CATALYST, ITS PREPARATION AND ITS USE IN AMMONIA SYNTHESIS

Abstract

A catalyst in ammonia synthesis includes a first layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material; a second layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material stacked with and is spaced from the first layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material by a first distance; wherein the metal monochalcogenide-based material includes SnS. A method of preparing the catalyst and an electrochemical ammonia synthesizing device making use of the catalyst thereof are also addressed.

Claims

1. A catalyst in ammonia synthesis comprising: a first layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material; a second layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material stacked with and is spaced from the first layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material by a first distance; wherein the metal monochalcogenide-based material includes SnS.

2. The catalyst as claimed in claim 1, wherein the metal monochalcogenide-based material is doped by a lanthanide atom.

3. The catalyst as claimed in claim 2, wherein the first distance is expanded to a second distance when the metal monochalcogenide-based material is doped by the lanthanide atom, the second distance is an expansion of the first distance by about 4% to about 12%.

4. The catalyst as claimed in claim 2, wherein the first and second layers of metal monochalcogenide-based material are intercalated by a metal intercalating atom.

5. The catalyst as claimed in claim 4, wherein the metal intercalating atom is a transition metal atom that covalently bonds the first and second layers of metal monochalcogenide-based material at a bonding site.

6. The catalyst as claimed in claim 5, wherein the second distance is compressed to a third distance when the first and second layers of metal monochalcogenide-based material are intercalated by the metal intercalating atom, the third distance is a compression of the second distance by about 4% to about 12%.

7. The catalyst as claimed in claim 2, wherein the lanthanide atom is Ce.

8. The catalyst as claimed in claim 4, wherein intercalated first and second layers of metal monochalcogenide-based material has a general formula of A.sub.y/B.sub.x-MX, A is the intercalating metal atom, B is the lanthanide atom and MX represents the first and second layers of metal monochalcogenide-based material.

9. The catalyst as claimed in claim 8, wherein MX is SnS, B is Ce and A is Pt.

10. The catalyst as claimed in claim 9, wherein y is about 0.3 at. % to about 1.2 at. % and x is about 0.1 at. % to about 1 at. %.

11. The catalyst as claimed in claim 3, wherein the second distance is about 5.700?0.025 ? to about 6.040?0.034 ?.

12. The catalyst as claimed in claim 6, wherein the third distance is about 5.220?0.031 ? to about 5.697?0.025 ?.

13. The catalyst as claimed in claim 10, wherein the intercalated first and second layers of metal monochalcogenide-based material is Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SnS.

14. The catalyst as claimed in claim 13, wherein the third distance is about 5.434?0.025 ?.

15. The catalyst as claimed in claim 13, wherein the catalyst has a Faradaic efficiency of ammonia of about 94.12% and a yield rate of about 0.3056 mmol cm.sup.?2 h.sup.?1 for ammonia at ?0.5 V vs. RHE.

16. A method of preparing the catalyst as claimed in claim 2, comprising the steps of: a) forming a two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material by a hydrothermal process; b) introducing a trivalent cation of a lanthanide atom to form a doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material; and c) converting the doped two dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material to a doped two dimensional metal monochalcogenide-based material by way of electrochemical reduction.

17. The method as claimed in claim 16 further comprising the step of: b1) performing electrochemical intercalation of a metal atom after step b).

18. The method as claimed in claim 17, wherein the step b1) and step c) are conducted simultaneously.

19. The method in claim 16, wherein the step a) and the step b) are conducted simultaneously during the hydrothermal process.

20. The method as claimed in claim 16, wherein the two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material is SnS.sub.2, the lanthanide atom is Ce and the doped two-dimensional metal monochalcogenide-based material is Ce.sub.xSnS, x is about 0.1 at. % to about 1 at. %.

21. The method as claimed in claim 17, wherein the metal atom is Pt, the doped two-dimensional metal monochalcogenide-based material is Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSnS, x is about 0.1 at. % to about 1 at. %, and y is about 0.3 at. % to about 1.2 at. %.

22. An electrochemical ammonia synthesizing device, comprising: an anode including a carbon-based anode material; a cathode including the catalyst as claimed in claim 1; and an electrolyte including a nitrate source in electrical communication with the anode and the cathode; wherein the electrolyte has a pH of about 11.5.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

[0019] The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

[0020] The invention will now be more particularly described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

[0021] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating the catalyst in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention;

[0022] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram illustrating the electrochemical ammonia synthesizing device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention;

[0023] FIG. 3A is a table summarizing the contents of the Ce-doped samples determined by ICP-OES/MS;

[0024] FIG. 3B is a table summarizing the contents of the Pt-intercalated Ce-doped samples determined by ICP-OES/MS;

[0025] FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram illustrating the synthetic procedure of SnS NS;

[0026] FIG. 5 is an in situ Raman spectra upon the electrochemical conversion process from SnS.sub.2 to SnS;

[0027] FIG. 6A is a SEM image of SnS.sub.2 (magnification scale=500 nm), with the insert figure being the SEM image at a lower magnification (magnification scale=4 ?m);

[0028] FIG. 6B is a SEM image of SnS (magnification scale=500 nm), with the insert figure being the SEM image at a lower magnification (magnification scale=4 ?m);

[0029] FIG. 6C shows the thickness statistics of SS.sub.2 corresponding to the SEM image of FIG. 6A;

[0030] FIG. 6D shows the thickness statistics of SS.sub.2 corresponding to the SEM image of FIG. 6B;

[0031] FIG. 7A shows calculated band structures of SnS.sub.2, where E.sub.g represents the bandgap;

[0032] FIG. 7B shows calculated band structures of SnS, where E.sub.g represents the bandgap;

[0033] FIG. 8 shows the XRD patterns of carbon cloth, SnS.sub.2 and SnS;

[0034] FIG. 9A is a HRTEM image of SnS.sub.2, with the upper and lower insert figures being the TEM image and intensity profile showing corresponding lattice fringes, respectively;

[0035] FIG. 9B is a HRTEM image of SnS, with the upper and lower insert figures being the TEM image and intensity profile showing corresponding lattice fringes, respectively;

[0036] FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram illustrating the synthetic procedures of Ce.sub.xSS.sub.2, Ce.sub.xSS, and Pty/Ce.sub.xSS;

[0037] FIG. 11 is a schematic representation illustrating the interlayer spacing regulation of SnS, Ce.sub.xSS, and Pty/Ce.sub.xSS, in which Ce atom doping and Pt atom insertion achieve expansion and compression of the interlayer spacing of SnS, respectively;

[0038] FIG. 12A is a HRTEM image of the layered edges of SS, with the bottom panel being the intensity profiles corresponding to the areas marked by the rectangle in the HRTEM image;

[0039] FIG. 12B is a HRTEM image of the layered edges of Ce.sub.0.5SS, with the bottom panel being the intensity profiles corresponding to the areas marked by the rectangle in the HRTEM image;

[0040] FIG. 12C is a HRTEM image of the layered edges of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, with the bottom panel being the intensity profiles corresponding to the areas marked by the rectangle in the HRTEM image;

[0041] FIG. 13A shows the HRTEM image of the layered edges of SS.sub.2 NS (left panel) and the intensity profiles (right panel) in the selected region marked by the dashed box in the HRTEM image;

[0042] FIG. 13B shows the HRTEM image of the layered edges of Ce.sub.0.5SS.sub.2 NS (left panel) and the intensity profiles (right panel) in the selected region marked by the dashed box in the HRTEM image;

[0043] FIG. 14A shows the relationship between the interlayer spacing of SS NS with Ce doping and Pt intercalating. Error bars represent standard deviation over 10 independent replicates at least;

[0044] FIG. 14B is a table summarizing the interlayer spacings of different samples. The standard derivation collected from over 10 independent replicates at least;

[0045] FIG. 15A shows the HRTEM images of the layered edges of SS NS and the corresponding intensity profiles in the selected regions;

[0046] FIG. 15B shows the HRTEM images of the layered edges of Ce.sub.0.5SS and the corresponding intensity profiles in the selected regions;

[0047] FIG. 15C shows the HRTEM images of the layered edges of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and the corresponding intensity profiles in the selected regions;

[0048] FIG. 16 is a TEM image of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS;

[0049] FIG. 17A is a SEM image of Pt.sub.0.3/Ce.sub.0.5SS, with the insert figure showing the thickness statistics of the nanosheet;

[0050] FIG. 17B is a SEM image of Pt.sub.0.6/Ce.sub.0.5SS, with the insert figure showing the thickness statistics of the nanosheet;

[0051] FIG. 17C is a SEM image of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, with the insert figure showing the thickness statistics of the nanosheet;

[0052] FIG. 17D is a SEM image of Pt.sub.1.2/Ce.sub.0.5SS, with the insert figure showing the thickness statistics of the nanosheet;

[0053] FIG. 18A shows the STEM image of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and the corresponding EDX mappings;

[0054] FIG. 18B shows the elemental distribution determined by TEM-EDX for Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS. The signal of Cu results from the Cu TEM grid;

[0055] FIG. 19A shows the XRD patterns of carbon cloth, SS.sub.2, Ce.sub.0.5SS.sub.2, Pt.sub.0.3/Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, and Pt.sub.1.2/Ce.sub.0.5SS;

[0056] FIG. 19B shows the SAED pattern of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS;

[0057] FIG. 20 shows atomic-resolution HAADF-STEM image of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and the corresponding line intensity profiles in the selected regions marked by the dashed lines. The arrows 2002 and 2004 point to the Ce and Pt atom, respectively;

[0058] FIG. 21 shows the atomic-resolution HAADF-STEM image of Ce.sub.0.5SS (left panel) and the corresponding intensity profiles in the selected regions of the atomic-resolution HAADF-STEM image marked by the dashed lines. Ce atoms are marked by circles;

[0059] FIG. 22A shows the adsorption of Pt single atom on Ce.sub.xSS at different positions. Top panel, top view; bottom panel, side view;

[0060] FIG. 22B is a table showing the adsorption energies of Pt single atom on Ce.sub.xSS at different positions shown in FIG. 22A. Position a is set as reference energy;

[0061] FIG. 23A is a TEM image of the layered edges of Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0062] FIG. 23B is a HRTEM image of the layered edges of Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0063] FIG. 23C is a SEM image of the layered edges of Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0064] FIG. 23D is a HRTEM image of the layered edges of Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0065] FIG. 23E is a schematic diagram illustrating the interlayer spacing regulation of Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0066] FIG. 24 is a table showing the binding energies of corresponding samples in Sn 3d and S 2p XPS spectra;

[0067] FIG. 25 is a XPS survey spectra of Sn 3d showing the local chemical environment of the interlayer-spacing-regulated samples;

[0068] FIG. 26A is a XPS spectra of Sn 3d of Ce.sub.0.5SS;

[0069] FIG. 26B is a XPS spectra of S 2p of Ce.sub.0.5SS;

[0070] FIG. 27 is XPS survey spectra of S 2p showing the local chemical environment of the interlayer-spacing-regulated samples;

[0071] FIG. 28A shows the binding energy variation of Sn 3d with increasing Pt concentration;

[0072] FIG. 28B shows the binding energy variation of S 2p with increasing Pt concentration;

[0073] FIG. 29 shows the normalized XANES spectra at the Pt LIII-edge;

[0074] FIG. 30 shows the Ce 3d XPS spectra of Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0075] FIG. 31A shows the Fourier transform of k.sup.2-weighted EXAFS spectra of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and reference Pt foil and PtO.sub.2 at the Pt Lin-edge;

[0076] FIG. 31B shows Pt LIII-edge EXAFS fitting results of Pt foil in k space;

[0077] FIG. 31C shows Pt LIII-edge EXAFS fitting results of PtO.sub.2 in k space;

[0078] FIG. 31D shows Pt LIII-edge EXAFS fitting results of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS in k space;

[0079] FIG. 32 is a table summarizing the fitting results of EXAFS spectra (S.sub.0.sup.2=0.80). S.sub.0.sup.2, the amplitude reduction factor; R, distance between absorber and back-scatterer atoms; CN, coordination number; ??.sup.2, disorder term; ?E.sub.0, inner potential correction. Error bounds that characterize the structural parameters obtained by EXAFS spectroscopy are estimated as CN, ?20%; R, ?0.02 ?; ??.sup.2, ?20%; ?E.sub.0, ?20%. The parameters used for data fitting list as follows: R range, 1-3.2 ?; k range, 3.5-10.0 ?.sup.?1;

[0080] FIG. 33 shows the Pt 4f XPS spectra of Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0081] FIG. 34A shows the XPS spectra of Sn 3d of Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0082] FIG. 34B shows the XPS spectra of S 2p of Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0083] FIG. 35 shows the ratio of Sn.sup.2+/Sn.sup.4+ obtained from XPS results of Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS;

[0084] FIG. 36 is a schematic diagram illustrating the charge difference of Ce.sub.xSS (left) and Pty/Ce.sub.xSS (right). The isosurfaces 3602 and 3604 represent charge accumulation and depletion around Ce and Pt atoms, respectively;

[0085] FIG. 37 shows the electrochemical impendence spectra of SS, Ce.sub.0.5SS, and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, with the inset showing the equivalent circuit model;

[0086] FIG. 38 shows the LSV curves of SS, Ce.sub.0.5SS, and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS at a scan rate of 5 mV s.sup.?1 with and without NO.sub.3.sup.? upon the electrocatalytic NO.sub.3.sup.?-to-NH.sub.3 conversion.

[0087] FIG. 39A shows the UV-vis absorbance of (NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4 solution with different concentrations upon NH.sub.3 detection through the indophenol blue method;

[0088] FIG. 39B shows the fitted absorbance-concentration curve corresponding to FIG. 39A. The absorbance values are determined at 655 nm;

[0089] FIG. 40A shows the UV-vis absorbance of KNO.sub.2 solution with different concentrations upon NO.sub.2.sup.? detection through the Griess method;

[0090] FIG. 40B shows the fitted absorbance-concentration curve corresponding to FIG. 40A. The absorbance values are determined at 540 nm;

[0091] FIG. 41A shows the UV-vis absorbance of N.sub.2H.sub.4 solution with different concentrations upon N.sub.2H.sub.4 detection through the Watt and Chrisp method;

[0092] FIG. 41B shows the fitted absorbance-concentration curve corresponding to FIG. 41A. The absorbance values are determined at 460 nm;

[0093] FIG. 42A shows Faradaic efficiencies (FE) for NH.sub.3 upon the electrocatalytic NO.sub.3.sup.?-to-NH.sub.3 conversion;

[0094] FIG. 42B shows the yield rate for NH.sub.3 (Y.sub.NH3) upon the electrocatalytic NO.sub.3.sup.?-to-NH.sub.3 conversion;

[0095] FIG. 43 shows the partial current densities of NH.sub.3 (j.sub.NH3) upon the electrocatalytic NO.sub.3.sup.+-to-NH.sub.3 conversion;

[0096] FIG. 44A shows LSV curves of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS under different stir rates, showing the influence of mass transfer on catalytic activity;

[0097] FIG. 44B shows the determined generation rates and Fes of NH.sub.3 and NO.sub.2.sup.?-products at ?0.5 V vs. RHE, showing the influence of mass transfer on catalytic activity;

[0098] FIG. 45A shows the cyclic voltammetry (CV) cycles at different scan rates from 10 to 60 mV s.sup.?1 of SS;

[0099] FIG. 45B shows the cyclic voltammetry (CV) cycles at different scan rates from 10 to 60 mV s.sup.?1 of Ce.sub.0.5SS;

[0100] FIG. 45C shows the cyclic voltammetry (CV) cycles at different scan rates from 10 to 60 mV s.sup.?1 of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS;

[0101] FIG. 45D shows the corresponding current density differences vs. scan rates of the samples in FIGS. 45A-45C to calculate electrochemical double-layer capacitance (C.sub.dl). The C.sub.dl is proportional to electrochemical surface area (ECSA);

[0102] FIG. 45E shows the ECSA normalized partial current densities of NH.sub.3 (j.sub.NH3) of SS, Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS;

[0103] FIG. 46 shows the FE for NO.sub.2.sup.? upon electrolytic NO.sub.3.sup.?-to-NH.sub.3 conversion;

[0104] FIG. 47 shows the yield rate for NO.sub.2.sup.? (Y.sub.NO2?) of SS, Ce.sub.0.5SS, and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS;

[0105] FIG. 48A shows the LSV curves of Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS in the electrolyte with 0.1 M NO.sub.2.sup.? and with 0.1 M NO.sub.3.sup.?, respectively;

[0106] FIG. 48B shows the yield rate for NH.sub.3 (Y.sub.NH3) in the electrolyte with 0.1 M NO.sub.2?;

[0107] FIG. 48C shows the FEs of NH.sub.3 of Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS in the process of NO.sub.3RR;

[0108] FIG. 48D shows the FEs of NH.sub.3 of Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS in the process of NO.sub.2RR;

[0109] FIG. 49A shows the NH.sub.3-to-NO.sub.2.sup.? product ratios variation of SS, Ce.sub.0.5SS, and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS upon the electrocatalytic NO.sub.3.sup.?-to-NH.sub.3 conversion;

[0110] FIG. 49B shows the FE and yield rate of NH.sub.3 for Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS in the electrolyte with different concentrations of NO.sub.3.sup.? ([NO.sub.3.sup.?]) at ?0.5 V vs. RHE upon the electrocatalytic NO.sub.3.sup.?-to-NH.sub.3 conversion;

[0111] FIG. 50A shows the .sup.1H NMR spectra (400 MHZ) of .sup.15NH.sub.4.sup.+ with different known .sup.15(NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4 concentrations using C.sub.4H.sub.4O.sub.4 as standards;

[0112] FIG. 50B shows the calibration curve of integral area (.sup.15NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4/C.sub.4H.sub.4O.sub.4) against (.sup.15NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4 concentration;

[0113] FIG. 51A shows the .sup.1H NMR spectra of the electrolyte after NO.sub.3RR electrolysis at ?0.5 V vs. RHE using .sup.14NH.sub.4.sup.+ and .sup.15NH.sub.4.sup.+ as N sources, respectively, and .sup.1H NMR spectra of standard (.sup.14NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4, (.sup.15NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4 solution and original .sup.14NO.sub.3.sup.?, .sup.15NO.sub.3.sup.? solution;

[0114] FIG. 51B shows the quantitative comparison of yield rate for NH.sub.3 (Y.sub.NH3) and FE of SS, Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS based on the .sup.1H NMR and UV-Vis methods;

[0115] FIG. 52A shows the LSV curves of Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.3/Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.1.2/Ce.sub.0.5SS, and Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0116] FIG. 52B shows the FE of NH.sub.3 of Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.3/Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.1.2/Ce.sub.0.5SS, and Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0117] FIG. 52C shows the Y.sub.NH3 of Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.3/Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.1.2/Ce.sub.0.5SS, and Pt.sub.1.2SS;

[0118] FIG. 53A shows the comparison of Y.sub.NH3 and FE of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS with the reported representatives eNO.sub.3RR and eNRR electrocatalysts;

[0119] FIG. 53B is a table showing the comparison of NH.sub.3 synthesis performance among Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and reported representatives eNO.sub.3RR electrocatalysts corresponding to FIG. 53A;

[0120] FIG. 53C is a table showing the comparison of NH.sub.3 synthesis performance among Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and reported representatives eNRR electrocatalysts corresponding to FIG. 53A;

[0121] FIG. 54A shows the in situ Raman spectra of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS collected at ?0.5 V vs. RHE in NO.sub.3.sup.?-contained solution;

[0122] FIG. 54B shows the corresponding contour plot of the shaded background area (HNH) in FIG. 54A;

[0123] FIG. 54C shows the corresponding contour plot of the shaded background area (NH) in FIG. 54A;

[0124] FIG. 55 shows the computed PDOS diagrams of Sn 5p orbitals in the SS, Ce.sub.xSS, and Pty/Ce.sub.xSS models;

[0125] FIG. 56 shows the computed PDOS diagrams of Sn-5p and O-2p orbital for NO.sub.3.sup.?-adsorbed on SS, Ce.sub.xSS, and Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS models;

[0126] FIG. 57 shows the calculated adsorption energies of NO.sub.3.sup.? and NO.sub.2.sup.? on SS, Ce.sub.xSS, and Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS models;

[0127] FIG. 58A shows the calculated adsorption energies of H.sub.2O;

[0128] FIG. 58B shows the Gibbs free energy diagram for HER on Sn sites or S sites over SS, Ce.sub.xSS, and Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS models;

[0129] FIG. 59 shows the Gibbs free energy diagram of various intermediates generated during eNO.sub.3RR pathways over SS, Ce.sub.xSS, and Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS models. The insets are the structural models that represent the adsorption form of various intermediates on Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS during eNO.sub.3RR. The azure, mauve, red, blue, and white balls refer to S, Sn, O, N and H atoms;

[0130] FIG. 60 shows the front- and top-view of structural models of adsorbed various intermediates during eNO.sub.3RR on SS NS. The azure, mauve, red, blue, and white balls refer to S, Sn, O, N and H atoms;

[0131] FIG. 61 shows the front- and top-view of structural models of adsorbed various intermediates during eNO.sub.3RR on Ce.sub.xSS. The azure, mauve, gray, red, blue, and white balls refer to S, Sn, Ce, O, N and H atoms; and

[0132] FIG. 62 shows the front- and top-view of structural models of adsorbed various intermediates during eNO.sub.3RR on Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS. The azure, mauve, gray, off-white, red, blue, and white balls refer to S, Sn, Ce, Pt, O, N and H atoms.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF OPTIONAL EMBODIMENT

[0133] As used herein, the forms a, an, and the are intended to include the singular and plural forms unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.

[0134] The words example or exemplary used in this invention are intended to serve as an example, instance, or illustration. Any aspect or design described in this disclosure as exemplary is not necessarily to be construed as preferred or advantageous over other aspects or designs. Rather, use of the words example or exemplary is intended to present concepts in a concrete fashion. As used in this application, the term or is intended to mean an inclusive or rather than an exclusive or. That is, unless specified otherwise, or clear from context, X employs A or B is intended to mean any of the natural inclusive permutations. That is, if X employs A; X employs B; or X employs both A and B, then X employs A or B is satisfied under any of the foregoing instances.

[0135] Without intending to be limited by theory, the inventors have, through their own research, trials, and experiments, devised a catalyst, in particular a 2D catalyst, with high selectivity and activity in electrochemical ammonia synthesis. The 2D catalyst is devised by employing an active diatomic A-B pair into the material structure of 2D catalyst, it would alter the interlayer spacing of the 2D catalyst in a bidirectional manner and affecting the electronic structure thereof, thereby enhancing the chemical affinity of the adsorbates towards the catalyst, facilitating the activity and selectivity of the ammonia conversion process.

[0136] According to the invention, there is provided a catalyst in ammonia synthesis comprising a first layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material; a second layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material stacked with and is spaced from the first layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material by a first distance; wherein the metal monochalcogenide-based material includes SnS.

[0137] The term catalyst as used herein generally refers to a catalyst that participates in electrochemical reactions, such as the electrochemical ammonia synthesis. That said, the catalyst generally refers to an electrocatalyst. Whilst it is appreciated the term electrochemical ammonia synthesis generally refers to the electrochemical nitrogen reduction reaction (eNRR) and the electrochemical nitrate reduction reaction (eNO.sub.3RR), as used herein, such term preferably refers to the eNO.sub.3RR.

[0138] The catalyst may be a two-dimensional (2D) material (2D catalyst). The term 2D material generally denotes a crystalline solid with a thickness defined by one or more of a single atomic layer. The catalyst may be of various forms such as a coat, a film, a sheet, a plate, and the like. In an embodiment, the catalyst may be implemented as a nanosheet. With reference to FIG. 1, there is provided an exemplary embodiment of a catalyst 100 in ammonia synthesis, taking the form of a nanosheet. The catalyst/nanosheet 100 may comprises a substrate 102, which is covered with a metal monochalcogenide-based material 104. The metal monochalcogenide-based material may be covered on the substrate by way of, for example, lamination, spraying coating, physical or chemical vapor deposition, growth by crystallization, hydrothermal process, etc. The substrate may be of any material that may allow the metal monochalcogenide-based material to be deposited or grown thereon. For example, the substrate may be a carbon-based material such as a carbon cloth, a carbon nanotube (CNT) paper and the like, or a metal foil or plate made of, for instance, aluminum, titanium, and the like.

[0139] As shown in FIG. 1, the catalyst/nanosheet 100 comprises a first layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material 104A and a second layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material 104B arranged in stack with the first layer of metal monochalcogenide-based material 104A. In particular, the first layer 104A and the second layer 104B may form a physical interaction such as van der Waals forces, therebetween, separating the first layer 102 and the second layer 104 from each other by a first distance 106. That said, the first and the second layers 104A, 104B may be held together by such physical interaction while distanced apart from each other by the first distance 106.

[0140] The metal monochalcogenide-based material generally refers a material having the metal monochalcogenides as one of the components, preferably as a substantially dominant component existing in such material. For example, the metal monochalcogenides may have an atomic percentage of about 97% with respect to the whole material. The term metal monochalcogenides denotes a series of chemical compounds consisting of one (single) chalcogen anion and one or more of metal cations. As used herein, the metal monochalcogenide particularly refers to the one having a non-transition metal atom and a (single) chalcogen atom. Examples of non-transition metal atom may include any one of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, and In, and examples of chalcogen atom may include any one of S, Se, Te, and Po. Preferably, the metal monochalcogenide-based material may be the one with the chalcogen atom being S. That is, the metal monochalcogenide-based material may be one of SiS, GeS, SnS, PbS, and InS. In a specific embodiment, the metal monochalcogenide-based material includes SnS.

[0141] Without wishing to be limited by theory, the inventors have devised that by inclusion of one or more metal atoms in the material structure of the catalyst, the interlayer spacing of the material structure would become adjustable, in particular, to be adjustable in a bidirectional manner, such as becoming both expandable and compressible.

[0142] In an embodiment, the metal monochalcogenide-based material may be doped by a lanthanide atom. Referring again to FIG. 1, the first layer of the metal monochalcogenide-based material 104A and the second layer of the metal monochalcogenide-based material 104B may be doped by a lanthanide atom 108. As shown, the lanthanide atom 108 is doped in-plane into the first and the second layers, by occupying the metal site in the metal monochalcogenide-based material. For example, when the metal monochalcogenide-based material is SnS, the doped lanthanide atom would occupy in-plane in the Sn site of SnS.

[0143] The lanthanide atom-doped first layer 104A and the lanthanide atom-doped second layer 104B may be distanced by a second distance 110. In particular, the second distance is an expansion of the first distance 106. It is believed that when the metal monochalcogneide-based material is doped by the lanthanide atom, the lanthanide atom may lead to an electron transfer from the lanthanide atom to the metal monochalcogenide-based material, thereby creating a repulsive force between the anti-orbitals of metal-monochalcogenide bond, resulting in an enhanced interlayer spacing (i.e. the second distance 110). In an embodiment, the second distance may be an expansion of the first distance by about 4% to about 12%, about 4.5% to about 12.5%, about 3.8% to about 11.8%, about 4% to about 10%, about 3.9% to about 8%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 6.8%, or about 4% to about 6.5%. In particular, the second distance may be of about 5.700?0.025 ? to 6.040?0.034 ?.

[0144] The lanthanide atom 108 may be selected from one of Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, and Gd. In a specific embodiment, the lanthanide atom is Ce and doped into the metal monochalcogneide-based material such as SnS by an atomic percentage of about 0.3 at. % to about 1 at. %. By doping Ce, the electron transfer from Ce to the anti-bonding of SnS increases the repulsive force between adjacent layers, thus leading to the expansion of interlayer spacing as described above.

[0145] In another embodiment, the first and the second layers of metal-monochalcogenide-based material, particularly the first and the second layers doped by the lanthanide atom 108 (i.e., the first and second layers of metal-monochalcogenide-based material 104A and 104B) may be intercalated by an intercalating metal atom. The intercalating metal atom may be a transition metal atom that covalently bonds the first and second layers of metal-monochalcogenide-based material 104A and 104B at a bonding site. For example, referring further to FIG. 1, the (lanthanide atom-doped) first and second layers of metal-monochalcogenide-based material 104A and 104B are intercalated by a transition metal atom 112. As shown, the transition metal atom is arranged to form two or more covalent bonds with the chalcogen atoms in the first and second layers of metal-monochalcogenide-based material 104A and 104B at a (bonding) site that is proximate to the doped lanthanide atoms 108.

[0146] After the intercalation of the transition metal atom 112, the (lanthanide atom-doped) first and second layers of metal-monochalcogenide-based material 104A and 104B may be distanced by a third distance 114, which is, in particular, a compression of the second distance 110. It is believed that the doped lanthanide atom(s) 108 may interact with and stabilize the transition metal atom 112. By such a diatomic interaction, it is also believed that it would promote the formation of transition metal atom-chalcogen atom bonds, enhancing the interlayer force and shortening the interlayer spacing (i.e. the third distance 114). In an embodiment, the third distance may be a compression of the second distance by about 4% to about 12%, about 4.5% to about 12.5%, about 3.8% to about 11.8%, about 4% to about 10%, about 3.9% to about 8%, about 4% to about 7%, about 4% to about 6.8%, or about 4% to about 6.5%. For example, the third distance may be of about 5.220?0.031 ? to about 5.697?0.025 ?.

[0147] The intercalating metal atom 108 may be selected from one of Pt, Au, Pd, Rh, and the like. In a specific embodiment, the intercalating metal atom is Pt and may be added to the catalyst with an atomic percentage of about 0.1 at. % to about 1.2 at. %.

[0148] In a particular embodiment, the intercalated first and second layers of metal monochalcogenide-based material may have a general formula of A.sub.y/B.sub.x-MX, where A is the intercalating metal atom, such as the transition metal 112, B is the lanthanide atom, such as the lanthanide atom 108 and MX represents the first and second layers of metal monochalcogenide-based material, such as the first and second layers 104A and 104B. Preferably, MX is SnS, B is Ce and A is Pt, with x and y being the atomic percentages as described above. It is believed that due to the strong chemical interaction between Ce and Pt atoms, Pt atoms intercalate into the interlayer of SnS as the behavior of single atoms and bonding with S which could enhance the forces of adjacent layers, thus closing the distance between SnS layers. In an example, the tailored interlayer spacing may lead to a linear expansion and compression rate from 6.49% to 7.97% compared to the intrinsic value of SnS (5.672?0.019 ?).

[0149] As a specific embodiment, the intercalated first and second layers of metal monochalcogenide-based material may be Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SnS, or in other words, the catalyst in accordance with this embodiment may be Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SnS. The catalyst Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SnS may have a third distance of about 5.434?0.025 ?. In particular, it is believed that with the compressed interlayer spacing, it may significantly improve NO.sub.3-to-NH.sub.3 conversion of the catalyst for both activity and selectivity in electrochemical nitrate reduction. For example, it is found that the interlayer spacing regulation may tune the electron density of localized p-orbital in Sn into its delocalized states, thus enhancing the chemical affinity towards NO.sub.3.sup.? and NO.sub.2.sup.? but inhibiting hydrogen evolution simultaneously, leading to an enhanced activity and selectivity in electrochemical nitrate reduction. In an example, the catalyst may have a Faradaic efficiency of ammonia of about 94.12% and a yield rate of about 0.3056 mmol cm.sup.?2 h.sup.?1 for ammonia at ?0.5 V vs. RHE, which is revealed to be a result of the increased internal electron concentration by the inclusion of diatomic PtCe pair. Details of the experimental data will be discussed in the later part of the present disclosure.

[0150] The method of preparing the catalyst with the metal monochalcogenide-based material doped by a lanthanide atom is described as follows.

[0151] The method may comprise the steps of: a) forming a two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material by a hydrothermal process; b) introducing a trivalent cation of a lanthanide atom to form a doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material; and c) converting the doped two dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material to a doped two dimensional metal monochalcogenide-based material by way of electrochemical reduction.

[0152] Step a) may commence with providing a first precursor mixture comprising a metal source and chalcogen source. For example, in an embodiment where the two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material is SnS.sub.2, the first precursor mixture may be provided by mixing, for example, water-soluble salts of Sn and S, such as by mixing SnCl.sub.4.Math.5H.sub.2O (Sn source) and C.sub.2H.sub.5NS (S source) at a weight ratio (Sn:S) of about 1:5 to about 1:6. The Sn source and the S source may be prepared as separate solutions such as an ethanol solution of Sn source and an ethanol solution of S source, followed by mixing these ethanol solutions to form the first precursor mixture. Alternatively, the Sn source and the S source may be dissolved in the same ethanol solution to obtain the first precursor mixture.

[0153] After that, the first precursor mixture may be transferred to an autoclave to perform the hydrothermal process. The hydrothermal process may be performed at a temperature of about 150? C. to about 180? C. and may be performed for about 10 hours to about 24 hours. After the reaction solvent, i.e., ethanol in this embodiment, is removed, solids such as powders of the two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may be obtained. Optionally or additionally, the as-obtained two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may be further subjected to washing with suitable solvent such as deionized water and ethanol, followed by a drying process such as drying the material in an oven at a temperature of about 50? C. to about 80? C. for about 10 hours to about 16 hours.

[0154] Optionally or additionally, a substrate such as a carbon cloth, Ti foil, etc. may be transferred to the autoclave along with the first precursor mixture for performing the hydrothermal process. As such, instead of forming solids, the two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may then grow on the substrate to form a nanosheet of the two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material. In particular, the substrate may be pretreated with a strong acid such as HNO.sub.3 prior to placing into the autoclave for hydrothermal process. Optionally or additionally, the acid-pretreated substrate may be washed with suitable solvent such as deionized water.

[0155] Step b) may commence with providing a second precursor mixture comprising a lanthanide source. For example, in an embodiment where the lanthanide atom is Ce, and the two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material is SnS.sub.2, the second precursor mixture may be prepared by mixing a water-soluble salt of Ce such as Ce(NO.sub.3).sub.3.Math.6H.sub.2O (Ce source) with the two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material. The Ce source may be prepared in form of an ethanol solution, with a Ce amount of about 1 wt. % to about 3 wt. %. The ethanol solution of Ce source may be mixed with the two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material, which is either in the form of solids such as powder or in the form of a nanosheet as described above to form the second precursor mixture.

[0156] After that, the second precursor mixture may be transferred to an autoclave to perform the hydrothermal process, at a temperature of about 150? C. to about 180? C. for about 10 hours to about 24 hours. In an embodiment where the two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material takes the form of solids such as powders, the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may be obtained as solids such as powders after the reaction solvent, i.e., ethanol in this embodiment, is removed. Optionally or additionally, these solids of doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may be subjected to further hydrothermal process along with an acid-pretreated substrate as described above to obtain a nanosheet of doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material.

[0157] In another embodiment where the two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material takes the form of a nanosheet, a nanosheet of doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may be obtained after the reaction solvent i.e., ethanol in this embodiment, is removed.

[0158] Optionally or additionally, the as-obtained doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may be further subjected to washing with suitable solvent such as deionized water and ethanol, followed by a drying process such as drying the material in an oven at a temperature of about 50? C. to about 80? C. for about 10 hours to about 16 hours.

[0159] In an alternative or preferred embodiment, step a) and step b) may be conducted simultaneously during the hydrothermal process. In this embodiment, the second precursor mixture may be prepared by mixing the metal source, the chalcogen source and the lanthanide source as described above, such as the Sn, S, and Ce sources, in an ethanol solution. In particular, the S source may have a weight ratio to the remaining sources (i.e. the Sn and Ce sources) of about 5:1 to about 6:1. After that, the second precursor mixture may be transferred to an autoclave, optionally or additionally along with the acid-pretreated substrate, for hydrothermal process as described above to obtain the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material as solids or a nanosheet. Optionally or additionally, the as-obtained doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may be further subjected to washing and drying processes as described above.

[0160] In a specific embodiment, the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material as obtained by the method described above may have a general formula of Ce.sub.xSnS.sub.2, where x is about 0.1 at. % to about 1 at. %.

[0161] Turning to step c), the electrochemical reduction of the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may be performed in a three-electrode system comprising an anode (counter electrode), a cathode (working electrode), and a reference electrode in electrical communication with an electrolyte. For example, in an embodiment where the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material is Ce.sub.xSnS.sub.2, with x being about 0.1 at. % to about 1 at. %, the three-electrode system may comprise an anode having a carbon-based anode material such as carbon cloth, graphite plate/rod, CNT paper, etc., a cathode including the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material, a reference electrode being selected from standard hydrogen electrode, normal hydrogen electrode, silver chloride electrode, reversible hydrogen electrode, saturated calomel electrode, etc., and an electrolyte such as 1 M H.sub.2SO.sub.4 in electrical communication with the electrodes as described.

[0162] In particular, the cathode may be a standalone electrode deposited with the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material. For example, the cathode may be a glassy carbon electrode having an electrode surface of about 1?1 cm.sup.2, where the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material is deposited thereonto. The doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may take the form of an ink (e.g. a homogeneous ink comprising powders of the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material) and being drop-casted onto the glassy carbon electrode. In another embodiment, the cathode may be the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material taking the form of a nanosheet with an area of about 1 cm?1 cm.

[0163] The electrochemical reduction preferably is a cyclic voltammetry process and may be performed in the voltage from about-0.4 V to 0 V vs. RHE at a scan rate of about 100 mV s.sup.?1 at ambient temperature. After the electrochemical reduction, optionally or additionally, the (reduced) cathode may be isolated/separated from the system, followed by washing with suitable solvents such as deionized water and ethanol, and drying under vacuum at an elevated temperature such as about 60? C. for about 8 to 24 hours.

[0164] In a specific embodiment, the doped two-dimensional metal monochalcogenide-based material obtained by the method as described above may have a general formula of Ce.sub.xSnS, with x being about 0.1 at. % to about 1 at. %.

[0165] In an embodiment, step b) may further comprise the step of b1) performing electrochemical intercalation of a metal atom after step b). The metal atom is particularly a transition metal atom, or preferably a noble atom as described above. The electrochemical intercalation may be performed in a three-electrode system comprising an anode (counter electrode), a cathode (working electrode), and a reference electrode in electrical communication with an electrolyte similar to the one as configured in step c), expect that the counter electrode is replaced with the transition metal, such a foil, plate, rod, etc. thereof. For example, in an embodiment where the metal atom is Pt, the electrochemical intercalation may be performed in a three-electrode system comprising a Pt foil (anode), a cathode comprising the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material as described above and a reference electrode as described above in electrical communication with an electrolyte as described above.

[0166] The electrochemical intercalation preferably is a cyclic voltammetry process. In particular, the cyclic voltammetry process may be performed, for example, in the voltage from about-0.4 V to 0 V vs. RHE at a scan rate of about 100 mV s.sup.?1 for one or more cycles. It is believed that the amount of Pt to be intercalated into the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material may be controlled by the cycle numbers of the cyclic voltammetry process. In particular, it is devised that the cycle numbers is positively correlated with the amount of Pt being intercalated. For example, with the cycle numbers of about 350, 700, 1000, and 1500, the amount of intercalated Pt may be of about 0.3 at. %, 0.6 at. %, 0.9 at. % and 1.2 at. %, respectively.

[0167] In an embodiment, the step b1) and step c) may be conducted simultaneously. In particular, it is believed that during the cyclic voltammetry process, the metal atom such as Pt on the anode may be dissolved and redeposited onto the doped two-dimensional metal dichalcogenide-based material along with the phase transformation of the dichalcogenide to monochalcogenide. That said, the metal intercalation process and the phase transformation of dichalcogenide to monochalcogenide may occur at the same time by a single cyclic voltammetry process.

[0168] In a specific embodiment, doped two-dimensional metal monochalcogenide-based material obtained from the method as described above may have a general formula of Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSnS, with y being about 0.3 at. % to about 1.2 at. %, and x being about 0.1 at. % to about 1 at. %.

[0169] As described herein, the catalyst of the present invention is useful in electrochemical ammonia synthesis, particularly by way of electrochemical nitrate reduction reaction (eNO.sub.3RR). According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided an electrochemical ammonia synthesizing device, comprising an anode including a carbon-based anode material; a cathode including the catalyst as described above; and an electrolyte including a nitrate source in electrical communication with the anode and the cathode; wherein the electrolyte has a pH of about 11.5.

[0170] In an embodiment, the device may be implemented as a three-electrode system. With reference to FIG. 2, there is shown an exemplary embodiment of an electrochemical ammonia synthesizing device 200 configured in an H-type electrolytic cell. The device 200 comprises an anode 202, a cathode 204, a reference electrode 206 and an electrolyte 206 that is in electrical communication with the anode, the cathode and the reference electrode via the connection of DC power supply (not shown) and optionally an ammeter (not shown). The anode 202 is housed in a chamber 210 whereas the cathode 204 and the reference electrode 206 are housed in a separate chamber 212. The chambers 210, 212 are in fluidic communication via a channel 214 with a membrane such as an ion exchange membrane 216. Each chamber is filled with the electrolyte, to which the electrodes 202, 204, and 206 are immersed. The chamber 212 may optionally include a gas outlet 218 for avoiding build-up of gas pressure during the electrochemical synthetic process.

[0171] The anode 202 may comprise an anode material such as a carbon-based anode material. Examples of the carbon-based anode material may include graphite, carbon cloth, carbon nanotube (CNT) paper and the like. The carbon-based anode material may take the form of, for instance, a rod, a plate, a foil, a film, etc. In a specific embodiment, the anode may be a piece of carbon cloth.

[0172] The cathode 204 may comprise the catalyst as described above. In an embodiment, the cathode may be a standalone electrode deposited with the catalyst. For example, the cathode may be a glassy carbon electrode having an electrode surface of about 1?1 cm.sup.2, where the catalyst is deposited thereonto. The catalyst may take the form of a catalyst ink and being drop-casted onto the glassy carbon electrode. In another embodiment, the cathode may be the catalyst taking the form of a nanosheet with an area of about 1 cm?1 cm.

[0173] The reference electrode 206 may be any of the reference electrodes known in the art. Examples may include standard hydrogen electrode, normal hydrogen electrode, silver chloride electrode, reversible hydrogen electrode, saturated calomel electrode, etc. It is appreciated that a person skilled in the art could recognize the reference electrode that would meet their practical needs. In a specific embodiment, the reference electrode 206 may be a Ag/AgCl (saturated KCl electrolyte) electrode.

[0174] The electrolyte of the device may comprise a nitrate source for the eNO.sub.3RR to proceed. In particular, the nitrate source may only be present in the electrolyte on the cathodic side (i.e. in chamber 212). The nitrate source may be any water-soluble nitrate compounds, such as sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, zinc nitrate, calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, etc. In an embodiment, the electrolyte may comprise potassium nitrate as the nitrate source, with a concentration of, for example, about 0.3 M to about 1.2 M, about 0.4 M to about 1.2 M, about 0.4 M to about 1 M, about 0.4 M to about 0.8 M, or about 0.4 M to about 0.6 M.

[0175] The electrolyte may additionally comprise a metal salt, such as a metal sulfate as a supporting electrolyte. The metal sulfate is optionally sodium sulfate. In an embodiment, the sodium sulfate may have a concentration of about 0.5 M.

[0176] Preferably, the electrolyte may have an alkaline pH such as a pH value of about 11.5. It is believed that the (initial) pH of electrolyte would change from neutral to about 11 owing to the gradually consumed H.sup.+ along with eNO.sub.3RR and competitive HER, and also that the alkaline pH could prevent side reaction of the catalyst during the eNO.sub.3RR. That said, by having the electrolyte with an alkaline pH, it would maintain both the stability of pH and catalyst composition and therefore it would be advantageous to the yield of ammonia production.

[0177] Additionally or optionally, the device 200 may further include a stirrer such as a mechanical stirrer, a magnetic stirrer and the like in at least one of the chambers 210, 212, facilitating a uniform distribution of the components in the electrolyte upon the eNO.sub.3RR process.

[0178] Hereinafter, the present invention is described more specifically by way of examples, but the present invention is not limited thereto.

EXAMPLES

Materials/Chemicals

[0179] Tin (IV) chloride pentahydrate (SnCl.sub.4.Math.5H.sub.2O, 99.0%), thioacetamide (C.sub.2H.sub.5NS, 99.0%), anhydrous sodium sulfate (Na.sub.2SO.sub.4, 99.95%), sodium hydroxide (NaOH, >98%), and ammonium sulfate ((NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4, 99.95%) were purchased from Shanghai Meryer Co., Ltd. Potassium nitrate (KNO.sub.3, 99.99%), potassium nitrate-.sup.15N (K.sub.15NO.sub.3, 98.5 atom %), hydrazine monohydrate (N.sub.2H.sub.4.Math. H.sub.2O, >98%), potassium nitrite (KNO.sub.2, 99%), and deuterium oxide (D.sub.2O, 99.9 atom %) were purchased from Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co., Ltd. Cerous nitrate (Ce(NO.sub.3).sub.3.Math.6H.sub.2O, 99.99%) was purchased from Sinopharm Group Co., Ltd. Sulphuric acid (H.sub.2SO.sub.4, >95%), hydrochloric acid (HCl, 37%), and nitric acid (HNO.sub.3, 65%) were purchased from the Sigma-Aldrich. W1S1005 carbon cloth (CC) was purchased from the Fuel Cell Store Ltd.

Methods and Characterization

Structural Characterization

[0180] The micromorphology and elemental distribution of the catalyst samples were observed and contrasted by scanning electron microscopy (SEM, FEI Quanta 450 FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM, Tecnai G2 20), high-resolution TEM (HRTEM, Tecnai G2 20) and selected area electron diffraction (SAED). High-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) were conducted on atomic-resolution JEM-ARM300F2 operating at 300 KV. The phase structure was confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurement using a Bruker D8 Advance powder diffractometer. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses using Thermo ESCALAB 250XI system with an Al-K? X-ray source (hv=1486.6 eV) were used to determine the elemental composition and valance state. The C Is peak with the binding energy of 284.8 eV was used as the calibration standard. To ensure the accuracy of the results, all samples were treated with Ar plasma etching before being tested to remove the adsorbed contaminant. The contents of Sn and S were measured by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) on Agilent 730es spectrometer. And the contents of Ce and Pt were determined by the inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) recorded by Agilent 7700ce spectrometer.

[0181] Raman spectroscopy was performed on a WITec alpha300 R Raman System under an excitation of 532 nm laser light with a power of 10 mW. Isotope labeling experiments were carried out on a Bruker 400 MHz AVANCE III Nuclear Magnetic Resonance System (NMR-400). Zeta potential was determined with SurPASS 3 from Anton Paar in Austria in aqueous KCl solution (pH=10). Since a higher pH value (>10) will lead to inaccurate test results, the choice of pH=10 can not only be close to the experimental condition (pH=11.5) but also ensure the accuracy of the results.

[0182] The X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) and the extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis were investigated at the 1W1B station of the Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, China. During the measurement, the synchrotron radiation ring was operated at 2.5 GeV. The sample was measured in the highly sensitive fluorescence detection mode, while Pt foil and PtO.sub.2 were used as reference samples and measured in the transmission mode. All XAFS spectra were processed using the IFEFFIT package.

[0183] Data reduction, data analysis, and EXAFS fitting were performed according to the standard procedures using the ATHENA and ARTEMIS program integrated within the Demeter packages. The k.sup.2-weighted EXAFS spectra were obtained by subtracting the post-edge background from the overall absorption and then normalizing with respect to the edge-jump step. Then, k.sup.2-weighted ?(k) data of Pt L.sub.III-edge were Fourier transformed to real (R) space using a Hanning windows (dk=1.0 ?.sup.?1).

In-Situ Raman Spectroscopy

[0184] In-situ Raman spectra were collected on a WITec alpha300 R Raman System under an excitation of 532 nm laser light. The in-situ electrochemical cell comes with a three-electrode system and a quartz window to protect the objective. The catalyst grown on CC was cut to a plate shape with a diameter of 1 cm, which was used as the working electrode. A platinum wire and Ag/AgCl were served as the counter and reference electrodes, respectively. During the test, the Raman spectra were obtained at different times under control by an electrochemical workstation. In detail, each spectrum is an average of five continuously acquired spectra with a collection time of 20 s each. The in-situ Raman spectra of the electrochemical reduction of SnS.sub.2 to SnS were collected after different CV cycles. For the in-situ Raman spectra of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS during eNO.sub.3RR, the potential was set at ?0.5 V vs. RHE, and the electrolyte was 0.5 M Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 (pH 11.5) with 0.1 M KNO.sub.3. The eNO.sub.3RR was kept in operation for 1 h, and the Raman spectra were collected every 10 min.

Electrochemical Nitrate Reduction

[0185] All the electrochemical measurements were conducted at room temperature on Gamry G300 potential station in an H-type electrolytic cell separated by a Nafion 117 membrane (DuPont). The electrodes grown on CC (1.0 cm?1.0 cm) were used as working electrodes, and a piece of CC and Ag/AgCl (Saturated KCl electrolyte) represented the counter and reference electrodes, respectively. The electrolyte was 0.5 M Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 solution. All the final reference potential was converted to the reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) using the Nernst equation:

[00001]$\begin{array}{cc}{E}_{\mathrm{RHE}}=E_{\mathrm{Ag}/\mathrm{AgCl}}+0.0591?\mathrm{pH}+0.198& \left(1\right)\end{array}$

[0186] In detail, the linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) curves were recorded by a scan rate of 5 mV s.sup.?1, and the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was obtained in the frequency range from 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz upon an AC voltage amplitude of 5 mV. For electrochemical NO.sub.3RR experiments, potentiostatic tests were conducted in the electrolyte of 0.5 M Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 (adjusted to pH 11.5 using 1.0 M NaOH solution) with 0.1 M KNO.sub.3 at different potentials. Each potential operates for 1 h with a magnetic stirring rate of 300 rpm. Also, each kind of catalyst was prepared for three samples for testing three times to determine the error bar. After the electrochemical reduction reaction, the indophenol blue method was used to identify and quantify the produced NH.sub.3. UV-vis spectroscopy was recorded using UV/VIS Spectrometer Lambda 2S.

Determination of NH.SUB.3

[0187] The concentration of NH.sub.3 was evaluated by the indophenol blue method. Firstly, the color agent was prepared as follows: Solution A was prepared by adding 5.0 wt % salicylic acid (C.sub.7H.sub.6O.sub.3) and 5.0 wt % sodium citrates (C.sub.6H.sub.5Na.sub.3O.sub.7.Math.2H.sub.2O) into 1.0 M NaOH solution. Solution B was a diluted NaClO solution with a concentration of 0.05 M. Solution C was 1.0 wt % sodium nitroferricyanide (Na.sub.2[Fe(NO)(CN).sub.5].Math.2H.sub.2O) solution. In detail, a certain amount of electrolyte after the eNO.sub.3RR process was removed from the electrochemical cell and diluted to the detection range. 2 mL diluted electrolyte was taken out into a test tube, followed by adding 2 mL solution A, 1 mL solution B and 0.2 mL solution C. After standing for 2 h in dark place under ambient conditions, the absorption spectrum of the solution was measured by a UV-Vis spectrophotometer, and the absorbance value at a wavelength of 655 nm was collected. In order to quantify the concentration, the concentration-absorbance calibration curve was plotted using a series of standard NH.sub.4(SO.sub.4).sub.2 solutions dissolved in 0.5 M Na.sub.2SO.sub.4.

Determination of NO.sub.2.sup.?

[0188] The concentration of NO.sub.2.sup.? was determined by Griess method. The color agent was prepared as follows: 50 mL deionized water and 10 mL phosphoric acid were mixed together, followed by adding 4.0 g p-aminobenzenesulfonamide and 0.2 g of N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine dihydrochloride. The mixture was then poured into a 100 mL volumetric flask and diluted to the calibration tail. For nitrate detection, 5 mL electrolyte diluted to the detection range was taken out into a test tube, followed by adding 0.1 mL color reagent. After shaking and standing for 20 min, the absorption spectrum of the solution was measured by UV-Vis spectrophotometer, and the absorbance value at a wavelength of 540 nm was collected. The concentration-absorbance calibration curve was plotted using a series of concentrations known as standard KNO.sub.2 solutions dissolved in 0.5 M Na.sub.2SO.sub.4.

Determination of N.sub.2H.sub.4

[0189] The concentration of N.sub.2H.sub.4 was evaluated by Watt and Chrisp's method. The chromogenic reagent contains 5.99 g of p-(dimethylamino)benzaldehyde, 30 mL concentrated HCl, and 300 mL ethanol. Specifically, 2 mL of as-prepared color reagent was added to 2 mL of the diluted reaction solution. After shaking and standing for 30 min, the absorption spectrum of the solution was measured by UV-Vis spectrophotometer, and the absorbance value at a wavelength of 460 nm was collected. The concentration-absorbance calibration curve was plotted using a series of concentrations known as standard N.sub.2H.sub.4 solutions dissolved in 0.5 M Na.sub.2SO.sub.4.

Isotope Labeling Experiment

[0190] The isotope labeling experiments were recorded by Bruker 400 MHZ AVANCE III Nuclear Magnetic Resonance System (NMR-400) using maleic acid (C.sub.4H.sub.4O.sub.4) as the internal standard. The K.sup.15NO.sub.3 (98.5 atom %) was used as the feeding N-source for the isotopic labeling nitrate reduction experiments to clarify the source of ammonia. Specifically, the electrolyte of 0.5 M Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 (pH 11.5) and 0.1 M K.sup.15NO.sub.3 was added into the cathode compartment as the reactant. After electro-reduction, the obtained electrolyte containing .sup.15NH.sub.4.sup.+-.sup.15N was taken out and adjusted to weak acid by 4 M H.sub.2SO.sub.4, followed by extracting 10 mL solution and mixing with 4 mg maleic acid. Consequently, 0.5 mL above solution and 50 ?L (D.sub.2O) were injected into a nuclear magnetic tube to ready for the NMR detection. The calibration curve was created using a series of .sup.15NH.sub.4.sup.+.sup.15N solutions ((.sup.15NH.sub.4).sub.2SO.sub.4) with known concentrations. Since the .sup.15NH.sub.4.sup.+.sup.15N concentration and the area ratio in the NMR spectra were positively correlated, the calibration was achieved using the peak area ratio between .sup.15NH.sub.4.sup.+.sup.15N and maleic acid. Similarly, the amount of .sup.14NH.sub.4.sup.+.sup.14N was quantified by the same method as above, where .sup.14KNO.sub.3 was used as the feeding N-source.

Calculation of the Faradaic Efficiency and Yield Rate

[0191] NH.sub.3 yield rate was calculated by the following equation:

[00002]$\begin{array}{cc}{\mathrm{NH}}_3\mathrm{yield}\mathrm{rate}\left(\mathrm{mg}{h}^{-1}{\mathrm{mg}}_{\mathrm{cat}.}^{-1}\right)=\frac{C_{{\mathrm{NH}}_3}?V}{t?m_{\mathrm{cat}.}}& \left(2\right)\end{array}$

[0192] Faradaic efficiency of NH.sub.3 and NO.sub.2 were calculated by the following equation:

[00003]$\begin{array}{cc}{\mathrm{FE}}_{{\mathrm{NH}}_3}\left(\%\right)=\frac{8F?C_{{\mathrm{NH}}_3}?V}{17?Q}& \left(3\right)\end{array}$$\begin{array}{cc}{\mathrm{FE}}_{{\mathrm{NO}}_2}\left(\%\right)=\frac{2F?C_{{\mathrm{NO}}_2}?V}{46?Q}& \left(4\right)\end{array}$

[0193] where C.sup.NH3 (mg mL.sup.?1) and C.sub.NO2 (mg mL.sup.?1) are the measured concentration of NH.sub.3 and NO.sub.2.sup.?, respectively. V (mL) is the volume of the cathodic electrolyte, t (h) is the reduction time, m.sub.cat.(mg) is the mass loading of the catalyst on CC, F (96485 C mol.sup.?1) is the Faraday constant and Q (C) is the total charge passing the electrode.

Computational Details

[0194] All the computations were performed on the basis of the density functional theory using the Cambridge sequential total energy package (CASTEP). The generalized gradient approximation (GGA) with projector augmented-wave (PAW) potentials were implemented to describe electron-ion interactions and exchange-correlation energies. A typical SnS.sub.2 structure and SnS structure were used for our simulations. 3?3?1 bilayer-SnS supercell with two Sn atoms substituted by Ce atoms was used to simulate the Ce-doping. A single Pt atom was intercalated into interlamination to simulate the Pt intercalation. In addition, a vacuum spacing of ?20 ? was used to prevent spurious interaction between periodic images. For geometry optimization of SnS.sub.2 and SnS, the Grimme method was applied to consider van der Waals interaction. The kinetic-energy cutoff was set as 571 eV, and the convergence criterion of the energy was set to be within 1.0?10?5 eV with forces on each atom less than 0.03 eV/? and a maximum displacement of 0.001 ?. The Brillouin zone was sampled by a k-point mesh of 1?1?1.

[0195] The NO.sub.3.sup.? reduction reaction on the surfaces of the catalysts was stimulated by two possible pathways. One is:

*+NO.sub.3(aq).fwdarw.*NO.sub.3+e.sup.?

*NO.sub.3+H.sub.2O+2e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NO.sub.2+2OH.sup.?

*NO.sub.2+H.sub.2O+2e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NO+2OH.sup.?

*NO+H.sub.2O+2e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NO.sub.2+2OH.sup.?

*NO+H.sub.2O+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NOH+OH.sup.?

*NOH+H.sub.2O+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NHOH+OH.sup.?

*NHOH+H.sub.2O+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NH.sub.2OH+OH.sup.?

*NH.sub.2OH+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NH.sub.2.sup.+OH.sup.?

*NH.sub.2+H.sub.2O+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NH.sub.3+OH.sup.?

*NH.sub.3.fwdarw.*+NH.sub.3(g)

and the other one is:

*+NO.sub.3(aq).fwdarw.*NO.sub.3+e.sup.?

*NO.sub.3+H.sub.2O+2e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NO.sub.2+.sub.2OH.sup.?

*NO.sub.2+H.sub.2O+2e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NO+2OH.sup.?

*NO+H.sub.2O+2e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NO.sub.2+2OH.sup.?

*NO+H.sub.2O+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NOH+OH.sup.?

*NOH+H.sub.2O+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NHOH+OH.sup.?

*NOH+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*N+OH.sup.?

*N+H.sub.2O+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NH+OH.sup.?

*NH+H.sub.2O+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NH.sub.2+OH.sup.?

*NH.sub.2+H.sub.2O+e.sup.?.fwdarw.*NH.sub.3+OH.sup.?

*NH.sub.3.fwdarw.*+NH.sub.3(g)

[0196] For each electrochemical step, the Gibbs free energy changes (?G) for the NO.sub.3RR procedures were estimated according to the following equation:

[00004]$\begin{array}{cc}?G=?E+?ZPE-T?S+?G_U+?G_{\mathrm{pH}}& \left(5\right)\end{array}$ [0197] where ?E is the energy change between the reactant and product obtained from DFT calculations, ?ZPE is the change of zero-point energies, which could be evaluated by:

[00005]$ZPE=N_a\underset{i}{.Math.}\frac{{\mathrm{hv}}_i}{2}$ [0198] where Na is the Avogadro number, h is the Planck constant and v.sub.i represents the frequency. T is the room temperature (298.15 K) and ?S is the change of entropy obtained from the following equation:

[00006]$S=R\underset{i}{.Math.}\left\{\frac{\left(\frac{{\mathrm{hv}}_i}{k_{B}T}\right)\exp \left(-\frac{{\mathrm{hv}}_i}{k_{B}T}\right)}{\left[1-\exp \left(-\frac{{\mathrm{hv}}_i}{k_{B}T}\right)\right]}-\ln \left[1-\exp \left(-\frac{{\mathrm{hv}}_i}{k_{B}T}\right)\right]\right\}$ [0199] where R and k.sub.B are the universal gas constant and the Boltzmann constant, respectively.

[0200] ?Gu is the contribution of electrode potential, which can be calculated by ?Gu=?eU, where e is the number of electrons transferred, U is the applied potential measured against the standard hydrogen electrode, and U=0 V is considered. ?G.sub.pH is the free energy correction of pH, which can be calculated by ?G.sub.pH=?kBT?pH?ln 10, and pH is set to be 1.

Example 1

Synthesis of SnS.sub.2 Nanosheets (SS.sub.2 NS) and Ce-Doped SnS.sub.2 Nanosheet (Ce.sub.xSS.sub.2 NS, x Represents the Atomic Percent of Ce)

[0201] The SS.sub.2 NS were prepared via a facile hydrothermal method. Typically, 525 mg SnCl.sub.4.Math.5H.sub.2O and 600 mg C.sub.2H.sub.5NS were added to 60 mL of ethanol under vigorous magnetic stirring. Afterward, the solution was poured into a 100 mL sealed Teflon-lined autoclave and then transferred to an oven set at 160? C. for 12 h. Carbon cloth (CC, 3.0 cm?2.0 cm), pretreated with nitric acid (HNO.sub.3) for 30 min, was placed in the autoclave to serve as the growth substrates. The CC covered by SS.sub.2 NS were collected and washed with deionized water and ethanol several times, followed by vacuum drying at 60? C. overnight. For Ce.sub.xSS.sub.2 NS, a certain amount of Ce(NO.sub.3).sub.3.Math.6H.sub.2O (dependent on the expected Ce-doping proportion, 0?1%) was dissolved in ethanol first, then mixed with the precursor solution of SS.sub.2 NS. The subsequent procedures are the same as preparing SS.sub.2 NS. The loading of SS.sub.2 and Ce.sub.xSS.sub.2 on CC was determined to be about 2.0 mg cm.sup.?2. The detailed composition contents of the samples were shown in FIG. 3A. According to the atomic percent of Ce, the abbreviations for the samples are Ce.sub.0.1SS.sub.2, Ce.sub.0.5SS.sub.2 and Ce.sub.1.0SS.sub.2.

Example 2

Synthesis of SnS Nanosheets (SS NS) and Ce-Doped SnS Nanosheets (Ce.SUB.x.SS NS)

[0202] The SS and Ce.sub.xSS NS were prepared using a standard three-electrode system through in-situ electrochemical reduction. The SS.sub.2 and Ce.sub.xSS.sub.2 grown on CC (1.0 cm?1.0 cm) were set as working electrodes, and graphite rod and Ag/AgCl (Saturated KCl electrolyte) were the counter and reference electrodes, respectively. The in-situ electroreduction was performed based on the CV process in 1.0 M H.sub.2SO.sub.4 solution with the voltage from ?0.4 V to 0 V vs. RHE at a scan rate of 100 mV s.sup.?1. The reduced electrode was collected after washing with deionized water and ethanol several times and vacuum dried at 60? C. overnight.

Example 3

Synthesis of Pt Intercalated Ce.sub.xSS Nanosheets (Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS NS, y Represents the Atomic Percent of Pt) and Pt Intercalated SS Nanosheets (Pt.sub.ySS NS)

[0203] The Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS and Pt.sub.ySS NS were synthesized by electrochemical intercalation of Pt based on the CV process in a 1.0 M H.sub.2SO.sub.4 solution using a standard three-electrode system. Actually, because the electrochemical intercalation of Pt and the electrochemical reduction of SS.sub.2 NS were under the same experimental environment, such two processes could happen simultaneously. Therefore, the SS.sub.2 and Ce.sub.xSS.sub.2 grown on CC (1.0 cm?1.0 cm) were set as working electrodes, and Pt foil and Ag/AgCl (Saturated KCl electrolyte) were the counter and reference electrodes, respectively. During the CV process, Pt foil at the anode will be slightly dissolved and redeposited onto the SS.sub.2 and Ce.sub.xSS.sub.2, accompanied by the phase transformation from SnS.sub.2 to SnS. The detailed composition contents of the samples were shown in FIG. 3B. According to the atomic percent of Pt, the abbreviations for the samples are Pt.sub.0.3/Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.6/Ce.sub.0.5SS, Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.1.2/Ce.sub.0.5SS. The content of Pt could be controlled by the cycle numbers of CV process, in which the cycle numbers for 350, 700, 1000 and 1500 were determined to be about 0.3 at. %, 0.6 at. %, 0.9 at. % and 1.2 at. % of Pt in Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS, and that for 450 was determined to be about 1.2 at. % of Pt in Pt.sub.ySS. The as-obtained Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS and Pt.sub.ySS were washed with deionized water and ethanol several times and then vacuum dried at 60? C. overnight.

Example 4

Catalyst Characterization

[0204] It is believed that SnS is poor for HER process compared to SnS.sub.2 owing to the puckered structure of SnS (FIG. 4), and therefore the Gibbs free energy of hydrogen adsorption at all edges is disadvantageous for HER. Accordingly, SnS was chosen for studying its eNO.sub.3RR activity in this work.

[0205] The SnS nanosheets (SS NS) synthesis is schematically illustrated in FIG. 4A. SnS.sub.2 nanosheets (SS.sub.2 NS) were firstly grown on carbon cloth by facile hydrothermal method, and then electrochemically reduced into SS NS after cyclic voltammetry (CV) process in 1.0 M H.sub.2SO.sub.4 depicted as following equation (6):

SnS.sub.2+H.sub.2O+2e.sup.?.fwdarw.SnS+HS.sup.?+OH(6)

[0206] FIG. 5 shows the in situ Raman spectra during the conversion. Along with the increase of CV cycles, the Raman peaks associated with SnS.sub.2 at around 313.4 cm.sup.?1 gradually become weak, replaced by the progressively reinforced Ag peaks located at 61.7, 95.8, 190.7 and 217.3 cm.sup.?1, and B.sub.g peak at 163.8 cm.sup.?1, which all index to SnS structure. The morphology of SS maintains the typical nanosheet of SS.sub.2, other than a little more deformation and a slightly increased thickness of the NS. (FIGS. 6A-6D).

[0207] Through DFT calculation, the smaller bandgap of SS NS (0.958 eV) compared to SS.sub.2 NS (1.404 eV) suggests a relatively high intrinsic conductivity. (FIGS. 7A and 7B) Based on the X-ray diffraction (XRD) results in FIG. 8, after CV cycles, the hexagonal SnS.sub.2 phase with cell parameters of 3.6486 ??5.8992 ? (JCPDS card No. 23-0677) converts into the orthorhombic SnS phase with cell parameters of 11.2 ??3.99 ??4.34 ? (JCPDS card No. 65-3812).

[0208] In the high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) images (FIGS. 9A and 9B), the characteristic lattice fringes of 1.748 ? corresponding to hexagonal SnS.sub.2 (111) are observed, which is well differentiated from the typical lattice spacing of 2.936 ? assigned to orthorhombic SnS (011). These results prove the successful conversion from SnS.sub.2 to SnS by in situ electrochemical reduction while keeping the flake structure and good crystallinity. Whereafter, active diatomic PtCe pairs were used to regulate the interlayer spacing to study the influence on eNO.sub.3RR.

[0209] Ce atoms with different concentrations were first introduced into parallel SS.sub.2 NS, which also offer the active sites for stabilizing monodispersed Pt atoms that profited from their strong interaction. Pt atoms were then inserted by the CV process; in the meantime, SS.sub.2 NS experience phase conversion and changes into SS NS (FIGS. 10 and 11).

[0210] The interlayer spacing information of layer structure of SS, Ce doped SS (Ce.sub.xSS, x represents the atomic percent of Ce elements), and Pt-intercalated Ce doped SS (Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS, y represents the atomic percent of Pt elements) are illustrated in the HRTEM images (FIGS. 12A-12C), whereas the detailed ratios of Ce and Pt are summarized in FIGS. 3A and 3B. It confirms that the fringes are about 5.672 ? by measuring the distance of adjacent SS NS. After Ce doping, the interlayer spacings expand from 5.858 ? of SS.sub.2 NS to 6.030 ? of Ce.sub.0.5SS.sub.2 due to the electron transfer from Ce to the anti-bonding of SnS.sub.2 that increases the repulsive force between adjacent layers (FIGS. 13A and 13B). Further evidence will be provided in the later part of the present disclosure.

[0211] Such expansion behavior decreases slightly after the phase conversion from SS.sub.2 NS to SS NS but remains larger than the un-doped SS NS (FIG. 12B). The single Pt atoms were then intercalated into the interlayer of Ce.sub.0.5SS.sub.2 by the CV process. The inventors unexpected found that the embeddedness of metal atoms in this work leads to the compression of interlayer spacing rather than an expansion that is typically observed in other reported 2D materials. This may be attributed to the strong interaction of active diatomic PtCe pairs, which could enhance the forces of adjacent layers, thus closing the distance between SS layers. The compressed interlayer spacing of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS is determined to be about 5.434 ? (FIG. 12C). The average interlayer spacing values collected from over ten different locations in each sample are shown in FIGS. 14A and 14B. The detailed statistical process of SS, Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, the main discussion objects, are shown in FIGS. 15A-15C.

[0212] Along with the increased concentration of Ce and Pt elements, it exhibits an excellent linear relationship. That said, when the Ce concentration elevates from 0% to 1.0%, the interlayer spacing in SS NS achieves an increase from 5.672?0.019 ? to 6.040?0.034 ?. As for Pt intercalation, the interlayer spacing could be gradually reduced to 5.220?0.031 ? with the increasing CV cycles, even below the value of intrinsic SS NS.

[0213] In summary, it is believed that the interlayer coupling of 2D SS NS is tunable by the active diatomic PtCe pairs, which changes the interlayer spacing from 5.220?0.031 ? to 6.040?0.034 ?, or in other words a linear expansion and compression range from 6.49% to 7.97% compared to the intrinsic value of SS NS.

[0214] The TEM image of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS (FIG. 16) and SEM images of the catalysts with different Pt concentrations (FIGS. 17A-17D) illustrate the flake structure similar to the initial SS NS. This observation suggests that Ce doping and Pt insertion process have no significant effect on the NS morphology. The corresponding STEM, EDX mapping and EDX spectra reveal strong Sn and S signals well-distributed in the entire nanosheet and a weak signal of Pt and Ce, which indicates the successful introduction of PtCe atoms (FIGS. 18A and 18B).

[0215] Similar to the phase transition from pure SnS.sub.2 to SnS, for Ce.sub.0.5SS.sub.2, the hexagonal SnS.sub.2 phase also gradually converts into the orthorhombic SnS phase, but no signal peaks of Pt- or Ce-based compounds are observed in the XRD patterns (FIG. 19A). Moreover, the selected area electron diffraction (SAED) of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS in FIG. 19B also has only the typical annulus pattern indexed to polycrystalline SnS with (011) and (121) diffraction planes.

[0216] The atomic-resolution HAADF-STEM image of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS is shown in FIG. 20, which illuminates the effect of active diatomic PtCe pairs exerted on SnS NS. It is noteworthy that some interstitial atoms appear in pair with the atoms in the lattice, which are believed to be Pt and Ce. Since no extra atoms exist in the interplanar in Ce.sub.0.5SS (FIG. 21) and only atoms with a relatively higher intensity profile occur in the lattice, the circled atoms occupied the Sn site in SnS could be assigned to Ce (pointed by the arrow 2002). Therefore, regarding Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, the interstitial atoms pointed by the arrow 2004 could be Pt atoms. The different brightness of these interstitial atoms may be ascribed to various heights compared to the measured surface. As a result, in diatomic PtCe affected SS NS, Ce atoms are doped by substituting Sn on Sn sites, while Pt single atoms are intercalated into SS NS and stabilized by Ce. This conclusion may be supported by the following measurements.

[0217] Considering that the intercalated Pt atoms may probably lie on both surface or interplanar of the Ce.sub.xSS, the absorption energy of Pt single atom on Ce.sub.xSS at different positions is calculated and the results are shown in FIGS. 22A and 22B. Among the four situations, position a has the smallest absorption energy, which therefore being selected as the model for following DFT calculations. Meanwhile, in order to evaluate the role of Ce toward Pt, a comparison NS, Pt.sub.1.2SS without Ce doping was synthesized. It is evident that Pt atoms tend to aggregate to form nanoparticles without stabilizing with Ce atoms (FIGS. 23A-23D). The lattice fringes of 0.23 nm correspond to the (111) plane of Pt nanoparticles. More importantly, the aggregated Pt nanoparticles lead to the expansion of interlayer spacing unavoidably due to the swell effect (FIGS. 23D and 23E), which is coincident with previous reports that the introduction of metal ions in 2D materials would cause the expansion of interlayer spacing and increase of Fermi energy levels and band gaps owing to the extra free electrons. As such, it is believed that Ce atoms play an essential role in stabilizing the Pt singles atoms in this system, and that only through the coexistence of PtCe pairs can the compression of the interlayer spacing be realized.

Example 5

Chemical Environment Variation in the Interlayer Spacing Modulation

[0218] It is believed that catalytic behaviors of materials, to a great extent, are determined by the local electronic structure and chemical environment, thus X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to analyze the change of chemical states and local structures caused by PtCe diatoms in adjusting the interlayer spacing, and the detailed values of binding energies of the catalysts are summarized in FIG. 24.

[0219] As shown in FIG. 25, the binding energies of the characteristic peaks of Sn.sup.4+ are downshifted after introducing Ce atoms, indicating that the in-plane doping of Ce does not change the chemical state of Sn but can cause the electron transfer to the host materials of SnS.sub.2. Basically, such doping-induced electrons would make a repulsive force between adjacent anti-orbitals of SnS, resulting in a large distance between planes, as evident in the HRTEM results (FIGS. 12A-12C). The similar binding energy in Ce.sub.0.5SS with Ce.sub.0.5SS.sub.2 illustrates that Ce doping has no significant role during the phase change (FIGS. 26A and 26B). With the intercalation of Pt single atoms, for one thing, Sn.sup.2+ begins to appear and gradually increases as the Pt concentration goes up, proving the phase transformation from SnS.sub.2 to SnS. For another thing, because Pt has a lower electronegativity than SnS owing to the large electronegativity of non-metallic element S, the binding energies of Sn 3d further shift to lower values after Pt intercalation.

[0220] As shown in FIG. 27, XPS spectra of S 2p can be deconvoluted into peaks of S 2p.sub.1/2 and 2p.sub.3/2, corresponding to S.sup.2?. For a clear comparison, the line graphs in FIGS. 28A and 28B show the binding energy variation of Sn 3d and S 2p. Both binding energies have a downward tendency with the increasing Pt concentration, confirming the electrons transfer from Pt to the host materials of SnS.

[0221] X-ray absorption near-edge structures (XANES) of the Pt L.sub.III-edge for Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and the reference sample Pt foil and PtO.sub.2 are shown in FIG. 29. The energy of absorption edge and the height of white-line are higher than those of Pt foil but lower than PtO.sub.2, which demonstrates the electrons flow from Pt atoms to SnS. Additionally, the electrons transfer also affects the valence states of Ce, as evidenced by the larger portion of v+u (?19.31%) that index to III valence to the area of all the peaks in Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS than that for Ce.sub.0.5SS (?8.00%), while others index to IV valence (FIG. 30). These phenomena suggest that the incoming Ce and Pt in 2D SnS lead to the local chemical environment variation, more than adjusting the interlayer spacing, which is believed to influence the catalytic property in eNO.sub.3RR.

[0222] Furthermore, extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) at Pt LIII-edge and the fitting results are shown in FIGS. 31A-31D and 32, which indicate the atomically dispersed Pt, with only PtS coordination structure in the first coordination shell and no evidence of a PtPt scattering path in the spectra, which clearly prove that Pt is intercalated as a single atom into the SS. This result is consistent with the XPS spectra of Pt 4f, where the main peaks in Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS at approximately 72.8 and 76.1 eV are assigned to Pt.sup.2+, corresponding to the characteristic peak positions of PtS bonds (FIG. 33). This way, Pt.sub.1.2SS have a large percentage of Pt.sup.0, emphasizing that Ce stabilizes Pt single atom to prevent Pt nanoparticles from evolving (FIGS. 33, 34A and 34B).

[0223] The very close ratio of Sn.sup.2+/Sn.sup.4+ as shown in FIG. 35 means that Pt only exerts influence on electron transfer but not on the valence state components of Sn, further confirming that Pt single atoms are intercalated into 2D SS NS rather than doping. Therefore, although the intercalation of Pt also brings extra negative electrons, the strong diatomic PtCe interaction promotes the formation of PtS bonds, enhancing the interlayer force and shortening the interlayer spacing. At the same time, DFT calculation was applied to study the interlayer spacing variation and electronic structure to gain further insights. To simulate the actual situation of the catalysts, the initial interlayer spacing of SS NS is set as 5.67 ?. The calculated models after geometrical optimization show the interlayer spacing of 5.67, 5.89, and 3.68 ? for SS, Ce.sub.xSS, and Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS, respectively (FIG. 11), in accidence with the interlayer spacing variation in experimental results. Also, the charge density difference images (FIG. 36) further reveal a more robust charge redistribution around the Ce and Pt locations, which proves the electron transfer and the increase of internal electron concentration, thus enhancing the catalytic activity.

[0224] The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) result shows that Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS exhibit a considerably smaller charge transfer resistance of 119.6? as compared to SS (253.1?) and Ce.sub.0.5SS (293.5?), indicating the obviously improved reaction kinetics of the electrodes with smaller interlayer spacing (FIG. 37).

Example 6

Electrocatalytic eNO.sub.3RR Performance

[0225] The electrocatalytic performance for NO.sub.3.sup.?-to-NH.sub.3 conversion of the 2D SS NS materials with adjustable interlayer spacings is evaluated. The eNO.sub.3RR performance was performed in an H-type cell under ambient conditions in 0.5 M Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 (pH adjusted to 11.5) with 0.1 M KNO.sub.3 as a nitrate source. In particular, it is believed that the pH adjustment of the Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 solution would be advantageous to the eNO.sub.3RR performance. On the one hand, the pH of the initial unbuffered electrolyte would change from neutral to about 11 owing to the gradually consumed H.sup.+ along with eNO.sub.3RR and competitive HER. On the other hand, the alkaline media prevents the further reduction of SnS under negative potential according to equation (6), inhibiting the component variation. Therefore, adjusting the pH of the Na.sub.2SO.sub.4 solution would maintain the stability of both pH and catalyst composition.

[0226] The current density of SS, Ce.sub.0.5SS, and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS with and without NO.sub.3.sup.? is illustrated in the linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) curves of FIG. 38, in which the low current response of catalysts without the existence of NO.sub.3.sup.? indicates the intrinsic poor hydrogen evolution, resulting from the limited surface electron accessibility of Sn. As shown, the current density of catalysts shows a negative correlation with the gap of interlayer spacings. Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS with the smaller interlayer spacing have a higher current density over a wide range of negative potentials and more positive onset potential, indicating more readily the reduction of NO.sub.3.sup.?. Furthermore, there are apparent reduction peaks within the presence of NO.sub.3.sup.?. The drastic increase in the current density indicates the fast nitrate reduction rate. With the potential becoming more negative, competitive hydrogen evolution gradually occurs but is still weaker than eNO.sub.3RR, which leads to a gentler increased rate and forms the plateaus and inflection points. Until HER dominates, the current densities rapidly rise again, especially when the potential is more than ?0.7 V vs. RHE.

[0227] The possible products, including NH.sub.3, NO.sub.2.sup.?, and N.sub.2H.sub.4, are determined using the colorimetric method (FIGS. 39A and 39B, 40A and 40B, 41A and 41B), which illustrates that NH.sub.3 and NO.sub.2.sup.? are the main products during eNO.sub.3RR in this system, and the yield of N.sub.2H.sub.4 is negligible.

[0228] As depicted in FIG. 42A, the steady increase of Faradaic efficiency (FE) of ammonia up to ?0.5 V vs. RHE, and the deterioration at more negative potential may result from the enhanced competing HER. It can be seen that Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS offer a FE of NH.sub.3 of 94.12%, with a yield rate for NH.sub.3 (Y.sub.NH3) of 0.3056 mmol cm.sup.?2 h.sup.?1 at ?0.5 V vs. RHE (FIGS. 42A and 42B), which is 1.89- and 1.58-fold of Ce.sub.0.5SS (49.67%) and SS (59.35%), respectively. In particular, such multiple of FE increment is more evident in the potential range of about-0.2 V to about-0.5 V, indicating the small energy consumption and the spontaneousness of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS for NO.sub.3.sup.?-to-NH.sub.3 conversion, which is believed to be promising for industrial-scale applications. Furthermore, benefiting from the great FE of NH.sub.3 of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, it could reach a partial current density of NH.sub.3 of 109 mA cm.sup.?2 at ?0.8 V vs. RHE, which is much higher than that of Ce.sub.0.5SS and SS NS (FIG. 43).

[0229] The above results suggest the critical role of interlayer spacing regulation in modulating the eNO.sub.3RR performance, of which the compression of interlayer spacing under the assistance of active diatomic PtCe pairs drastically promotes the FE and generation rate of NH.sub.3. Specifically, the improvement of eNO.sub.3RR performance is derived from the chemical reaction kinetic equilibrium rather than mass transfer, as evidenced by the substantially unchanged LSV curves and FE of NH.sub.3 and NO.sub.2.sup.? products under different stir rates (FIGS. 44A and 44B).

[0230] To derive the intrinsic activities of the catalysts, the performance is normalized by the electrochemical active surface area (ECSA) (correlated with the double-layer capacity (C.sub.dl), assuming 40 ?F cm.sup.?2 as a moderate value for specific capacitance of a flat surface) as shown in FIGS. 45A-45E. The normalized partial current density of NH.sub.3 suggest the high intrinsic eNO.sub.3RR performance of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS. Furthermore, the Zeta potential of SS, Ce.sub.0.5SS, and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS at pH=10 is measured to detect the surface electronic state. It exhibits an average Zeta potential of ?45.78 mV of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, ?55.26 mV of SS and ?60.60 mV of Ce.sub.0.5SS. Although the samples all show the negative surface charge in an aqueous KCl solution (pH=10), the Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS provides a much more favorable surface environment for nitrate adsorption.

[0231] Electrocatalytic NO.sub.3RR follows a consecutive eight-electron pathway, where NO.sub.2.sup.? is an important by-product after a two-electron transfer process (NO.sub.3.sup.?+2e.sup.?+H.sub.2O.fwdarw.NO.sub.2.sup.?+2OH.sup.?). As such, the rapid successive conversion rates for NO.sub.3.sup.?-to-NO.sub.2.sup.? and NO.sub.2.sup.?-to-NH.sub.3 are critical for the efficiency of eNO.sub.3RR. Accordingly, the production rate of NO.sub.2.sup.? during eNO.sub.3RR is evaluated, of which the FE of NO.sub.2.sup.? displays the opposite situation as NH.sub.3 (FIGS. 42A, 46, and 47). Ce.sub.0.5SS with a bigger interlayer spacing show a higher FE of NO.sub.2.sup.?, while Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS with compressed interlayer spacing exhibit unfavorable NO.sub.2.sup.? generation. Also, the further increase of cathodic potential leads to a generally continuous decline of the nitrite FE but the increase of ammonia FE of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS especially when the potential is smaller than-0.5 V vs. RHE, indicating the possible fast reaction of NO.sub.2.sup.?-to-NH.sub.3 conversion.

[0232] To validate it, LSV of Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS in the electrolyte with 0.1 M NO.sub.2.sup.? and with 0.1 M NO.sub.3.sup.?, respectively are performed, and the FE of NH.sub.3 during NO.sub.2.sup.?-reduction reaction (NO.sub.2RR) and NO.sub.3RR are compared (FIGS. 48A-48D). The rapid increase of current density in NO.sub.2RR of both Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS indicates the fast electrocatalytic reduction of NO.sub.2.sup.?. The Y.sub.NH3 value can reach 1.37 mmol cm.sup.?2 h.sup.?1 for Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS and 0.57 mmol cm.sup.?2 h.sup.?1 for Ce.sub.0.5SS at ?0.8 V vs. RHE. However, the difference between FE NO.sub.3RR and NO.sub.2RR in Ce.sub.0.5SS is huge, especially at the smaller potential. For Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS, the FEs keep a much smaller difference (FIGS. 48C and 48D), which confirms the fast NO.sub.3.sup.?-to-NO.sub.2.sup.? reduction but subsequent desorption of NO.sub.2.sup.? to the electrolyte for Ce.sub.0.5SS, leading to the observed higher generation of NO.sub.2.sup.? in FIG. 46. Furthermore, the high NH.sub.3-to-NO.sub.2.sup.? product ratio variation in FIG. 49A verifies the stronger desorption of NO.sub.2.sup.? intermediates in Ce.sub.0.5SS and SS NS compared to Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS. This finding reveals that the interlayer spacing regulation plays a vital role in chemical affinity towards NO.sub.2.sup.? that affects the reduction from NO.sub.2.sup.? to NH.sub.3 and the entire activity and selectivity of eNO.sub.3RR.

[0233] To further evaluate the eNO.sub.3RR performance of the catalysts, the influence of nitrate concentration ([NO.sub.3.sup.?]) on Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS is studied, in which the ammonia FE maintains a high value of more than 70% from 1 mM to 500 mM and reaches to the peak at 100 mM (FIG. 49B). It is believed that the competing HER may be suppressed by increasing [NO.sub.3.sup.?] and/or the pH value of electrolytes. Notably, the Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS show a decreased ammonia FE along with a reduced [NO.sub.3.sup.?], indicating that the eNO.sub.3RR on Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS is challenged by the enhanced hydrogen evolution. Meanwhile, it is noted that there is a minor decline in ammonia FE when [NO.sub.3.sup.?]>100 mM. One explanation might be that a too high [NO.sub.3.sup.?] is favorable for the desorption of NO.sub.2.sup.? from active sites, resulting in the increased generation of NO.sub.2.sup.?. The other reason might be the deactivation of active sites due to the slow mass transfer of a large amount of produced ammonia.

[0234] To confirm the origin of the detected NH.sub.3, isotope labeling experiments were conducted in the presence of .sup.14NO.sub.3.sup.? or .sup.15NO.sub.3.sup.? followed by product identification and quantification via .sup.1H NMR (FIGS. 50A and 50B, 51A and 51B). The standard .sup.14NH.sub.4.sup.+ solution is split into three characteristic peaks, while that for .sup.15NH.sub.4.sup.+ shows two peaks. That said, there is no signal of the original .sup.14NO.sub.3.sup.? or .sup.15NO.sub.3.sup.? electrolyte until they experience electrocatalytic nitrate reduction, and the signal peaks are basically the same as the standard .sup.14NH.sub.4.sup.+ and .sup.15NH.sub.4.sup.+. In addition, the FE of ammonia and Y.sub.NH3 are quantitated by NMR using .sup.15N isotope labeled nitrate as the reactant. By comparing with the calibration curve, the results are very close to those determined by the UV-Vis method, as shown in FIG. 51B, thus excluding the possibility of environmental contaminants influencing the detection results.

[0235] The gradually enhanced eNO.sub.3RR performance and the compressed interlayer spacing from Ce.sub.0.5SS to Pt.sub.0.3/Ce.sub.0.5SS, and to Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS directly suggest the catalytic role of interlayer spacing regulation toward nitrate reduction (FIGS. 52A-52C). However, the higher concentration of Pt may promote the competing HER activity that inhibits the ammonia selectivity, as it is believed that Pt may be an excellent active site for HER. Thereby, Pt.sub.1.2/Ce.sub.0.5SS and Pt.sub.1.2SS exhibit decreased performance in eNO.sub.3RR, even if the interlayer spacing of Pt 1.2/Ce.sub.0.5SS is very small. These results endow the proposed interlayer spacing engineering on 2D SnS nanosheets through adopting active diatomic PtCe pairs, showing superior FE and yield rate of NH.sub.3, and ranking among the most NH.sub.3 synthesizing electrocatalysts (FIGS. 53A-53C). The several orders of magnitude higher in NH.sub.3 production also confirm the practical potential of NO.sub.3.sup.? reduction compared to N.sub.2 reduction.

Example 7

Origin of the Enhanced eNO.sub.3RR Performance on Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS NS

[0236] The origin of the remarkable performance of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS for eNO.sub.3RR is investigated. Firstly, in-situ Raman spectroscopy was applied to monitor the possible reaction intermediates or products under potentiostatic operation for 1 h at ?0.5 V vs. RHE (FIG. 54A). Except for the two peaks at about 1352.0 and 1590.5 cm.sup.?1 assigned to the D-peak and G-peak of carbon cloth, the peaks at 1152.5 and 1521.4 cm.sup.?1 that gradually appeared on Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS as the reaction progressed may be attributed to the stretching of HNH and NH bond, respectively. This indicates the efficient nitrate reduction to ammonia on the Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS electrode. More directly, the gradually enhanced peak intensity of HNH and NH peaks in contour plots (FIGS. 54B and 54C) provides strong evidence of increased intermediates.

[0237] It is believed that although main-group metals, such as Sn and Bi, do not show diversity in d-orbital as if transition metals, the main-group metals may have various localized p-orbital electron states that may have influence on the catalytic performance. In order to study the influence of electronic structures of the catalysts on their catalytic performance, the electronic structures of SS, Ce.sub.xSS, and Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS models are computed by DFT calculation. As show in in FIG. 55, the computed PDOS diagrams of Sn 5p orbitals show an evident delocalization effect, especially for Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS. Since Ce.sub.xSS, SS, and Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS have an ordinal decreasing interlayer spacing after geometric optimization (FIG. 11), the degree of p-orbital electron delocalization is negatively correlated with the value of interlayer spacing.

[0238] Specifically, Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS with compressed interlayer spacing may lead to an enhanced coupling of electrons in real space, which is responsible for delocalizing electrons across Sn-p orbitals. As a result, such electron delocalization may play a significant role in altering the electronic interaction of adsorbates. To have a further understanding on this, model of NO.sub.3.sup.? that adsorbed on previous SS, Ce.sub.xSS, and Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS models is built and the PDOS of Sn-5p and O-2p orbitals are computed (FIG. 56). Evidently, a greater orbital hybridization around the Fermi level (EF) is recognizable between the Sn atom and adsorbed NO.sub.3.sup.?, indicating enhanced chemical interaction. Subsequently, the difference between the band center (?) of Sn-5p and O-2p orbitals exhibits a linear relationship with the interlayer spacing, of which Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS have the smallest value of 3.2650 eV, lower than those of SS (3.3074 eV), and Ce.sub.xSS (3.3663 eV). Hence, the narrower band center difference demonstrates the crucial function of interlayer spacing regulation in weakening and activating the N?O bonds of NO.sub.3.sup.?.

[0239] Furthermore, Ce.sub.xSS, SS, and Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS with gradually compressed interlayer spacing reveal promoted absorption energy (?E) of NO.sub.3.sup.? and NO.sub.2.sup.?, suggesting the enhanced chemical affinity towards NO.sub.3.sup.? and NO.sub.2.sup.? and further prove the reliable effect of interlayer spacing regulation (FIG. 57). It is also noted that the ?E.sub.NO2? of Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS reaches ?1.58 eV, while that for Ce.sub.xSS only has a value of ?1.18 eV. The stronger absorption of NO.sub.2.sup.? inhibits the generation of HNO.sub.2 by-product and can facilitate the following conversion of NO.sub.2.sup.?NH.sub.3, which is consistent with the experimental results and plays a decisive role in the improvement of eNO.sub.3RR (FIG. 46).

[0240] To evaluate the HER performance on the catalysts, the absorption energy of H.sub.2O and Gibbs adsorption free energies (?G) of *H is computed (FIGS. 58A and 58B). In particular, all the binding energies of H.sub.2O are much weaker than that of NO.sub.3.sup.? and NO.sub.2.sup.? in each sample, ensuring the strong interaction of NO.sub.3.sup.? and NO.sub.2.sup.? for their further reduction. Also, no matter whether on Sn or S site, the calculated ?G.sub.H+ on Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS is much higher than that on SS and Ce.sub.xSS, and all the ?G.sub.H+ are positive values, demonstrating the obstructive HER activity. Overall, assisted by the diatomic PtCe pairs, the SS NS with compressed interlayer spacing leads to the delocalization of p-orbital electrons, and such delocalized electrons enhance the chemical affinity between catalytic sites and NO.sub.3.sup.? and NO.sub.2.sup.? reactants. Additionally, the compressed interlayer spacing increases the ?G.sub.H* and thus inhibits the unwanted HER activity. Consequently, these are the origin of the remarkable performance of the Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS for eNO.sub.3RR.

[0241] Based on the DFT calculation, the possible reaction pathways is proposed and the corresponding ?G of each intermediate over Ce.sub.xSS. SS, and Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS models is calculated (FIGS. 59-62). Generally, the eNO.sub.3RR process includes the adsorption of NO.sub.3.sup.?, deoxygenation, hydrogenation, and the desorption of NH.sub.3. For the hydrogenation, two possible pathways are proposed, i.e., *NOH.fwdarw.*NHOH.fwdarw.*NH.sub.2OH and *NOH.fwdarw.*N.fwdarw.*NH. As depicted in FIG. 59, the downward trend from NO.sub.3.sup.? to *NO.sub.3 suggests an energetically favorable reaction. However, in the following *NO.sub.3.fwdarw.*NO.sub.2, Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS involve an uphill free energy increment (+0.09 eV), and those for SS and Ce.sub.xSS are +0.28 eV and +0.31 eV, respectively. These upward thermodynamic changes reveal this system's rate-determine step (RDS).

[0242] The stark contrast from Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS to SS and Ce.sub.xSS indicates the promotion of RDS thermodynamically by the interlayer spacing regulation. Further, it theoretically gives the origin of the remarkable performance of Pt.sub.0.9/Ce.sub.0.5SS. Moreover, the higher ?G of Pt.sub.y/Ce.sub.xSS for producing HNO.sub.2 demonstrates the difficulty in desorbing *NO.sub.2. Subsequently, due to the unfavorable hydrogen absorption over the catalysts, the protonation of *NO.fwdarw.*NOH requires energy uphill again. Overall, the higher NO.sub.3.sup.? .fwdarw.*NO.sub.3 but lower *NO.sub.2.fwdarw.NO.sub.2.sup.? energy change and the facilitated RDS (*NO.sub.3.fwdarw.*NO.sub.2) sufficiently illustrate that the interlayer spacing regulation strategy can effectively facilitate the conversion from NO.sub.3.sup.? to NH.sub.3 for both activity and selectivity.

[0243] The invention has been given by way of example only, and various other modifications of and/or alterations to the described embodiment may be made by persons skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention as specified in the appended claims.