 and R.sub.17 (taken together), and/or R.sub.18 and R.sub.19, and/or R.sub.21 and R.sub.22 may form a ring. Particularly preferred materials of this class include ascorbic acid and catechols such as 4,5-di-tert-butyl-1,2-dihydroxybenzene.

(25) Compounds of Formula VII comprise a third preferred class of redox compounds for use in the present invention, this class comprising a hydrazine moiety. In this class, a nitrogen atom is oxidized to a radical cation that may react further (for example, by radical coupling) to eventually liberate a proton. Substituents R.sub.25-R.sub.28 may be substituted or unsubstituted alkyl or aryl groups, or heteroatomic groups of Groups V-VII. Substituents R.sub.25 and R.sub.26 (taken together), and/or R.sub.27 and R.sub.28 may form a ring. Particularly preferred materials of this class include phenidone and related materials.

(26) Compounds of Formula VIII comprise a fourth preferred class of redox compounds, in which two sulfur atoms are oxidized to radical cations that couple to form a disulfide bond and liberate two protons. Substituent R.sub.29 may be a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl or aryl group, or a heterocyclyl or heteroatomic group of Groups V-VII. A particularly preferred material of this class is 5-mercapto-1-methyltetrazole.

(27) In an electrophoretic display, it is necessary to drive the top plane electrode to either a positive or a negative potential relative to the backplane electrodes without a bias in conductivity. This requirement precludes the use, in the present invention, of redox cascades of decreasing redox potential such as are commonly used in the art to make diodes (such as light-emitting diodes).

(28) As mentioned above, the use of a redox compound in accordance with the present invention is intended to control the build-up of charge in the diffuse layers adjacent to the electrodes. Such a build up of charge is typically a reversible process. The present invention also seeks to control the nature of the Faradaic reactions that occur at the electrode interfaces so as to enable DC imbalanced driving of a display without incurring irreversible electrode damage. Without the use of controlled redox compounds in accordance with the invention, unwanted Faradaic reactions may occur, such as electrolysis of water, leading to the formation of byproducts such as hydrogen and oxygen gas. Even worse, the electrode materials themselves may participate in redox reactions. Many conventional transparent electrode materials are prone to reduction reactions; for example, indium tin oxide (ITO) may be irreversibly reduced to metallic tin (or indium), leading at first to discoloration (yellowing) of the transparent electrodes and eventually to complete failure. PEDOT:PSS may lose its conductivity when reduced. Other materials used as transparent electrodes are prone to oxidation; for example, silver metal nanowires or grids may be readily oxidized to silver cations. The present invention seeks to introduce competitive redox chemistry to allow Faradaic reactions to occur at the electrode interfaces without degradation of the electrodes.

(29) Depending upon the exact materials present in the display, the redox compounds used in the present invention may be added to the display in either their reduced or their oxidized form, or a mixture of the two forms. Also, it may in some cases be desirable to add the oxidized form of one redox compound and the reduced form of a different redox compound. Oxidized forms of the redox compounds are incorporated to prevent undesired reduction of electrodes such as indium tin oxide. In some cases where oxidized and reduced forms of different redox compounds are used, it may be desirable that the standard reduction potential of the oxidized form be less positive than that of the oxidized form of the redox compound added in its reduced form; if this criterion is met, the oxidized and reduced forms will not react with each other.

(30) Specific preferred oxidized forms of redox compounds for use in the present invention include benzoquinone materials of Formula V wherein substituents R.sub.11-R.sub.14 are substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, aryl, or heteroatomic groups of Groups V-VII of the periodic table. Substituents R.sub.11 and R.sub.12 taken together, or substituents R.sub.13 and R.sub.14 taken together, may form a ring. Particularly preferred materials of this type include tetramethylbenzoquinone (also known as duroquinone), trimethylbenzoquinone, and 2,4- and 2,5-di-tert-butyl benzoquinone. Particularly preferred materials of this class have each of the substituents R.sub.11-R.sub.14 as alkyl or aryl substituents. Such materials are less prone to the formation of colored by-products.

(31) Preferably, the reduced form of the redox compound used in the present invention should be easily oxidized but it must not, of course, react with oxygen in the air. In addition, the reduced form should have a relatively low molecular weight such that it can diffuse to the electrode sufficiently quickly to undergo oxidation during operation of the display; molecular weights less than 1000 Daltons are preferred in the present invention. The concentration of the reduced form should be such that it is not exhausted during the lifetime of the display. Since electrophoretic displays are driven with driving pulses of both polarities, redox compounds capable of reversible redox reactions are preferred to those undergoing irreversible reactions, but the ability to undergo reversible redox reactions is not an absolute requirement of the invention. It has been found that concentrations of the reduced form of the invention in excess of 10 mmole per square meter of the viewing surface (or of the electro-optic medium) of the display are required in order to avoid premature exhaustion of the redox compound.

(32) The oxidized form of a redox compound used in the present invention should be more easily reduced than the ITO electrode; providing a competing pathway for reduction serves to protect the ITO electrode from irreversible electrochemical degradation. The oxidized form should not, however, be so easily reduced that it thermally oxidizes a reduced form unless such an oxidation produces a new reduced form (i.e., the reduced form corresponding to the oxidized form). For example, a preferred reduced form is phenidone and a preferred oxidized form is tetramethylbenzoquinone. Phenidone might be oxidized by tetramethylbenzoquinone, and one product of this reaction would be tetramethylhydroquinone, which is itself a reduced form useful in the present invention. Thus, if tetramethylbenzoquinone is incorporated into a display in molar excess over phenidone, after complete thermal reaction a mixture of tetramethylbenzoquinone (an oxidized form) and tetramethylhydroquinone (a reduced form) would be present.

EXAMPLES

(33) The following Examples are given, though by way of illustration only, to show details of specific materials and processes useful in the present invention.

Example 1

(34) This Example illustrates the reduction in remnant voltage and electrode damage following DC imbalanced driving of a display of the present invention, as compared with a control display lacking a redox compound.

(35) Experimental displays were prepared as follows:

(36) Part A: Preparation of a Solution of Redox Compounds

(37) An oxidized form of a redox compound (tetramethylbenzoquinone, 370 mg, 2.3 mmole) and a reduced form of a redox compound (phenidone, 190 mg, 1.2 mmole) were added to isopropanol (10 g) and the mixture was sonicated at 35° C. for 15 minutes.

(38) Part B: Preparation of a Lamination Layer (Corresponding to Layer 106 in FIG. 1)

(39) The redox compound solution prepared in Part A above (7.8 g) was added to 92.2 g of a 35 percent by weight aqueous dispersion of a polyurethane latex of the type described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,342,068 and the mixture was homogenized on a roll mill. The resultant mixture was coated on to a poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) film base of 4 mil thickness bearing a coating of indium tin oxide (no) to give a wet thickness of approximately 100 μm and the coating was air dried at 140° F. (60° C.).

(40) Part C: Preparation of a Lamination Layer (Corresponding to Layer 110 in FIG. 1)

(41) The redox compound solution prepared in Part A above (1.4 g) was added to 78.6 g of an 8% solution in isopropanol of a polyurethane of the type described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,342,068. The solution thus prepared was coated on to a metalized release sheet to produce a wet layer with a thickness of approximately 80 μm and air dried at 25° C. giving a final thickness of approximately 5 μm.

(42) Part D: Preparation of Displays (as Illustrated in FIG. 1)

(43) The dried film prepared in Part B above was laminated using a hot roll laminator at 250° F., 0.5 ft/minute and 62 psi (121° C., 2.5 mm/sec and approximately 0.45 MPa) to a coating of microcapsules containing an electrophoretic fluid on a release film prepared as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,561,324. The release film was removed and the resultant assembly was laminated, together with the film prepared in Part C above, using the same laminator at 200° F., 0.5 ft/minute and 62 psi. (93° C., 2.5 mm/sec and approximately 0.45 MPa) The metalized release sheet was then removed and the resultant structure was laminated either to a sheet of PET bearing a conductive carbon coating or to a sheet of glass bearing an ITO coating (to form the electrode 112 and rear substrate 114 shown in FIG. 1) to form the experimental displays. These displays were conditioned at 50° C./50% relative humidity (RH) for 5 days.

(44) The experimental displays thus made with ITO/glass backplanes were compared with similar displays lacking the redox compounds used in the present invention. The displays were driven with repeated iterations of the DC-imbalanced and DC-balanced waveforms shown in Table 1 below for many hours, after which the open circuit voltage was measured by applying +1 V across the sample's terminals and measuring the current, then applying −1 V and again measuring the current. Linear interpolation between the two current measurements was used to find the voltage at which the current would have been zero and this voltage was reported as the open circuit voltage. To reduce the measurement of capacitive effects, the voltages were applied for 1 second but the average current was measured only over the last 200 ms of this period.

(45) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Time Duration Voltage Voltage (sec) (sec) (imbalanced) (balanced) 0 0.24 −15 15 0.24 1.00 0 0 1.24 0.24 15 15 1.48 1.00 0 0 2.48 0.24 15 15 2.72 0.11 0 0 2.83 0.24 15 15 3.07 0.11 0 0 3.18 0.24 15 15 3.42 0.11 0 0 3.53 0.24 15 15 3.77 0.11 0 0 3.88 0.24 15 15 4.12 0.11 0 0 4.23 0.24 15 15 4.47 0.11 0 0 4.58 0.24 −15 15 4.82 0.11 0 0 4.93 0.24 15 15 5.17 0.11 0 0 5.28 0.24 −15 15 5.52 0.11 0 0 5.63 0.24 15 15 5.87 0.11 0 0 5.98 0.24 −15 15 6.22 0.11 0 0 6.33 0.24 15 15 6.57 0.11 0 0

(46) FIG. 4 shows the open circuit voltages for a display comprising the redox compounds as compared with a control lacking these compounds. Both displays, when driven with a DC-balanced waveform, exhibited only small changes in the measured open-circuit voltage. The display of the invention exhibited less than half the open-circuit voltage build-up of the control display after prolonged driving with the DC-imbalanced waveform.

(47) FIG. 5 shows the b* value of the white state of the displays driven as described above. As is well known in the art, the b* value in the conventional CIE L*a*b* color space is a measure of the yellowness of a sample. The development of a yellow color in an ITO electrode is known to correlate with irreversible reduction of the ITO. Both displays, when driven with a DC-balanced waveform, exhibited only small changes in the measured b* value of the white state. The display of the invention exhibited about one fifth of the change in b* of the control display after prolonged driving with the DC-imbalanced waveform.

Example 2

(48) This Example illustrates the improved stability of white and dark states following a DC-imbalanced drive achieved by a display of the present invention as compared with a control lacking the redox compounds.

(49) Experimental displays produced in Example 1 above with PET/carbon backplanes were compared with similar control displays lacking the redox compounds. The displays were driven to the white state in a highly imbalanced manner by applying the following waveform: three iterations of ten 250 ms pulses of +15 V (top plane) each, separated by 1 second at 0 V, with 5 seconds at 0 V after the tenth pulse, followed by 25 seconds at 0 V. The difference between the white state measured at the end of the final 15 V pulse and that measured at the end of the whole waveform was recorded. Similarly, the displays were driven to the dark state with the same waveform except with −15 V pulses and the difference between the dark state measured at the end of the final −15 V pulse and that measured at the end of the whole waveform was recorded. The results are shown in Table 2 below.

(50) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 White State change (L*) Dark State change (L*) Invention −4.5 3.6 Control −11.8 11.2

(51) From Table 2, it will be seen that the display of the present invention produced changes in both white and dark states which were much lower than those of the control display, this illustrating the reduced polarization of the display produced by the DC imbalanced waveform.

(52) From the foregoing, it will be seen that the addition of redox compounds to electro-optic displays in accordance with the present invention can provide substantially reduced remnant voltages are protection against electrochemical degradation of electrodes.

(53) It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that numerous changes and modifications can be made in the specific embodiments of the invention described above without departing from the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the whole of the foregoing description is to be interpreted in an illustrative and not in a limitative sense.