Bioinert article and its use

Abstract

An article, comprising a substrate and a polymer film attached to the substrate is provided, the polymer film comprising a first layer of a first polymer functionalized by a first functionalization compound covalently bound to said first polymer and bearing at least one catecholic group being present on a surface of the first layer. The polymer film is a layered film, a top layer of which is formed by the first layer, the layered film comprising at least one further layer of at least one further polymer functionalized by a further functionalization compound covalently bound to said further polymer and bearing at least one catecholic group being present on a surface of the at least one further layer, wherein an average ratio of catecholic groups per polymer molecule is equal to or less than 1 in case of the first polymer and greater than 1 in case of the further polymer.

Claims

1. An article, comprising: a substrate; and a polymer film attached to the substrate, the polymer film comprising: a first layer of a first polymer functionalized by a first functionalization compound covalently bound to said first polymer and bearing at least one catecholic group being present on a surface of the first layer, wherein the polymer film is a layered film, a top layer of which is formed by the first layer, the layered film comprising at least one further layer of at least one further polymer functionalized by a further functionalization compound covalently bound to said further polymer and bearing at least one catecholic group being present on a surface of the at least one further layer, wherein an average ratio of catecholic groups per polymer molecule is equal to or less than 1 in a case of the first polymer and greater than 1 in a case of the further polymer, wherein the first polymer and/or the further polymer has, besides the catecholic groups, reactive groups that can be functionalized in order to adjust physical and/or chemical surface properties of the article, wherein the reactive groups are amine, amide, azide and/or sulfhydryl groups.

2. The article according to claim 1, wherein a lowest polymer layer of the layered polymer film is covalently or non-covalently attached to the substrate.

3. The article according to claim 1, wherein the further polymer is covalently or non-covalently bound to a polymer of a polymer layer of the layered polymer film that is placed directly above the further polymer layer.

4. The article according to claim 1, wherein the further polymer has a degree of functionalization with catecholic groups of 1 to 100%.

5. The article according to claim 1, wherein the first polymer and/or the further polymer is at least one of the group consisting of polyglycerols, polyethers, polyethylene glycols, polyesters, polyamides, polyimides, polyimines, polyurethanes, polycarbonates, polyethersulfones, oligopeptides, polypeptides and copolymers thereof, in each case functionalized by the first or the further functionalization compound.

6. The article according to claim 1, wherein the first polymer and/or further polymer has a molecular weight of 0.3 to 6000 kDa after functionalization, determined by gel permeation chromatography.

7. The article according to claim 1, wherein the first and/or further functionalization compound has a linker moiety through which the catecholic group is bound to the first polymer and/or further polymer.

8. The article according to claim 1, wherein the first polymer is additionally functionalized with at least one compound selected from the group consisting of polyethylene glycol, oligoethylene glycol, zwitterionic moieties, polyoxazolines, oligooxazolines, and other hydrophilic groups based on amides, amide derivatives, cyclic esters, sugar derivatives, amino acids and/or oligonitrils.

9. The article according to claim 1, wherein the first polymer is additionally functionalized with at least one compound selected from the group consisting of bioactive units or ligands such as amino acids, peptides, monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, proteins, DNA and RNA.

10. The article according to claim 1, wherein the first functionalization compound and the further functionalization compound are identical.

11. The article according to claim 1, wherein the layered polymer film has a thickness of 1 nm to 100 m.

12. The article according to claim 1, wherein the substrate comprises at least one compound chosen from the group consisting of TiO.sub.2, aluminum, glass, SiO.sub.2, polystyrene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride.

13. A method for in vitro cell culturing, wherein an article is used as a cell culture device, wherein the article comprises: a substrate; and a polymer film attached to the substrate, the polymer film comprising: a first layer of a first polymer functionalized by a first functionalization compound covalently bound to said first polymer and bearing at least one catecholic group being present on a surface of the first layer, wherein the polymer film is a layered film, a top layer of which is formed by the first layer, the layered film comprising at least one further layer of at least one further polymer functionalized by a further functionalization compound covalently bound to said further polymer and bearing at least one catecholic group being present on a surface of the at least one further layer, wherein an average ratio of catecholic groups per polymer molecule is equal to or less than 1 in case of the first polymer and greater than 1 in case of the further polymer.

14. A method of implantation of an implantable device, wherein an article is used as an implantable device or as part of an implantable device, wherein the article comprises: a substrate; and a polymer film attached to the substrate, the polymer film comprising: a first layer of a first polymer functionalized by a first functionalization compound covalently bound to said first polymer and bearing at least one catecholic group being present on a surface of the first layer, wherein the polymer film is a layered film, a top layer of which is formed by the first layer, the layered film comprising at least one further layer of at least one further polymer functionalized by a further functionalization compound covalently bound to said further polymer and bearing at least one catecholic group being present on a surface of the at least one further layer, wherein an average ratio of catecholic groups per polymer molecule is equal to or less than 1 in case of the first polymer and greater than 1 in case of the further polymer.

15. The method according to claim 14, wherein the device is intended for permanent implantation.

16. The method according to claim 14, wherein the device is intended for non-permanent implantation.

17. An article, comprising: a substrate; and a polymer film attached to the substrate, the polymer film comprising: a first layer of a first polymer functionalized by a first functionalization compound covalently bound to said first polymer and bearing at least one catecholic group being present on a surface of the first layer, wherein the polymer film is a layered film, a top layer of which is formed by the first layer, the layered film comprising at least one further layer of at least one further polymer functionalized by a further functionalization compound covalently bound to said further polymer and bearing at least one catecholic group being present on a surface of the at least one further layer, wherein an average ratio of catecholic groups per polymer molecule is equal to or less than 1 in a case of the first polymer and greater than 1 in a case of the further polymer, wherein the substrate comprises at least one compound chosen from the group consisting of TiO.sub.2, aluminum, glass, SiO.sub.2, polystyrene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride.

18. The article according to claim 17, wherein a lowest polymer layer of the layered polymer film is covalently or non-covalently attached to the substrate.

19. The article according to claim 17, wherein the further polymer is covalently or non-covalently bound to a polymer of a polymer layer of the layered polymer film that is placed directly above the further polymer layer.

20. The article according to claim 17, wherein the first polymer and/or the further polymer is at least one of the group consisting of polyglycerols, polyethers, polyethylene glycols, polyesters, polyamides, polyimides, polyimines, polyurethanes, polycarbonates, polyethersulfones, oligopeptides, polypeptides and copolymers thereof, in each case functionalized by the first or the further functionalization compound.

21. The article according to claim 17, wherein the first polymer and/or further polymer has a molecular weight of 0.3 to 6000 kDa after functionalization, determined by gel permeation chromatography.

22. The article according to claim 17, wherein the first and/or further functionalization compound has a linker moiety through which the catecholic group is bound to the first polymer and/or further polymer.

23. The article according to claim 17, wherein the first polymer is additionally functionalized with at least one compound selected from the group consisting of polyethylene glycol, oligoethylene glycol, zwitterionic moieties, polyoxazolines, oligooxazolines, and other hydrophilic groups based on amides, amide derivatives, cyclic esters, sugar derivatives, amino acids and/or oligonitrils.

24. The article according to claim 17, wherein the first polymer is additionally functionalized with at least one compound selected from the group consisting of bioactive units or ligands such as amino acids, peptides, monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, proteins, DNA and RNA.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The present invention will now be described in more detail by referring to exemplary embodiments and corresponding Figures.

(2) FIG. 1A shows a schematic depiction of a first embodiment of a polymer-coated article.

(3) FIG. 1B shows a schematic depiction of a second embodiment of a polymer-coated article.

(4) FIG. 2 shows the chemical structure of an exemplary branched polyglycerol that can be used as a bare polymer for the first polymer and/or the further polymer of an embodiment of a polymer-coated article.

(5) FIG. 3A shows the chemical reaction scheme of a first embodiment of functionalizing a polyglycerol with a functionalization compound bearing a catecholic group.

(6) FIG. 3B shows the chemical reaction scheme of a second embodiment of functionalizing a polyglycerol with a functionalization compound bearing a catecholic group.

(7) FIG. 3C shows the chemical reaction scheme of a third embodiment for functionalizing a polyglycerol with a functionalization compound bearing a catecholic group.

(8) FIG. 4A shows micrographs obtained by a light-optical microscope of a first cell-adhesion experiment.

(9) FIG. 4B shows micrographs obtained by a light-optical microscope of a second cell-adhesion experiment.

(10) FIG. 5 is a graphical depiction of the results obtained from protein adsorption experiments on fresh coatings.

(11) FIG. 6 is a graphical depiction of the results obtained from protein adsorption from undiluted human blood plasma on polymer-coated articles.

(12) FIG. 7 is a graphical depiction of the results obtained from protein adsorption experiments on polymer-coated articles which have been exposed to a physiological environment (physiological buffer) for different periods of time.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(13) FIG. 1A is a schematic depiction of the steps to be performed in order to produce an article coated with an antifouling-coating of a two-layered polymer film 1 on a metal substrate 2. For building up the polymer film 1, a multiple catechol-functionalized hyperbranched polyglycerol (hPG) 4 with a degree of functionalization of 10% (hPG-Cat10) is produced in a first step from hPG and a functionalization compound bearing a catecholic group. This hPG-Cat10 4 was developed to form an inert foundation layer 3a which can effectively shield metals, metal oxides and other substrates. The foundation layer 3a can also be referred to as lowest polymer layer of the layered polymer film 1. The foundation layer 3a is a multi-molecular layer in which the individual catechol-functionalized polyglycerols 4 (which serve as second or further polymer) are cross-linked to each other via their catechol groups. In addition, the catechol groups of the polymer 4 of the foundation layer 3a serves for anchoring the whole foundation layer 3 to metal and metal oxide surfaces by strong complexes.

(14) To build up the foundation layer 3, the according polymer 4 (hPG-Cat10) is incubated with the metal substrate 2 for two hours. In the second reaction step, a mono-catechol functionalized hPG (hPG-Cat1) 5 is applied to the coated metal substrate 2. This hPG-Cat1 serves as terminating molecule forming a terminal top layer 6. hPG-Cat1 5 can also be referred to as first polymer. hPG-Cat1 5 is conjugated on the surface of the inert foundation layer 3a built up by multiple-catecholic hPG-Cat10 4 by catechol cross-linking to hide free catechol groups and to form a stable bioinert surface.

(15) FIG. 1B is a schematic depiction of an article comprising a three-layered polymer film 1 on a substrate 2. The same numeral references as in FIG. 1A will be used for the same elements.

(16) The inventors were able to show that hPG-Cat10 is not perfectly well-suited to adhere on all substrate surfaces. Rather, an adhesion onto metal substrates like the metal substrate 2 takes place with high efficiency. On other surfaces, especially on non-metal surfaces, the stability of the adhesion of hPG-Cat10 can still be improved. Therefore, an hPG was produced which is functionalized with catechols and amines. The catechol functionalization degree of this hPG is 40% and the amine functionalization degree is 60%. This polymer is also referred to as hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 7 and also serves as further polymer functionalized by a catecholic group. hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 7 is a super-adhesive molecule that strongly adheres also on non-metal substrates 8.

(17) In doing so, a multi molecular layer of hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 7 serves as foundation layer 3b or lowest layer of the polymer film 1. In order to build up a bioinert surface coating on the substrate 8, hPG-Cat10 4 is applied as intermediate layer 9 onto the surface of the foundation layer 3b composed of hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 7. Thus, the intermediate layer 9 of this exemplary embodiment corresponds to the foundation layer 3a of the precedingly explained exemplary embodiment (cf. FIG. 1A). The catechol groups of hPG-Cat10 4 form covalent bonds to hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 7. These covalent bonds are formed by crosslinking between the catechol groups of hPG-Cat10 4 and the catechol groups of hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 7 and/or the amine groups of hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 7. In other words, a catechol-catechol coupling or a catechol-amine coupling takes place. Afterwards, a top layer 6 of hPG-Cat1 5 is applied onto the surface of the intermediate layer 9. Once again, a catechol-catechol coupling between the catechol groups of hPG-Cat1 5 and the catechol groups of hPG-Cat10 4 takes place. The top layer 6 of hPG-Cat1 5 seals the lower layers and provides for a bioinert coating of the substrate 8.

(18) Both the foundation layer 3b and the intermediate layer 9 are multi-molecular layers, wherein the top layer 6 is a mono-molecular layer.

(19) When comparing the exemplary embodiment depicted in FIG. 1A and the exemplary embodiment depicted in FIG. 1B, it is obvious that the chosen approach can be used to form a highly stable surface coating on versatile substrates without the need to change the anchoring groups to coat different surface substrates. The cross-linked active foundation layer 3b serves as a multivalent anchor to cover non-metal substrates and to tether the following layer. This following layer, the intermediate layer 9, serves as inert foundation layer placed on top of the active foundation layer 3b. Unlike chemically active layers which are hard to be completely shielded by grafting bioinert terminal layers on top of them, this new inert foundation layer (the intermediate layer 9) can both strongly adhere to metal substrates (and thus act as single inert foundation layer 3a) and strongly adhere to active foundation layers 3b, since it can exhibit multivalent adhesion and intralayer cohesion as well as interlayer layer cohesion. Thus, it can durably resist desorption.

(20) The terminal top layer 6 which is based on the mono-functionalized hPG-Cat1 5 couples to the inert foundation layer 3a or to the intermediate layer 9, both being composed of hPG-Cat10 4, in order to hide all active or sticky catechol functionalities to get an highly optimized bioinert surface. Since catechols (or catecholic groups) have been chosen for both anchors and cross-linkers of the foundation layer 3b, the intermediate layer 9 and the top layer 6, the same chemistry can be used to build up the whole multiple layer architecture coating including anchoring polymers 7, cross-linking polymers 4 as well as terminating polymers 5.

(21) It is obvious from the foregoing explanation that hPG-Cat10 4 and hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 7 are only examples for anchoring and cross-linking polymers. In the same way, hPG-Cat1 5 is only an example of a terminating polymer. In fact, other bare polymers or other functionalization compounds can be used.

(22) hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 7 cannot only be used to coat non-metal substrates 8, but also to coat metal substrates 2. In case of metal substrates 2 or metal oxide substrates, it is not necessary to work with a three-layer architecture of the coating to be applied on the substrate. Rather, in this case, a two-layered architecture of the polymer film to be applied on the substrate can be used, as explained in FIG. 1A.

(23) The reactions schematically depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B have been performed in the following way in order to produce an antifouling-coated article.

(24) First, hPG, with a number average molecular mass (M.sub.n)5000 g.Math.mol.sup.1 and a mass average molecular mass (M.sub.w)7500 g.Math.mol.sup.1, was polymerized by a one-step ring-opening anionic polymerization (ROAP), as described by A. Sunder, R. Mhlhaupt, R. Haag, H. Frey, Adv. Mater. 2000, 12, 235 and by A. Sunder, R. Hanselmann, H. Frey, R. Mhlhaupt, Macromolecules 1999, 32, 4240. Trimethylolpropane (TMP) was used as the initiator or starter. Amine-functionalized hPG and carboxyl-functionalized hPG were prepared according to procedures previously published by S. Reichert, P. Welker, M. Caldern, J. Khandare, D. Mangoldt, K. Licha, R. K. Kainthan, D. Brooks, R. Haag, Small 2011, 7, 820 and by W. Fischer, M. A. Quadir, A. Barnard, D. K. Smith, R. Haag, Macromol. Biosci. 2011, 11, 1736.

(25) In the case of 1 equivalent and 10% catechol functionalization, catecholic hPGs were synthesized by correspondingly grafting 3,4-dihydroxyhydrocinnamic acid (DHHA) or dopamine to amine functionalized or carboxyl functionalized hPG. In the case of hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 with 40% catechol and 60% amine functionalization, acetonide protected DHHA was grafted to hPG amine with 100% functional degree, HCl was used for deprotection. The amount of grafted catechols per hPG was confirmed by NMR analysis. The amine amount was determined by NMR and FTIR analysis.

(26) hPG-Cat1 (Yield: 95%)

(27) .sup.1H NMR (700 MHz; MeOD): =6.69-6.54 (m, 2.71H, CH.sub.arom.); 3.91-3.21 (m, 541.61H, PG-backbone); 2.77 (t, 1.86H, COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 2.46 (t, 1.83H, COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 1.42-1.40 (m, 2H, CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3 of starter); 0.90 (t, 3H, CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3, of starter) ppm. .sup.13C NMR (700 MHz; MeOD): =175.92 and 175.59 (CO); 146.32-112.62 (C.sub.arom.); 81.70-43.59 (PG backbone); 39.47 and 37.10 (COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 32.49 and 31.90 (COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 23.83 (CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3 of starter); 8.58 (CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3 of starter) ppm.

(28) hPG-Cat10 (Yield: 92%)

(29) .sup.1H NMR (700 MHz; MeOD): =6.69-6.54 (m, 35.15H, CH.sub.arom.); 3.90-3.22 (m, 541.61H, PG-backbone); 2.77 (m, 23.39H, COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 2.45 (m, 23.27H, COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 1.41-1.39 (m, 2H, CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3 of starter); 0.90 (t, 3H, CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3, of starter) ppm. .sup.13C NMR (700 MHz; MeOD): =175.95 and 175.71 (CO); 146.31-112.47 (C.sub.arom.); 81.70-43.55 (PG backbone); 39.39 and 37.09 (COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 32.48 and 31.80 (COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 22.14 (CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3 of starter); 7.09 (CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3 of starter) ppm.

(30) hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 (Yield: 94%)

(31) .sup.1H NMR (700 MHz; MeOD): =6.72-6.52 (m, 129.12H, CH.sub.arom.); 4.03-2.97 (m, 541.61H, PG-backbone); 2.75 (m, 85.22H, COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 2.48 (m, 87.09H, COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 1.49-1.39 (m, 2H, CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3 of starter); 0.90 (t, 3H, CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3, of starter) ppm. .sup.13C NMR (700 MHz; MeOD): =176.86 and 176.29 (CO); 146.31-111.87 (C.sub.arom.); 81.18-43.55 (PG backbone); 39.13 and 37.57 (COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 32.31 and 31.30 (COCH.sub.2CH.sub.2C); 24.46 (CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3 of starter); 7.26 (CCH.sub.2CH.sub.3 of starter) ppm.

(32) For building dual layer coatings on titanium dioxide surfaces, freshly cleaned slides were immersed with 1 mM hPG-Cat10 in pH 7.5 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid (MOPS) buffer (0.1 M) at around 20 C. for 2 hours. After carefully washing, hPG-Cat10 coated slides were immersed with 1 mM hPG-Cat1 in the same conditions.

(33) For building triple layer coatings on polystyrene, freshly cleaned slides were immersed with 0.1 mM hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 in a mixed solution of methanol and pH 8.5 MOPS buffer (4:1 v/v) for 5 minutes. Then the hPG-Cat10 and hPG-Cat1 coatings were prepared as described above. After coating, the slides were thoroughly rinsed with water and methanol and dried by a N.sub.2 stream.

(34) Coating of the titanium dioxide substrates with hPG-Cat10 caused a considerable decrease of the static water contact angle from 672 of the bare substrate to 283. In the case of the dual layer architecture, screening the exposed catechol groups of hPG-Cat10 with a terminal layer of hPG-Cat1 further decreased the static water contact angle to 222. Coating of the polystyrene substrates with hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 for 5 min caused a decrease of the static water contact angle from 834 to 534. After further coated by hPG-Cat10Cat1 dual layer to construct the triple layer architecture, the angle dramatically decreased to 203.

(35) FIG. 2 is a schematic depiction of the possible structure of a hyperbranched polyglycerol (hPG). Such hPG can be used as starting point for preparing catecholic hPGs with different degrees of functionalization of catechol units. The functionalization can take place via ester or more stable amide bonds.

(36) The hPG as depicted in FIG. 2 having a number average molecular mass (M.sub.n) of approximately 5000 g.Math.mol.sup.1 was prepared by a one-step anionic ring-opening polymerization, as described by A. Sunder, R. Mhlhaupt, R. Haag, H. Frey, Adv. Mater. 2000, 12, 235 and A. Sunder, R. Hanselmann, H. Frey, R. Mhlhaupt, Macromolecules 1999, 32, 4240.

(37) Catecholic hPGs with more stable amide bonds (hPG-Cat) were developed from amine-functionalized hPGs (see S. Reichert, P. Welker, M. Caldern, J. Khandare, D. Mangoldt, K. Licha, R. K. Kainthan, D. Brooks, R. Haag, Small 2011, 7, 820).

(38) Catecholic hPGs with ester bonds (hPG-ester-Cat) were produced from carboxyl-functionalized hPGs (see W. Fischer, M. A. Quadir, A. Barnard, D. K. Smith, R. Haag, Macromol. Biosci. 2011, 11, 1736). hPG-ester-Cat can be synthesized in just two simple steps from hPG which is beneficial for the synthesis of larger amounts. In rigorous conditions, it is possible to use hPG-Cat with amide bonds. In general, any type of standard conjugation and legation chemistry that is known to the person skilled in the art can be adapted for the synthesis of catechol-functionalized polymers, provided that feasible linkers or spacers are available.

(39) FIGS. 3A, 3B and 3C show reaction schemes of functionalization reactions of hPGs with different functionalization compounds. In all of these compounds, the catecholic groups are bound to the bare polymer via linker or spacer groups. The functionalization degree of the produced functionalized hPGs can be adjusted, e.g., by the relative ratio of hPG and functionalization compound used in the functionalization reaction. In FIGS. 3A, 3B and 3C, only a single catecholic group linked via a linker or spacer moiety to a polyglycerol core is indicated. It is, however, obvious for a person skilled in the art that the depicted chemical reactions can result in hPGs carrying more than one catecholic group per polamer molecule if the reaction conditions are properly chosen.

(40) Once a catechol-functionalized polymer is prepared, this functionalized polymer has to be applied onto a substrate in order to produce an article. In case of the articles schematically depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the coatings of hPG-Cat10 and hPG-Cat1 were prepared at pH 7.5 in 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid buffer (MOPS) with a concentration of hPG-Cat10 or hPG-Cat1 of 1 mmol/l. The coatings of hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 were prepared in a mixed solution of methanol and MOPS buffer (4:1, v/v) at pH 8.5 with a concentration of hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 of 0.1 mmol/l.

(41) FIG. 4A shows light microscopic micrographs of a cell culture experiment with hPG-Cat-modified and unmodified surfaces to study cell adhesion of NIH-3T3 mouse fibroblasts.

(42) The Fibroblasts were collected from Petri dishes by incubation in trypsin (dilution 1:250) for 5 minutes at 37 C. The cell suspension was washed from trypsin by centrifugation, the top layer was removed, and the remaining cells were resuspended in fresh medium. Surface-modified and non-modified slides were incubated with 1 million cells in 4 ml of cell medium (cell number was determined via a Neubauer chamber) for 3, 7 and 14 days respectively, at 37 C. and 5% CO.sub.2. The medium for cell culture was changed to fresh every two days. After removing the medium and rinsing the slides with 4 ml phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) to remove non-adherent cells, the remaining cells were observed directly by microscope (TELAVAL 31, Zeiss, Germany). The average number of the adhering cells was calculated from at least five randomly chosen areas.

(43) The first row of FIG. 4A shows the cell adhesion in case of bare titanium dioxide substrates. The second row shows the cell adhesion on substrates that have been coated with hPG-Cat1 only. The third row shows the cell adhesion of substrates that have been coated with hPG-Cat10 only. The fourth and last row shows the cell adhesion of substrates that have been coated with a two-layer polymer film consisting of a foundation layer of hPG-Cat10 and a sealing top layer of hPG-Cat1. As can be clearly seen from the micrographs of FIG. 4A, the two-layer architecture of the fourth row is the only one which ensures no cell adhesion even after 14 days.

(44) After 3 days of cultivation, cells spread regularly on the unmodified titanium dioxide surfaces (27837 cells/mm.sup.2), whereas only small amounts of cell colonies could be observed on the hPG-Cat1 modified surfaces (83 cells/mm.sup.2), but almost no cells could be detected on the hPG-Cat10 and hPG-Cat10Cat1 modified surfaces.

(45) After 7 days, more cells were growing on the hPG-Cat1 modified surfaces (175 cells/mm.sup.2), while the hPG-Cat10 and hPG-Cat10Cat1 modified surfaces still showed no cell attachment.

(46) After 14 days of incubation, the surfaces of unmodified titanium dioxide was very confluently covered, the mean cell number reached 1542368 cells/mm.sup.2 and the cell colonies on the hPG-Cat1 modified surfaces grew much larger than before (13642 cells/mm.sup.2). Meanwhile, a few cells adhered on the hPG-Cat10 modified surfaces with only 42 cells/mm.sup.2 and still almost no cells could adhere to the hPG-Cat10Cat1 modified surfaces (<1 cells/mm.sup.2).

(47) Since hPG-Cat1 with only one catechol anchor is not stable enough to cover the surface very effectively, its coating showed weaker antifouling performance than hPG-Cat10. However, the free catechols on the surface of hPG-Cat10 multilayers still led to some protein adsorption and cell adhesion. When these free catechols were covered by hPG-Cat1 as the terminal layer, the substrates were perfectly protected by the hPG bioinert coatings and showed only very weak interaction with proteins and cells. The long-term cell culture tests also proved the stability of the hPG-Cat10Cat1 dual layer, which was enhanced by both multivalent adhesion (anchoring) and cohesion (crosslinking).

(48) FIG. 4B shows light microscopic micrographs of cell adhesion experiments performed on Petri dishes made of polystyrene (PS). The first row shows the results with respect to bare PS as substrate. The second row shows the results in case of a PS substrate coated with a two-layered polymer film made up of hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 (abbreviated in FIG. 4B as hPG-Cat40) as foundation layer and hPG-Cat1 as top layer. The third and last row shows the results with respect to a PS substrate coated by a three-layered polymer film made up of hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 as foundation layer, hPG-Cat10 as intermediate layer and hPG-Cat1 as top layer.

(49) The condition of modified PS Petri dishes was similar as modified titanium dioxide surfaces. Cells on unmodified surfaces spread regularly after 3 days and grew to confluence after 14 days. A considerable amount of cells adhered on the hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40-hPG-Cat1 coated surfaces. But unlike the hPG-Cat1 coatings on titanium dioxide surfaces, the cell number did not increase too much from 7 days to 14 days (from 279 to 3111 cells/mm.sup.2). Instead, all cells completely spread on the surfaces. That may be because the hPG-Cat1 layers on hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 treated surfaces are more stable than on bare titanium dioxide surfaces, but cannot fully shield the foundation layer. There were only a few cells on the hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40-hPG-Cat10-hPG-Cat10 modified surfaces (42 cells/mm.sup.2) after 14 days. As comparison, hPG-Cat10 alone coated and hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 coated PS surfaces were incubated with cells for 3 days. 229104 and 729329 cells/mm.sup.2 adhered on the respective surfaces.

(50) It can clearly be seen that the best results can be obtained with a three-layered architecture. By using a PS surface coated with such a three-layer polymer film, only a very low number of cells adheres to the surface within 14 days after incubation. But also in case of a two-layered architecture very good results can be obtained with respect to the uncoated control experiment.

(51) FIG. 5 shows the results of protein adsorption experiments performed on coated and uncoated titanium dioxide and polystyrene. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and fibrinogen (Fib) were used as proteins in these experiments. The single protein resistance of the substrates was evaluated by quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) measurements. Additionally, the obtained data was fitted into the Kevin-Voigt model to quantify the amount of adsorbed proteins. FIG. 5 shows the adsorbed amount of BSA and Fib on titanium dioxide (left) and PS (right) surfaces. The adsorption of BSA and Fib on bare titanium dioxide and on bare polystyrene has been set to 100%.

(52) Both hPG-Cat1 and hPG-Cat10 modified titanium dioxide surfaces showed an improved resistance against the adsorption of BSA and Fib compared to an unmodified surface. However, the hPG-Cat1 coating without any catechols on the top still adsorbed 8.6% of BSA and 27.9% of Fib, which were much more than the hPG-Cat10 coating (4.1% for BSA and 4.9% for Fib). By hiding the free catechols on the surface of hPG-Cat10 layer, the hPG-Cat10Cat1 dual layer architecture had such excellent antifouling performance that only 2.7% of the Fib and <1% of the BSA were adsorbed relative to the bare titanium dioxide. This is particular surprising when considering the results obtained with hPG-Cat1 alone.

(53) However, 10% of catechol groups obviously cannot tether the hPG sufficiently stably on PS surfaces, which lead the strong adsorption of BSA (69.3%) and Fib (76.8%). Thus, the triple layer coatings with more active foundation layer can be advantageously used to modify chemical inert surfaces like PS surfaces. Although a hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 foundation layer increased about 50% of protein adsorption, it successfully immobilized an inert hPG-Cat1 layer to decrease the protein adsorption. hPG-Cat1 crosslinked multilayer shielded the hPG(NH.sub.2)Cat40 foundation layer already quite effectively (39.1% for BSA and 44.8% for Fib).

(54) By further grafting hPG-Cat1 on free catechol groups of a hPG-Cat10 layer, a triple layer was generated that only adsorbed 12.5% of the BSA and 17.6% of the Fib relative to the bare PS.

(55) After incubation of the dual layer coated titanium dioxide slides and triple layer coated PS slides in 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid (HEPES) buffer (physiological condition) for two weeks, the Fib adsorption on the respective surfaces only slightly increased to 3.5% (dual layer coated titanium dioxide) and 20.1% (triple layer coated PS slides) respectively. Thus, the cohesion enhanced coatings showed very good stability in physiological buffer.

(56) Summarizing, the lowest protein adsorption can be observed in case of titanium dioxide coated with a two-layered polymer film consisting of hPG-Cat10 and hPG-Cat1. In case of polystyrene, the lowest protein adsorption can be observed for polystyrene coated with a three-layer polymer film consisting of hPG-Cat40, hPG-Cat10 and hPG-Cat1.

(57) These protein adsorption tests clearly show that polymer-film coated substrates behave in a bioinert manner as compared to non-coated substrates.

(58) The protein adsorption in a highly complex protein environment of undiluted human blood plasma was tested on dual layer coated TiO.sub.2 surfaces and triple layer coated PS surfaces, each built up as explained above with respect to FIGS. 1A and 1B. The results are shown in FIG. 6.

(59) It was previously shown that unspecific protein adsorption from the highly complex protein mixture in plasma cannot be reduced substantially by many of the current benchmarks of protein-resistant polymer coated surfaces. [G. Gunkel, W. T. S. Huck. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135, 7047.]

(60) The multilayer surfaces adsorbed small to moderate amounts of proteins from undiluted plasma, however, significantly less (more than 5-fold reduced) as compared to the bare surface. The dual layer coatings on TiO.sub.2 decreased the amount of adsorbed proteins to 9% compared to the adsorption on bare TiO.sub.2 (100% adsorption) surfaces. The triple layer coatings on PS decreased plasma adsorption to 20% compared to bare PS (100% adsorption) surfaces. Thus, these new multilayer coatings reduce protein adsorption from highly complex protein mixtures like undiluted plasma to a significant level and show even better performance than a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of polyether glycol on gold. [M. Weinhart, I. Grunwald, M. Wyszogrodzka, L. Gaetjen, A. Hartwig, R. Haag. Chem.-Asian J. 2010, 5, 1992.]

(61) The long term stability of the dual layer and triple layer coatings in physiological buffer (pH 7.4 HEPES buffer) was tested by Fib adsorption. The results are shown in FIG. 7. The adsorption on dual layer coated titanium oxide surfaces only slightly increased from 2.7% to 3.5% after two weeks of incubation, and to 4.2% after two months of incubation. The adsorption on triple layer coated PS surfaces increased moderately from 17.6% to 20.1% after two weeks, and 24.5% after two months. Hence, the crosslinked multilayer architecture showed good stability in physiological buffer conditions. An obvious thickness decreasing can be observed after only 12 days in the case of the monolayer of catecholic PEG dendrons on titanium oxide surfaces. It should be noticed that any defect on the monolayer surfaces may cause protein adsorption.