Layered Membrane and Methods of Preparation Thereof

Abstract

A membrane for purifying a liquid stream includes a porous substrate and alternating layers of positively charged material and negatively charged material adhered to the porous substrate, wherein at least two of the layers of charged materials possess free ion exchange capacity.

Claims

1. A membrane for purifying a liquid stream, said membrane comprising: a porous substrate; and alternating layers of positively charged material and negatively charged material adhered to the porous substrate, wherein at least two of the layers of charged materials possess free ion exchange capacity.

2. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the porous substrate comprises: a non-woven fibrous support; and a polymer layer coating the non-woven fibrous support.

3. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the alternating layers comprise at least three alternating layers of charged materials.

4. The membrane of claim 3, wherein at least three of the alternating layers possess free ion exchange capacity.

5. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the alternating layers comprise at least four alternating layers of charged materials.

6. The membrane of claim 5, wherein at least four of the alternating layers possess free ion exchange capacity.

7. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the alternating layers comprise at least five alternating layers of charged materials.

8. The membrane of claim 7, wherein at least five of the alternating layers possess free ion exchange capacity.

9. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the alternating layers comprise at least six alternating layers of charged materials.

10. The membrane of claim 1, wherein each alternating layer comprises at least 2 mg/m.sup.2 of charged material.

11. The membrane of claim 1, wherein each alternating layer comprises at least 4 mg/m.sup.2 of charged material.

12. The membrane of claim 1, wherein each alternating layer comprises at least 8 mg/m.sup.2 of charged material.

13. The membrane of claim 1, wherein each alternating layer comprises at least 16 mg/m.sup.2 of charged material.

14. The membrane of claim 1, wherein each alternating layer comprises at least 32 mg/m.sup.2 of charged material.

15. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the ratio of the total positively charged material nominal charge density to the total negatively charged material nominal charge density is between 0.1 and 10.

16. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the ratio of the total positively charged material nominal charge density to the total negatively charged material nominal charge density is between 1 and 7.

17. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the ratio of the total positively charged material nominal charge density to the total negatively charged material nominal charge density is between 1.5 and 5.

18. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the ratio of the total positively charged material nominal charge density to the total negatively charged material nominal charge density is between 2 and 4.

19. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the layers of positively charged material and negatively charged material include an ultimate positively charged material layer and an ultimate negatively charged material layer that are outermost from the porous substrate.

20. The membrane of claim 19, wherein the ratio of the nominal charge density of the ultimate positively charged material layer to the nominal charge density of the ultimate negatively charged material layer is between 0.1 and 10.

21. The membrane of claim 19, wherein the ratio of the nominal charge density of the ultimate positively charged material layer to the nominal charge density of the ultimate negatively charged material layer is between 1 and 7.

22. The membrane of claim 19, wherein the ratio of the nominal charge density of the ultimate positively charged material layer to the nominal charge density of the ultimate negatively charged material layer is between 1.5 and 5.

23. The membrane of claim 19, wherein the ratio of the nominal charge density of the ultimate positively charged material layer to the nominal charge density of the ultimate negatively charged material layer is between 2 and 4.

24. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the total free ion exchange capacity of the alternating layers is greater than 0.002 meq/m.sup.2.

25. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the total free ion exchange capacity of the alternating layers is greater than 0.02 meq/m.sup.2.

26. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the total free ion exchange capacity of the alternating layers is greater than 0.1 meq/m.sup.2.

27. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the total free ion exchange capacity of the alternating layers is greater than 0.5 meq/m.sup.2.

28. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the negatively charged material comprises a composition selected from poly(styrenesulfonic acid), poly(vinylsulfonic acid), poly(2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid), sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone), poly(ethylenesulfonic acid), poly(methacryloxyethylsulfonic acid), poly(acrylic acid), poly(methacrylic acid), graphene oxide, sulfonic acid-functionalized graphene oxide, carboxyl-functionalized graphene oxide, molybdenum sulfide, boron nitride, their salts and mixtures thereof.

29. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the positively charged material comprises a composition selected from poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride), poly(vinylbenzyltrimethylammonium chloride), poly(acryloxyethyltrimethyl ammonium chloride), poly(methacryloxy(2-hydroxy)propyltrimethyl ammonium chloride), poly(N-methylvinylpyridinium), poly(allylamine hydrochloride), polyethylenimine, quaternary ammonium-functionalized graphene oxide, pyridinium-functionalized graphene oxide, amine-functionalized graphene oxide, their salts and mixtures thereof.

30. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the polymer layer comprises a polymer selected from polyacrylonitrile, polysulfone, polyethersulfone, polyester, polyvinylidene difluoride, polyimide, polyether ether ketone and mixtures thereof.

31. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the polymer layer comprises a polymer selected from polyacrylonitrile, poly(acrylonitrile-co-methyl acrylate), poly(2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid-co-acrylonitrile), and mixtures thereof.

32. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the polymer layer comprises greater than 5 weight percent poly(2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid-co-acrylonitrile).

33. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the molecular weight of the polymer layer is greater than 100 kDa.

34. The membrane of claim 1, wherein the non-woven fibrous support comprises a polymer selected from polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene and mixtures thereof.

35. A method for the production of a membrane, said method comprising: depositing a polymeric solution comprising a polymer and a first solvent in which the polymer is soluble on a fibrous support to produce a film having a thickness from about 50 to 300 microns on the fibrous support; immersing the fibrous support and film of polymeric solution in a non-solvent bath in which the polymer is insoluble, wherein the non-solvent bath induces a non-solvent phase separation of the polymeric solution to yield a porous substrate comprising the fibrous support coated with the polymer; and depositing at least three alternating layers of polycationic and polyanionic solutions with layer thicknesses of 4 to 35 microns on the porous substrate to form charged material layers.

36. The method for the production of a membrane of claim 35, wherein the fibrous support comprises a non-woven fibrous support.

37. The method for the production of a membrane of claim 35, wherein three alternating layers of polycationic and polyanionic solutions are deposited on the porous substrate.

38. The method for the production of a membrane of claim 35, wherein four alternating layers of polycationic and polyanionic solutions are deposited on the porous substrate.

39. The method for the production of a membrane of claim 35, wherein five layers of alternating polycationic and polyanionic solutions are deposited on the porous substrate.

40. The method for the production of a membrane of claim 35, wherein six layers of alternating polycationic and polyanionic solutions are deposited on the porous substrate.

41. The method for the production of a membrane of claim 35, wherein the polycationic and polyanionic solutions each have a layer thickness of 6 to 25 microns.

42. The method for the production of a membrane of claim 35, wherein the polycationic and polyanionic solutions each have a layer thickness of 6 to 15 microns.

43. The method for the production of a membrane of claim 35, wherein the polycationic solution comprises a composition selected from poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride), poly(vinylbenzyltrimethylammonium chloride, poly(acryloxyethyltrimethyl ammonium chloride), poly(methacryloxy(2-hydroxy)propyltrimethyl ammonium chloride), poly(N-methylvinylpyridinium), poly(allylamine hydrochloride), polyethylenimine, quaternary ammonium-functionalized graphene oxide, pyridinium-functionalized graphene oxide, amine-functionalized graphene oxide, their salts and mixtures thereof dissolved in water.

44. A method for the production of a membrane of claim 35, wherein the polyanionic solution comprises a composition selected from poly(styrenesulfonic acid), poly(vinylsulfonic acid), poly(2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid), sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone), poly(ethylenesulfonic acid), poly(methacryloxyethylsulfonic acid), poly(acrylic acid), poly(methacrylic acid), graphene oxide, sulfonic acid-functionalized graphene oxide, carboxyl-functionalized graphene oxide, molybdenum sulfide, boron nitride, their salts and mixtures thereof dissolved in water.

45. A method for the production of a membrane of claim 35, further comprising drying the porous substrate between deposition of the alternating layers of solution.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0023] In the course of the following detailed description, reference will be made to the attached drawings in which:

[0024] FIG. 1 is a side sectional view of one embodiment of the membrane structure.

[0025] FIG. 2 is a side sectional view of an alternative embodiment of the membrane structure.

[0026] FIG. 3 is a side view illustrating a method of producing the membrane.

[0027] FIG. 4 is a magnified photographic image of an embodiment of the membrane microstructure.

[0028] The drawings are not necessarily to scale; instead, an emphasis is placed upon illustrating particular principles in the exemplifications discussed below.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0029] The foregoing and other features and advantages of various aspects of the invention(s) will be apparent from the following, more-particular description of various concepts and specific embodiments within the broader bounds of the invention(s). Various aspects of the subject matter introduced above and discussed in greater detail below may be implemented in any of numerous ways, as the subject matter is not limited to any particular manner of implementation. Examples of specific implementations and applications are provided primarily for illustrative purposes.

[0030] Unless otherwise herein defined, used or characterized, terms that are used herein (including technical and scientific terms) are to be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their accepted meaning in the context of the relevant art and are not to be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. For example, if a particular composition is referenced, the composition may be substantially (though not perfectly) pure, as practical and imperfect realities may apply; e.g., the potential presence of at least trace impurities (e.g., at less than 1 or 2%) can be understood as being within the scope of the description. Likewise, if a particular shape is referenced, the shape is intended to include imperfect variations from ideal shapes, e.g., due to manufacturing tolerances. Percentages or concentrations expressed herein can be in terms of weight or volume. Processes, procedures and phenomena described below can occur at ambient pressure (e.g., about 50-120 kPafor example, about 90-110 kPa) and temperature (e.g., ?20 to 50? C.for example, about 10-35? C.) unless otherwise specified.

[0031] Although the terms, first, second, third, etc., may be used herein to describe various elements, these elements are not to be limited by these terms. These terms are simply used to distinguish one element from another. Thus, a first element, discussed below, could be termed a second element without departing from the teachings of the exemplary embodiments.

[0032] Spatially relative terms, such as above, below, left, right, in front, behind, and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe the relationship of one element to another element, as illustrated in the figures. It will be understood that the spatially relative terms, as well as the illustrated configurations, are intended to encompass different orientations of the apparatus in use or operation in addition to the orientations described herein and depicted in the figures. For example, if the apparatus in the figures is turned over, elements described as below or beneath other elements or features would then be oriented above the other elements or features. Thus, the exemplary term, above, may encompass both an orientation of above and below. The apparatus may be otherwise oriented (e.g., rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein interpreted accordingly.

[0033] Further still, in this disclosure, when an element is referred to as being on, connected to, coupled to, in contact with, etc., another element, it may be directly on, connected to, coupled to, or in contact with the other element or intervening elements may be present unless otherwise specified.

[0034] The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments and is not intended to be limiting of exemplary embodiments. As used herein, singular forms, such as a and an, are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context indicates otherwise. Additionally, the terms, includes, including, comprises and comprising, specify the presence of the stated elements or steps but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other elements or steps.

[0035] Embodiments of the membrane of this disclosure comprise a multilayered structure composed of well-defined layers of negatively charged polymers, positively charged polymers, and 2-D materials supported on a porous polymeric substrate. The mass of polyelectrolytes and 2-D materials in each layer of the membrane can be precisely controlled through application of polyelectrolyte and 2-D material solutions of known film thickness. The ability to deposit polyelectrolyte and 2-D materials in excess of the amount that would normally be adsorbed via charge-based complexation enables excess charge to be retained within select layers of the membrane. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it appears that the presence of layers containing excess positive and negative charges within the membrane causes reversal of the electric field within the membrane and yields a bipolar or multipolar structure capable of rejecting both multivalent anions and cations.

[0036] The term, polyelectrolyte, is used herein to designate a polymer with repeat units bearing functional groups that dissociate in water.

[0037] The term, polyanion, is used herein to designate a polymer with repeat units bearing a negatively charged functional group when dissolved in water.

[0038] The term, polycation, is used herein to designate a polymer with repeat units bearing a positively charged functional group when dissolved in water.

[0039] The term, 2-D material, is used herein to designate organic or inorganic materials that exist in microscale sheet- or plate-like morphologies, wherein the sheets or plates are from one-to-several atoms thick.

[0040] The term, flux, is used herein to designate the volumetric rate of flow of the permeate across a membrane, usually in dimensions of liters per square meter per hour (LMH).

[0041] The term, permeability, is used herein to designate the volumetric rate of flow of the permeate across a membrane under a pressure gradient, usually in dimensions of liters per square meter per hour per bar (LMHB), wherein the pressure gradient is the imposed pressure gradient minus the difference in osmotic pressure between the feed and the permeate.

[0042] The term, rejection, is used herein to designate the percentage of a solute that does not permeate the membrane.

[0043] The term, selective, is used herein to designate that the described part has a tendency to allow one or more specific components of the feedstream to preferentially pass through that part with respect to the other feedstream components.

[0044] The term, hardness, is used herein to designate the amount of dissolved species, predominantly Mg and Ca ions, that are prone to precipitating from solution and depositing as a scale on water system hardware.

[0045] The term, nominal charge density, is used herein to designate the amount of positively or negatively ionized or readily ionizable groups present within an isolated film, usually in dimensions of milliequivalents per square meter (meq/m.sup.2).

[0046] The term, gravimetric charge density, is used herein to designate the amount of positively or negatively ionized or readily ionizable groups present within an isolated film, usually in dimensions of milliequivalents per gram (meq/g).

[0047] The term, free ion exchange capacity, is used herein to designate the amount of positively or negatively ionized or readily ionizable groups in a layer available to interact with aqueous ions (thereby excluding positively or negatively ionized groups electrostatically bound to oppositely charged groups associated with adjacent layers), usually in dimensions of milliequivalents per square meter (meq/m.sup.2).

[0048] Now, referring to FIGS. 1-4, features and details of the layered membranes and methods of production are described. Particular embodiments are detailed, below, for the purpose of illustration and not as limitations of the invention.

[0049] FIG. 1 is a representation of a membrane 8 comprising two bilayers of positively charged and negatively charged polyelectrolytes supported on a porous polymer substrate. The porous polymer substrate 2 supports a first positively charged material 4 in the form of a polycationic layer that electrostatically interacts with the negatively charged substrate 2 surface and provides a uniform, well-adhered polycationic coating. The first positively charged material (polycationic layer) 4 supports a first negatively charged material 6 in the form of a polyanionic layer that interacts with the surface of the first positively charged material (polycationic layer) 4 through an electrostatic interaction 16. Although the positive electric charge 12 of the first positively charged material (polycationic layer) 4 is partially neutralized at the interfaces with the substrate 2 and the first negatively charged material 6 (polyanionic layer), the first positively charged material (polycationic layer) 4 is thick enough that it retains uncompensated positive electric charge (free anion exchange capacity) 12 at its interior. The first negatively charged material 6 (polyanionic layer) supports a second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) that interacts with the surface of the first negatively charged material 6 (polyanionic layer) through an electrostatic interaction 16. Although the negative electric charge 14 of the first negatively charged material 6 (polyanionic layer) is partially neutralized at the interfaces with the first positively charged material (polycationic layer) 4 and the second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer), the first negatively charged material 6 (polyanionic layer) is thick enough that it retains uncompensated negative electric charge (free cation exchange capacity) 14 at its interior. The second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) supports a second negatively charged material 6 (polyanionic layer) that interacts with the surface of the second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) through an electrostatic interaction 16. Although the positive electric charge 12 of the second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) is partially neutralized at the interfaces with the first negatively charged material 6 (polyanionic layer) and the second negatively charged material 6 (polyanionic layer), the second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) is thick enough that it retains uncompensated positive electric charge (free anion exchange capacity) 12 at its interior. The second negatively charged material 6 (polyanionic layer) retains uncompensated negative electric charge (free cation exchange capacity) 14 that defines the overall surface charge of the membrane 8.

[0050] Adhesion of a first polyelectrolyte layer via application of a first polyelectrolyte solution 32 to the surface of the substrate 2, as shown in FIG. 3, can be accomplished through a variety of polyelectrolyte-substrate interactions, including electrostatic attraction, hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, chemical crosslinking, thermal crosslinking, or physical entanglement.

[0051] The number of polyelectrolyte layers applied to the substrate 2 is typically about 2 to 10 layers, and may be about 2 to 6 layers or, more specifically, about 3 to 5 layers. It is advantageous to use as few polyelectrolyte layers as possible, while still retaining desired rejection properties, in order to minimize the resistance of the membrane to solvent permeation and to minimize the time and steps required to prepare the membrane 8.

[0052] The polyelectrolyte layers can be deposited in any sequence, but are preferably deposited in an alternating sequence, wherein a polycationic layer is followed by a polyanionic layer, which is followed by a polycationic layer and so on. The first polyelectrolyte layer supported on the porous polymer substrate 2 may be a polycationic or a polyanionic material. The final polyelectrolyte layer that comprises the surface of the membrane 8 may be a polycationic or a polyanionic material.

[0053] The loading of each polyelectrolyte (polycationic or polyanionic) layer 4/6 is typically about 2 to 32 mg/m.sup.2e.g., about 4 to 16 mg/m.sup.2, and, in more-particular embodiments, about 4 to 8 mg/m.sup.2. At an approximate density of 1 g/cm.sup.3, the thickness of each polyelectrolyte layer 4/6 is typically about 2 to 32 nme.g., about 4 to 16 nm, and, in more-particular embodiments, about 4 to 8 nm. At an approximate gravimetric charge density of 6 meq/g, the nominal charge density of each polyelectrolyte layer 4/6 is typically about 0.012 to 0.192 meq/m.sup.2e.g., about 0.024 to 0.96 meq/m.sup.2, and, in moreparticular embodiments, about 0.024 to 0.048 meq/m.sup.2. At very-low polyelectrolyte layer loadings, there may be no uncompensated electric charge (free ion exchange capacity) within the polyelectrolyte layer 4/6. At very-low polyelectrolyte layer loadings, it may also be possible to deposit more than one sequential layer of the same polyelectrolyte 4/6 and get sufficient layer adhesion through the underlying polyelectrolyte layer 4/6 to the oppositely charged polyelectrolyte layer 4/6 below.

[0054] The relative amounts of nominal polycation charge density (in meq/m.sup.2) and nominal polyanion charge density impact the ability of the membrane 8 to reject divalent salts. Membranes 8 with an excess of nominal polycation charge density relative to nominal polyanion charge density exhibit high rejections for salts containing divalent cations. Membranes 8 with an excess of nominal polyanion charge density relative to nominal polycation charge density exhibit high rejections for salts containing divalent anions. At specific ratios of total nominal polycation charge density to nominal polyanion charge density, high rejections for salts containing both divalent cations and divalent anions are realized. The ratio of total nominal polycation charge density to nominal polyanion charge density is typically about 0.1 to 10e.g., about 1 to 7 or 1.5 to 5, and, in more-particular embodiments, 2 to 4. At specific ratios of nominal polycation charge density to nominal polyanion charge density for the ultimate polyelectrolyte layers, high rejections for salts containing both divalent cations and divalent anions are realized. The ratio of nominal polycation charge density to nominal polyanion charge density in the ultimate layers 4 and 6 (i.e., the outermost two layers from the porous substrate 2) of the membrane 8 is typically about 0.1 to 10e.g., about 1 to 7, and in more-particular embodiments, 1.5 to 5 or 2 to 4.

[0055] Due to the association of polycation charges and polyanion charges in the interfaces between the layers, the amount of free ion exchange capacity (i.e., point charges that are not already electrostatically bound to other polymeric species) in each layer 4/6 is less than the nominal charge density. The free-ion-exchange capacity is typically greater than 20% of the nominal charge densitye.g., greater than 40% of the nominal charge density, and in more-particular embodiments, greater than 60% of the nominal charge density or even greater than 80% of the nominal charge density. The free ion exchange capacity of each polyelectrolyte layer 4/6 is typically greater than 0.002 meq/m.sup.2e.g., greater than 0.02 meq/m.sup.2, greater than 0.1 meq/m.sup.2 or even greater than 0.5 meq/m.sup.2.

[0056] The polyelectrolytes used to form the charged layers 4 and 6 are water- and/or organic-soluble and comprise a monomer unit that is positively or negatively charged in solution. The polyelectrolytes may be copolymers that have a combination of charged and/or neutral monomers (e.g., positive and negative; positive and neutral; negative and neutral; or positive, negative and neutral). Regardless of the exact combination of charged and neutral monomers, a polyelectrolyte used in the present invention is predominantly positively charged or predominantly negatively charged and, hereinafter, is referred to as a polycation or a polyanion, respectively.

[0057] Examples of polycations include polyelectrolytes comprising a quaternary ammonium group, such as poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC), poly(vinylbenzyltrimethylammonium chloride) (PVBTMAC), poly(acryloxyethyltrimethyl ammonium chloride), poly(methacryloxy(2-hydroxy)propyltrimethyl ammonium chloride), ionenes, their salts, and copolymers thereof; polyelectrolytes comprising a pyridinium group, such as poly(N-methylvinylpyridinium) (PMVP); and protonated polyamines, such as poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) and polyethyleneimine (PEI). Polycation gravimetric charge densities are typically about greater than 4 meq/ge.g., greater than 6 meq/g or even greater than 8 meq/g.

[0058] Examples of polyanions include polyelectrolytes comprising a sulfonate group (RSO.sub.3.sup.?), such as poly(styrenesulfonic acid) (PSS), poly(2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propane sulfonic acid), poly(vinylsulfonic acid) (PVS), sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) (SPEEK), poly(ethylenesulfonic acid), poly(methacryloxyethylsulfonic acid), their salts, and copolymers thereof; and polycarboxylates, such as poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and poly(methacrylic acid). Polyanion gravimetric charge densities are typically about greater than 3 meq/ge.g., greater than 5 meq/g or even greater than 7 meq/g.

[0059] The molecular weight of the polyelectrolytes is typically about 10,000 to 2,000,000 g/mole.g., about 20,000 to 1,000,000 g/mol, and, in more-particular embodiments, about 50,000 to 500,000 g/mol. When employing thicker polyelectrolyte layers 4/6, higher-molecular-weight polyelectrolytes are more likely to yield stable layers 4/6, as single-polymer chains may span the polyelectrolyte layer 4/6 and may be electrostatically bound to the underlying and overlaying polyelectrolyte layers 4/6. Higher-molecular-weight polyelectrolytes 4/6 are also less likely to penetrate into the pores of the polymer substrate 2.

[0060] The substrate 2 used to support the polyelectrolyte films 4/6 is typically a porous polymer having surface pores with an average diameter of less than about 500 nme.g., less than about 200 nm, less than about 50 nm, less than about 20 nm or even less than about 10 nm. The pores of the substrate may be asymmetric or symmetric. The substrate 2 can comprise a polymer, such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polysulfone (PS), polyethersulfone (PES), polyester (PET), polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), polyimide (PI), polyether ether ketone (PEEK), or mixtures thereof. The substrate 2 can also comprise a non-woven support mesh formed of polyester or polyolefin to improve the substrate's mechanical strength. The thickness of the substrate 2 is typically about 20 to 200 micronse.g., about 40 to 160 microns, and, in more-particular embodiments, about 70 to 130 microns.

[0061] Two-dimensional (2-D) materials (e.g., single- or few-atomic-layer materials) may be substituted for one or more of the polyelectrolyte layers as the charged material 4/6 to produce a membrane 8 with improved permeation and rejection characteristics. FIG. 2 is a representation of a membrane 8 comprising two bilayers of positively charged and negatively charged 2-D materials 4 and 6 supported on a porous polymer substrate 2. The porous polymer substrate 2 supports a first positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) that electrostatically interacts with the negatively charged substrate 2 surface and provides a uniform, well-adhered polycationic coating. The first positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) supports a first polyanionic layer 6 (here, in the form a 2-D material layer) that interacts with the surface of the first positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) through an electrostatic interaction 16. Although the positive electric charge 12 of the first positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) is partially neutralized at the interfaces with the substrate 2 and the first polyanionic layer 6 (2-D material layer), the first positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) is thick enough that it retains uncompensated positive electric charge (free anion exchange capacity) 12 at its interior. The first polyanionic layer 6 (2-D material layer) supports a second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) that interacts with the surface of the first polyanionic layer 6 (2-D material layer) through an electrostatic interaction 16. Although the negative electric charge 14 of the first polyanionic layer 6 (2-D material layer) is partially neutralized at the interfaces with the first positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) and the second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer), the first polyanionic layer 6 (2-D material layer) is thick enough that it retains uncompensated negative electric charge (free cation exchange capacity) 14 at its interior. The second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) supports a second polyanionic layer 6 (2-D material layer) that interacts with the surface of the second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) through an electrostatic interaction 16. Although the positive electric charge 12 of the second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) is partially neutralized at the interfaces with the first polyanionic layer 6 (2-D material layer) and the second polyanionic layer 6 (2-D material layer), the second positively charged material 4 (polycationic layer) is thick enough that it retains uncompensated positive electric charge (free anion exchange capacity) 12 at its interior. The second polyanionic layer 6 (2-D material layer) retains uncompensated negative electric charge (free cation exchange capacity) 14 that defines the overall surface charge of the membrane 8.

[0062] Positively charged 2-D materials may be substituted for one or more of the polycationic layers as the positively charged material 4, while negatively charged 2-D materials may be substituted for one or more of the polyanionic layers as the negatively charged material. The 2-D material serves to improve steric-based solute rejection, as solutes have to pass through the interlamellar gap of the 2-D materials in order to permeate through the membrane 8. The presence of uncompensated charge (free ion exchange capacity) in the 2-D material layer preserves the multipolar characteristics of the membrane 8 and the charged-based rejection characteristics of the membrane 8.

[0063] Examples of negatively charged 2-D materials include graphene oxide, boron nitride and transition metal chalcogenides, such as molybdenum sulfide and tungsten sulfide. Sulfonic acid-, sulfonate-, carboxyl-, and carboxylate-functionalized versions of the same 2-D materials can also be employed.

[0064] Examples of positively charged 2-D materials include quaternary ammonium-, pyridinium-, and amine-functionalized versions of the same 2-D materials.

[0065] In addition to modifying solute rejection, the incorporation of 2-D materials into the layered membrane 8 can enhance solvent permeability and membrane durability. When used as the layer directly supported by the porous substrate, the 2-D material can span the pores of the substrate and minimize penetration of subsequent polyelectrolyte layers into the substrate pores, thereby reducing the resistance of the membrane to solvent permeation.

[0066] The 2-D material, whether used as the first, intermediate, and/or final layer of the membrane coating, can also reduce the roughness of the membrane surface by spanning and covering the textural irregularities of the substrate 2 and/or polyelectrolyte layers 4/6. By rendering the surface of the membrane smoother, the fouling propensity of the membrane 8 can be reduced.

[0067] The 2-D material, when used as the final layer of the membrane coating, can also reduce fouling due to biological film growth through antimicrobial action. Graphene oxide and several transition metal chalcogenides have been shown to exhibit antimicrobial properties.

[0068] An exemplary process used to prepare the layered membrane employs common coating techniques that enable rapid, low-cost membrane production. FIG. 3 is a representation of a roll-to-roll process that can be employed to produce the layered membrane 8. A non-woven fibrous support 20 is conveyed across a series of rollers 22 and through a series of coating steps to yield the layered membrane 8. A polymer solution 24 (e.g., a solution comprising polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polysulfone (PS), polyethersulfone (PES), polyester (PET), polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF), polyimide (PI), polyether ether ketone (PEEK), or mixtures thereof) is deposited on the non-woven support 20; and a metering instrument 26, such as a doctor blade or Mayer rod, is used to spread the first polymer solution 24 to a prescribed film thickness upon the surface of the non-woven support 20. The wetted non-woven support 21 is conveyed through a non-solvent bath 28 to induce a non-solvent phase separation of the polymer solution film and to yield a porous substrate 2 suitable for subsequent thin film coating.

[0069] After submersion in the non-solvent bath 28 for a prescribed length of time, the membrane substrate is conveyed through a heater 30 to remove residual solvent and non-solvent from the membrane substrate 2. A first polyelectrolyte solution 32 is then applied to the membrane substrate 2 and metered to a prescribed film thickness with metering instrument 26. Following solvent evaporation and solvent absorption by the substrate 2, a second polyelectrolyte solution 34 is then applied to the membrane substrate 2 and metered to a prescribed film thickness with metering instrument 26. Following solvent evaporation and solvent absorption by the substrate 2, a third polyelectrolyte solution 36 is then applied to the membrane substrate 2 and metered to a prescribed film thickness with metering instrument 26. Following solvent evaporation and solvent absorption by the substrate 2, a fourth polyelectrolyte solution 38 is then applied to the membrane substrate 2 and metered to a prescribed film thickness with metering instrument 26. Following solvent evaporation and solvent absorption by the substrate 2, the layered membrane 8 is produced.

[0070] Any method capable of yielding a prescribed thickness of solution 24/32/34/36/38 on the surface of the non-woven support 20 or membrane substrate 2 can be used to apply the polymer solution 24 or polyelectrolyte solutions 32, 34, 36, and 38. These methods include spray coating, gravure coating, reverse roll coating, knife coating, slot coating, and Mayer rod coating. The film thickness of the polymer solution 24 is typically about 50 to 300 micronse.g., about 70-200 microns, and, in more-particular embodiments, about 80 to 150 microns. The film thickness of the polyelectrolyte solution 32/34/36/38 is typically about 4 to 35 micronse.g., about 6 to 25 microns, and, in more-particular embodiments, about 6 to 15 microns.

[0071] The process used to prepare the layered membrane 8 lends itself to high-speed production. The membrane 8 is typically conveyed through the coating process at a speed of about 1 to 200 m/mine.g., at a speed of about 10 to 150 m/min, and, in more-particular embodiments, at a speed of about 20 to 100 m/min or at a speed of 30 to 70 m/min.

[0072] FIG. 4 represents an image of a layered membrane in cross-section. Visible in the image are the non-woven support 20, the porous polymer substrate 2, macropores 44 in the polymer substrate 2, micropores 46 in the polymer substrate 2, and the polymer substrate skin and layered film 48.

[0073] In addition to non-solvent induced phase separation, the porous polymer substrate can also be produced via thermally induced phase separation.

[0074] The layered membrane is typically integrated into spiral-wound membrane elements for use in conventional membrane housings. The spiral-wound membrane comprises spiral wraps of layered membrane sheets interspersed with a permeate spacer and feed spacer wrapped around a central tube that acts as a conduit for permeate passage. The solution to be purified enters the spiral-wound membrane element through passages formed by the feed spacer, passes through the layered membrane, flows through the permeate spacer, and into the permeate tube. The layered membrane may also be integrated into flat-sheet membrane cells.

[0075] The following examples illustrate formulations of the inventive membrane and methods of synthesizing and using the membrane.

EXEMPLIFICATIONS

Example 1

[0076] A porous polymer substrate was prepared by casting polyacrylonitrile on a non-woven polyester support. A solution containing 14 wt % poly(acrylonitrile-co-methyl acrylate) (Scientific Polymer Products, Inc.) in dimethylformamide was deposited on a non-woven polyester support with a basis weight of 80 g/m.sup.2 and metered to a thickness of 270 microns with a doctor blade. The non-woven support and wet film was immediately submerged in a 50? C. water bath for three minutes, followed by a 20? C. water bath for 8 minutes. Following air drying for one hour, the pure-water permeability of the porous substrate was measured to be 1424 L/m.sup.2/h/bar.

Example 2

[0077] A porous polymer substrate was prepared by casting a polyacrylonitrile blend on a non-woven polyester support. A solution containing 9-wt % poly(acrylonitrile) (Sigma-Aldrich) and 1-wt % poly(acrylonitrile-co-2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid) (Scientific Polymer Products, Inc.) in dimethylformamide was deposited on a non-woven polyester support with a basis weight of 80 g/m.sup.2 and metered to a thickness of 270 microns with a doctor blade. The support and wet film was immediately submerged in a 20? C. water bath for three minutes, followed by a second 20? C. water bath for 8 minutes. Following air drying for one hour, the pure water permeability of the porous substrate was measured to be 1530 L/m.sup.2/h/bar.

Example 3

[0078] A porous polymer substrate was hydrolyzed by soaking a poly(acrylonitrile) substrate (PA350, Nanostone Water, Inc.) in 1 mol/L NaOH for 30 minutes. The substrate was rinsed with water and dried at 20? C.

Example 4

[0079] A porous polymer substrate was hydrolyzed by soaking the substrate of Example 1 in 1 mol/L NaOH for 30 minutes. The substrate was rinsed with water and dried at 20? C.

Example 5

[0080] A 6-micron-thick film of 0.5-wt % PAH (900 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the substrate of Example 3 using a 2.5-mil Mayer rod at a coating speed of 10 m/min. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.5-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions.

[0081] Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.5-wt % PAH (900 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.5-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. The membrane comprised polyelectrolyte layers with nominal loadings of 32, 32, 32, and 32 mg/m.sup.2 and nominal charge densities of 0.34, 0.16, 0.34, and 0.16 meq/m.sup.2.

Example 6

[0082] A 6-micron-thick film of 0.18-wt % PAH (900 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the substrate of Example 3 using a 2.5-mil Mayer rod at a coating speed of 10 m/min. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.25-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.18-wt % PAH (900 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.25-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. The membrane comprised polyelectrolyte layers with nominal loadings of 12, 16, 12, and 16 mg/m.sup.2 and nominal charge densities of 0.13, 0.078, 0.13, and 0.078 meq/m.sup.2.

Example 7

[0083] A 6-micron-thick film of 0.25-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the substrate of Example 3 using a 2.5-mil Mayer rod at a coating speed of 10 m/min. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.125-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.25-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.125-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. The membrane comprised polyelectrolyte layers with nominal loadings of 16, 8, 16, and 8 mg/m.sup.2 and nominal charge densities of 0.099, 0.039, 0.099, and 0.039 meq/m.sup.2.

Example 8

[0084] A 6-micron-thick film of 0.25-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the substrate of Example 3 using a 2.5-mil Mayer rod at a coating speed of 10 m/min. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.125-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.50-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.094-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. The membrane comprised polyelectrolyte layers with nominal loadings of 16, 8, 32, and 6 mg/m.sup.2 and nominal charge densities of 0.099, 0.039, 0.198, and 0.029 meq/m.sup.2.

Example 9

[0085] A 6-micron-thick film of 0.25-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the substrate of Example 3 using a 2.5-mil Mayer rod at a coating speed of 10 m/min. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.125-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.125-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.125-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. The membrane comprised polyelectrolyte layers with nominal loadings of 16, 8, 8, and 8 mg/m.sup.2 and nominal charge densities of 0.099, 0.039, 0.050, and 0.039 meq/m.sup.2.

Example 10

[0086] A 6-micron-thick film of 0.125-wt % single-layer graphene oxide (ACS Materials) in water was deposited on the substrate of Example 3 using a 2.5-mil Mayer rod at a coating speed of 10 m/min. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.5-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.125-wt % single-layer graphene oxide (ACS Materials) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. The membrane comprised polyelectrolyte and 2-D layers with nominal loadings of 8, 32, and 8 mg/m.sup.2.

Example 11

[0087] A 6-micron-thick film of 0.031-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the substrate of Example 3 using a 2.5-mil Mayer rod at a coating speed of 10 m/min. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 23-micron-thick film of 0.1-wt % single-layer graphene oxide (ACS Materials) in water was deposited on the membrane using a 9-mil Mayer rod. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.25-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using a 2.5-mil Mayer rod. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 6-micron-thick film of 0.093-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. The membrane comprised polyelectrolyte and 2-D layers with nominal loadings of 2, 23, 16, and 6 mg/m.sup.2.

Example 12

[0088] A 13-micron-thick film of 0.25-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the substrate of Example 3 using a 5-mil Mayer rod at a coating speed of 10 m/min. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 13-micron-thick film of 0.063-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 13-micron-thick film of 0.125-wt % PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. Following drying at 20? C. for 5 minutes, a 13-micron-thick film of 0.063-wt % PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) in water was deposited on the membrane using the same coating conditions. The membrane comprised polyelectrolyte layers with nominal loadings of 32, 8, 16, and 8 mg/m.sup.2 and nominal charge densities of 0.198, 0.039, 0.099, and 0.039 meq/m.sup.2.

Example 13

[0089] A layer-by-layer polyelectrolyte membrane was prepared by coating a porous polymer substrate with alternating layers of PDADMAC and PSS. The substrate of Example 1 was immersed in 0.03 mol/L PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) for 2 minutes, rinsed in water for 1 minute, immersed in 0.03 mol/L PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) for 2 minutes, and rinsed in water for 1 minute to deposit one polyelectrolyte bilayer. The coating process was repeated four additional times to produce a membrane comprising ten polyelectrolyte layers (5 bilayers). The membrane was dried at 20? C.

Example 14

[0090] A layer-by-layer polyelectrolyte membrane was prepared by coating a porous polymer substrate with alternating layers of PDADMAC and PSS. The substrate of Example 4 was immersed in 0.03 mol/L PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) for 2 minutes, rinsed in water for 1 minute, immersed in 0.03 mol/L PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) for 2 minutes, and rinsed in water for 1 minute to deposit one polyelectrolyte bilayer. The coating process was repeated one additional time to produce a membrane comprising four polyelectrolyte layers (2 bilayers). The membrane was dried at 20? C.

Example 15

[0091] A layer-by-layer polyelectrolyte membrane was prepared by coating a porous polymer substrate with alternating layers of PDADMAC and PSS. The substrate of Example 4 was immersed in 0.03 mol/L PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) for 2 minutes, rinsed in water for 1 minute, immersed in 0.03 mol/L PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) for 2 minutes, and rinsed in water for 1 minute to deposit one polyelectrolyte bilayer. The coating process was repeated four additional times to produce a membrane comprising ten polyelectrolyte layers (5 bilayers). The membrane was dried at 20? C.

Example 16

[0092] A layer-by-layer polyelectrolyte membrane was prepared by coating a porous polymer substrate with alternating layers of PDADMAC and PSS. The substrate of Example 4 was immersed in 0.03 mol/L PDADMAC (400 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) for 2 minutes, rinsed in water for 1 minute, immersed in 0.03 mol/L PSS (70 kDa, Sigma-Aldrich) for 2 minutes, and rinsed in water for 1 minute to deposit one polyelectrolyte bilayer. The coating process was repeated nine additional times to produce a membrane comprising 20 polyelectrolyte layers (10 bilayers). The membrane was dried at 20? C.

Example 17

[0093] The permeation and rejection characteristics of a membrane were evaluated by challenging the membrane with a series of individual salt solutions containing 500 part per million by weight (ppm) of either MgCl.sub.2, Na.sub.2SO.sub.4, MgSO.sub.4 or NaCl. In a typical test, the membrane was loaded into a flat-sheet membrane holder leaving an exposed membrane area of 4.7 cm.sup.2. Approximately 20 cc/min of the salt solution was passed over the membrane at a pressure of 3 bar. After stabilization, the permeate flow rate and concentration of salt in the permeate was measured. TABLE 1 summarizes the permeation data of several membranes.

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Membrane Permeability and Single Salt Rejection Average MgCl.sub.2 Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 MgSO.sub.4 NaCl Water Rejec- Rejec- Rejec- Rejec- Permeability tion tion tion tion Membrane (L/m.sup.2/h/bar) (%) (%) (%) (%) Example 5 6.1 98 73 90 62 Example 6 7.8 37 86 58 Example 7 5.4 82 90 91 Example 8 6.6 87 94 94 19 Example 9 7.1 17 90 Example 10 5.5 96 42 75 63 Example 11 7.6 36 73 46 Example 12 7.0 75 90 91 21 Example 13 127 2 0 Example 14 15.9 38 37 Example 15 13.5 42 91 Example 16 9.3 40 95 87 12

Example 18

[0094] The membrane's permeation and rejection characteristics were evaluated by challenging the membrane with a mixed-salt solution containing 4.2 mmol/L each of Mg.sup.2+, Na.sup.+, SO.sub.4.sup.2?, Cl.sup.?. In a typical test, the membrane was loaded into a flat sheet membrane holder leaving an exposed membrane area of 4.7 cm.sup.2. Approximately 20 cc/min of the mixed-salt solution was passed over the membrane at a pressure of 3 bar. After stabilization, the flow rate, hardness, and total dissolved solids (TDS) content of the permeate was measured. TABLE 2 summarizes the permeation data of a layered membrane relative to commercial nanofiltration membranes.

TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Membrane Permeability and Mixed Salt Rejection Water Hardness TDS Permeability Reduction Reduction Membrane (L/m.sup.2/h/bar) (%) (%) Example 12 7.6 89 64 ESNA1-LF2 9.4 89 90 NF-270 15.1 78 67

Example 19

[0095] The permeation and rejection characteristics of the membrane of Example 12 was evaluated by challenging the membrane with a mixed-salt solution containing 4.2 mmol/L each of Mg.sup.2+, Na.sup.+, SO.sub.4.sup.2?, Cl.sup.?. The membrane was loaded into a flat sheet membrane holder leaving an exposed membrane area of 4.7 cm.sup.2. Approximately 20 cc/min of the mixed-salt solution was passed over the membrane at a pressure of 3 bar. After stabilization, the flow rate, hardness, and total dissolved solids (TDS) content of the permeate was measured. TABLE 3 summarizes the permeation data of the membrane over a period of 42 hours.

TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Membrane Permeability and Mixed Salt Rejection Elapsed Water Hardness TDS Time Permeability Reduction Reduction (h) (L/m.sup.2/h/bar) (%) (%) 0 7.6 86 66 19 7.3 89 64 22 7.6 89 64 42 7.7 89 63

Example 20

[0096] Membranes of Example 7 were soaked in an aqueous solution of 0.02 wt % NaOCl pH-adjusted to 8 with HCl for 0.5, 7.5 and 18.5 hours to examine Cl tolerance. The permeation and rejection characteristics of the membrane were then evaluated by challenging the membrane with a salt solution containing 500 part per million by weight (ppm) of MgSO.sub.4. The membrane was loaded into a flat sheet membrane holder leaving an exposed membrane area of 4.7 cm.sup.2. Approximately 20 cc/min of the mixed-salt solution was passed over the membrane at a pressure of 3 bar. After stabilization, the permeate flow rate and concentration of salt in the permeate was measured. TABLE 4 summarizes the changes in membrane permeation characteristics following different Cl exposures. A doubling in salt passage occurs after approximately 1900 ppmh Cl exposure.

TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 4 Changes in Membrane Permeability and MgSO.sub.4 Passage Cl Change in Water Change in MgSO.sub.4 Exposure Permeability Passage (ppmh) (%) (%) 100 1 ?8 1500 8 85 3700 25 167

[0097] The use of the layered membrane in water-purification processes offers many advantages over the use of previously known membranes. The membrane can provide high rejection (greater than 90%) of divalent cations and anions while offering low rejection (less than 30%) for monovalent cations and anions. These properties are beneficial in low-pressure water-softening applications, where high hardness rejection and low salinity rejection are desired in order to minimize the osmotic pressure differential between the feed and the permeate and facilitate the use of a low feed pressure.

[0098] An advantage provided by embodiments of the membrane is that divalent salt rejections greater than 90% can be realized after deposition of as few as three polyelectrolyte/2-D layers. Most conventional adsorptive layer-by-layer prepared membranes require the deposition of greater than eight polyelectrolyte layers to achieve comparable divalent salt rejection.

[0099] An advantage provided by embodiments of the membrane is that Cl tolerance is improved relative to conventional thin film composite polyamide nanofiltration membranes.

[0100] An advantage provided by embodiments of the membrane is that very little solvent is required to deposit the polyelectrolyte/2-D layers. The thickness of each wet polyelectrolyte/2-D film is typically less than about 35 microns. Additionally, no rinsing of the membrane is required during polyelectrolyte/2-D layer deposition, which minimizes solvent and polyelectrolyte/2-D materials waste.

[0101] Because very little solvent is used in polyelectrolyte/2-D layer deposition, solvent evaporation or absorption into the porous support is rapid and subsequent layer deposition can occur within seconds, thus enabling substrate coating to take place at coating speeds as high as 200 m/min, enabling significant amounts of membrane to be produced on a single coating line. No elevated temperature is also required to complete curing or drying of the layered membrane.

[0102] An advantage provided by embodiments of the membrane is that thick and dense polyelectrolyte/2-D layers can be readily applied to the polymer substrate. In order to deposit thick polyelectrolyte layers via conventional adsorptive layer-by-layer methods, a supporting salt is needed to increase the ionic strength of the polyelectrolyte solution. While this salt increases the thickness of the coating, it also reduces the density of the coating.

[0103] An advantage provided by embodiments of the membrane is that the relative amounts of polyelectrolytes/2-D materials in adjacent layers can be manipulated in a straightforward manner by adjusting the polyelectrolyte/2-D solution concentration and film-coating thickness. The amount of polyelectrolyte deposited via conventional adsorptive layer-by-layer methods is impacted by a number of variables, including polyelectrolyte-solution concentration, solution temperature, solution ionic strength, solution pH, polyelectrolyte molecular weight, and substrate roughness.

[0104] In describing embodiments of the invention, specific terminology is used for the sake of clarity. For purposes of description, each specific term is intended to at least include all technical and functional equivalents that operate in a similar manner to accomplish a similar purpose. Additionally, in some instances where a particular embodiment of the invention includes a plurality of system elements or method steps, those elements or steps may be replaced with a single element or step; likewise, a single element or step may be replaced with a plurality of elements or steps that serve the same purpose. Further, where parameters for various properties are specified herein for embodiments of the invention, those parameters can be adjusted up or down by 1/100.sup.th, 1/50.sup.th, 1/20.sup.th, 1/10.sup.th, 1/5.sup.th, 1/3.sup.rd, 1/2, 2/3.sup.rd, 3/4.sup.th, 4/5.sup.th, 9/10.sup.th, 19/20.sup.th, 49/50.sup.th, 99/100th, etc. (or up by a factor of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 20, 50, 100, etc.), or by rounded-off approximations thereof, unless otherwise specified. Moreover, while this invention has been shown and described with references to particular embodiments thereof, those skilled in the art will understand that various substitutions and alterations in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention. Further still, other aspects, functions and advantages are also within the scope of the invention; and all embodiments of the invention need not necessarily achieve all of the advantages or possess all of the characteristics described above. Additionally, steps, elements and features discussed herein in connection with one embodiment can likewise be used in conjunction with other embodiments. The contents of all references, including reference texts, journal articles, patents, patent applications, etc., cited throughout this application are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. All appropriate combinations of embodiments, features, characterizations, components and methods of those references and the present disclosure may be selected for inclusion in embodiments of the invention. Still further, the components and methods identified in the Background section are integral to this disclosure and can be used in conjunction with or substituted for components and methods described elsewhere in the disclosure within the scope of the invention.