Electrodeposition of metal microstructures

Abstract

In one embodiment, a method for fabricating a metal microstructure includes forming a non-conductive polymer membrane having a plurality of pores, coating at least one end of the membrane and inner surfaces of the pores with a conductive material to form a conductive coating, electrodepositing a metal on the conductive coating, and dissolving the membrane to obtain a free-standing metal microstructure having at least one metal end plate and multiple elongated metal members extending therefrom.

Claims

1. A method for fabricating a metal microstructure, the method comprising: forming a non-conductive polymer membrane having a plurality of pores; coating at least one end of the membrane and inner surfaces of the pores with a conductive material to form a conductive coating; electrodepositing a metal on the conductive coating; and dissolving the membrane to obtain a free-standing metal microstructure having a least one metal end plate and multiple elongated metal members extending therefrom.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the elongated metal members comprise solid aluminum alloy rods or hollow aluminum alloy tubes having free ends.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the free-standing metal microstructure comprises two opposed metal end plates and wherein the elongated metal members comprise pillars that extend between the end plates.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the pillars are hollow.

5. The method of claim 3, wherein the pillars are solid.

6. The method of claim 1, wherein forming a non-conductive polymer membrane comprises forming a polycarbonate membrane.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein coating at least one end of the membrane comprises coating only one end of the membrane with the conductive material.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein coating at least one end of the membrane comprises coating top and bottom ends of the membrane.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein coating the membrane comprises coating the membrane with copper.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein electrodepositing a metal comprises electrodepositing an alloy of aluminum and a transition metal.

11. The method of claim 1, wherein electrodepositing a metal alloy comprises electrodepositing an alloy of aluminum and manganese.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein electrodepositing a metal comprises placing the membrane in an ionic liquid electrolyte that contains aluminum ions and other metal ions to be deposited so as to deposit an aluminum alloy.

13. The method of claim 12, further comprising controlling the microstructure of the aluminum alloy by controlling a concentration of an electroactive species in the electrolyte so as to tune the composition and microstructure of the aluminum alloy.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the aluminum alloy has a crystaline microstructure.

15. The method of claim 13, wherein the aluminum alloy has an amorphous microstructure.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The present disclosure may be better understood with reference to the following figures. Matching reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the figures, which are not necessarily drawn to scale.

(2) FIGS. 1A-1D are sequential images illustrating steps of a first embodiment of a method for fabricating a microstructure.

(3) FIGS. 2A-2D are sequential images illustrating steps of a second embodiment of a method for fabricating a microstructure.

(4) FIG. 3 is a graph that plots cyclic voltammograms recorded in an AlCl.sub.3-EMIC electrolyte containing 0.5 and 0.25 M [Mn.sup.2+].

(5) FIGS. 4A-4D are scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of a microsandwich structure (4A and 4B) and microtube structure (4C and 4D) electrodeposited using an AlCl.sub.3-EMIC electrolyte containing 0.5 [Mn.sup.2].

(6) FIG. 5 is a graph that plots x-ray diffraction (XRD) 2 scans of microtube and microsandwich structures.

(7) FIGS. 6A-6F are SEM images of a surface (6A and 6B) and cross-section (6C and 6D) of Al-9 at. % Mn and Al-26 at. % Mn pillars after microindentation, and structural failure of the microsandwich structure (6E and 6F).

(8) FIGS. 7A-7D are renderings of finite element analysis (FEA) predicted displacement (7A and 7B) and equivalent stress (7C and 7D) of Al-9 at. % Mn and Al-26 at. % Mn pillars after microindentation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(9) As described above, it would be desirable to have a simple fabrication technique for microstructures. Disclosed herein are example methods for fabricating microstructures, such as microsandwich structures. In some embodiments, a non-conductive polymer membrane comprising a plurality of elongated pores formed therein is coated with a conductive material, such as a metal, and a metal alloy, such as an aluminum (Al) alloy, is electrodeposited on the conductive material at room temperature in an ionic liquid electrolyte under galvanostatic control. In some embodiments, the composition (i.e., microstructure) of the alloy can be altered by changing the concentration of the alloyed metal present within the electrolyte.

(10) In the following disclosure, various specific embodiments are described. It is to be understood that those embodiments are example implementations of the disclosed inventions and that alternative embodiments are possible. All such embodiments are intended to fall within the scope of this disclosure.

(11) Disclosed in the following disclosure are methods for fabricating crystalline and amorphous alloy microstructures, such as microtube and microsandwich structures, using template electrodeposition. In some embodiments, the alloy comprises an alloy of Al and a transition metal that increases the strength of the metal. By way of example, the alloy can comprise an Al-manganese (Mn) alloy. The microstructures can be fabricated using a one-step electrodeposition process using a room temperature ionic liquid. The disclosed methods offer an opportunity to create Al alloy microstructures with low density, open architecture, and high specific strength and damage tolerance. Such microstructures can, for example, be used in applications as plasmonic pixels in color displays, anodes for lithium (Li) ion batteries, energy adsorbers, and the like.

(12) FIG. 1 illustrates fabrication steps of an embodiment of a method for fabricating an alloy microstructure. More particularly, FIG. 1 illustrates a method for fabricating Al alloy microtube or microrod structure.

(13) Beginning with FIG. 1A, a non-conductive polymer membrane 10 is formed that comprises a plurality of pores 12 that extend from a first or bottom end 14 of the membrane to a second or top end 16 of the membrane. In some embodiments, the membrane 10 is approximately 5 m to 10 cm thick, in which case the pores 12 can also be approximately 5 m to 10 cm long. In other embodiments, the thickness of the membrane 10 and the length of the pores 12 are approximately 10 to 30 m. As shown in FIG. 1A, the pores 12 can be elongated, parallel, cylindrical pores that are arranged in an equally spaced, orthogonal grid pattern. In some embodiments, the pores 12 can have diameters of approximately 100 to 600 nm. It will be understood, however, that the pores 12 can have other configurations and dimensions, if desired. In some embodiments, the non-conductive polymer comprises polycarbonate. Polycarbonate is a suitable material for this application because it can be easily removed after the desired Al alloy structures have been formed, as described below.

(14) With reference to FIG. 1B, an end (the bottom end 14 in this example) of the membrane 10 is coated with a layer of conductive material so as to form a first or bottom layer 18 of conductive material. By way of example, the conductive material can be copper (Cu), which can be sputtered onto the membrane with a thickness of approximately 200 to 300 nm. Notably, the conductive material is deposited on not only the bottom end 14 of the membrane 10 but also on the inner surfaces of the pores 12 such that the Al alloy can be grown on both the bottom end and within the pores of the membrane.

(15) Next, the Al alloy can be electrodeposited on the conductive material. In some embodiments, the Al alloy is deposited using a one-step, three-electrode galvanostatic electrodeposition process in which the coated membrane 10 acts as the cathode or working electrode in the process. The coated membrane 10 can be placed in a room temperature ionic liquid electrolyte that contains Al and the other metal to be deposited on the copper coating through electrodeposition. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a solution of AlCl.sub.3, 1-ethyl-3-methyl-imidazolium chloride (EMIC), and MnCl.sub.2. As described below, the microstructure of the Al alloy to be formed can depend upon the concentration of the alloyed metal (e.g., Mn) within the electrolyte. In some embodiments, the Al alloy can have a crystalline microstructure. In other embodiments, the Al alloy can have an amorphous microstructure.

(16) With reference next to FIG. 1C, as the Al alloy is deposited, if forms an end plate 20 at the bottom end 14 of the membrane 10 and fills the pores 12 of the membrane to create either microtubes or microrods. Whether microtubes or microrods are formed can depend upon various factors, such as the diameter of the pores 12, the current density used during electrodeposition, and the duration of the electrodeposition. In some embodiments, the electrodeposition can be performed at a cathodic current density of approximately 6 mA/cm.sup.2 for approximately 3 to 10 minutes.

(17) Irrespective of whether microtubes or microrods are formed, the non-conductive polymer of the membrane 10 can next be removed, as indicated in FIG. 1D, so as to obtain free-standing microtubes or microrods 22 (microtubes shown in FIG. 1D). In some embodiments, the polymer can be removed by dissolving it using dichloromethane. Once the polymer is removed, a microstructure results that has a bottom plate 20 and multiple microtubes/microrods 22 having free ends extending therefrom.

(18) FIG. 2 illustrates fabrication steps of an embodiment of a method for fabricating a further type of an alloy microstructure. More particularly, FIG. 2 illustrates a method for fabricating Al alloy microsandwich structures. As used herein, the term microsandwich structure refers to a structure in which a core comprising one or more hollow tubes or solid rods are terminated at their opposite ends by end plates.

(19) The process used to fabricate a microsandwich structure is similar to the process described above in relation to FIG. 1. Accordingly, as shown in FIG. 2A, a non-conductive polymer membrane 10 is formed that comprises a plurality of pores 12 that extend from a first or bottom end 14 of the membrane to a second or top end 16 of the membrane. The membrane 10 and pores 12 can have configurations and dimensions similar to those of the like-named features described above.

(20) With reference to FIG. 2B, the membrane 10 is coated with a layer of conductive material, such as Cu, so as to form a first or bottom layer 18 and a second or top layer 24 of conductive material. As before, the conductive material is also deposited on the inner surfaces of the pores 12 such that the Al alloy can be grown on both the ends and within the pores of the membrane.

(21) Next, referring to FIG. 2C, the Al alloy can be electrodeposited in similar manner to that described above in relation to FIG. 1. Through such electrodeposition, the Al alloy can form first and second, or bottom and top, end plates 26 and 28 over the bottom and top layers 18, 24 of conductive material and fill the pores 12 of the membrane to form pillars of the microsandwich structure. Whether the pillars will comprise microtubes or microrods can depend upon various factors, such as the diameter of the pores, the current density used during electrodeposition, and the duration of the electrodeposition.

(22) The non-conductive polymer of the membrane 10 can next be removed, as indicated in FIG. 2D, so as to form pillars 30 that extend between the end plates 26, 28. As shown in this figure, the pillars 30 can be equally spaced, cylindrical, and generally perpendicular to the bottom and top end plates 20, 24, which are generally parallel to each other. In some embodiments, the pillars 30 are hollow. In other embodiments, the pillars 30 are solid. Regardless, the pillars 30 are small in scale and, like the pores 12, can be approximately 5 m to 10 cm long. In some embodiments, the pillars 30 have a microscale and are approximately 10 to 30 m long.

(23) Structures of the types described above were fabricated using the above-described methods. Track-etched polycarbonate membranes (Cyclopre) having average nominal pore diameters of 5 m were sputtered (CRC sputter coater, 99.99% argon (Ar), 5 mTorr) with a Cu layer of approximately 250 nm thickness on both sides of the membrane prior to electrodeposition. The electrodeposition was performed at room temperature using a three-electrode setup inside an Ar-filled glovebox (Mbraun Labstar, O.sub.2<1 ppm, H.sub.2O<1 ppm). Al wire (99.99%, Alfa Aesar) was used as the reference electrode. The Cu-coated polycarbonate membranes (working electrodes) were placed in the middle of two parallel Al anodes (99.99%, Alfa Aesar), enabling AlMn to be deposited from both ends of the pores. The ionic liquid electrolyte was made by mixing AlCl.sub.3 (anhydrous, 99.999%, Alfa Aesar) and EMIC (>98%, lolitec) in 2:1 molar ratio. As-received EMIC was dried under vacuum at 60 C. for at least 24 hours prior to mixing. The electrolyte was then purified using Al plate under agitation until a vanish yellow color was achieved. MnCl.sub.2 (98%, GFS Chemicals) was added to the electrolyte in different molarities and agitated for 24 hours. Galvanostatic electrodeposition was performed using Gamry Reference 600 potentiostat/galvanostat at 10 mA/cm.sup.2 for 1 hour. Finally, free-standing microsandwich structures were obtained by dissolving the polycarbonate membrane using dichloromethane.

(24) Cyclic voltammetry experiments were performed on a tungsten wire (1 mm diameter) working electrode at a scan rate of 20 mV/s. The deposited structures were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD) (PANalytical X'Pert PRO), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Hitachi SU-70), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) (EDAX-Phoenix). Cross-sections of the microsandwich structures were obtained by ion milling using focused ion beam microscopy (FIB) (FEI Quanta 200). Special care was taken to minimize gallium (Ga) contamination by using reduced current density during the final milling steps. Nanoindentation of the deposits was performed using a triboindenter (Hysitron, Ti900) with a diamond Berkovich tip (125 nm radius) at a 7 mN maximum load, a 1.4 mN/s loading/unloading rate, and a 2 second holding time. Microindentation (UMT-2, CETR) tests were performed using an alumina ball (4 mm diameter) tip under a constant normal load (varied from 20 to 25 N).

(25) FIG. 3 shows the typical cyclic voltammograms recorded at the working electrodes in 66.7-33.3 mol % AlCl.sub.3-EMIC electrolyte containing 0.05 and 0.25 M [Mn.sup.2+]. The scan started from 2 V versus Al/Al.sup.3+ and was reversed at 0.5 V versus Al/Al.sup.3+. Mn is nobler than Al in aqueous solution, but in acidic chloroaluminate electrolyte (with a molar fraction of AlCl.sub.3>0.5), the deposition potential for Mn is slightly more negative than that for Al. The forward scan in FIG. 3 is similar to that reported for pure Al and therefore shows no obvious reduction wave associated with [Mn.sup.2+]. This indicates that Mn co-deposited with Al at potentials lower than approximately 0.1 V versus Al/Al.sup.3+ in the ionic liquid with 0.05 M [Mn.sup.2+]. The overall reduction of AlMn occurred by the following reactions:
Mn.sup.2++2e.sup..Math.Mn, and(1)
4Al.sub.2Cl.sub.7.sup.+3e.sup..Math.Al+7AlCl.sub.4.sup..(2)

(26) In the reverse scan, AlMn dissolution occurred at potentials higher than approximately 0.3 V versus Al/Al.sup.3+. Increasing [Mn.sup.2+] in the electrolyte shifted the reduction potential in the anodic direction and the dissolution potential in the cathodic direction. In addition, the current densities decreased by approximately 40% as [Mn.sup.2+] increased from 0.05 to 0.25 M. This is similar to that reported by others, who found that the addition of [Mn.sup.2+] inhibits the nucleation of Al. EDS (EDAX-Phoenix) analysis showed that increasing [Mn.sup.2+] from 0.05 to 0.25 M increased the Mn concentration in the deposits from 9.00.3 at. % to 26.20.4 at. %. During co-deposition of Al and Mn, the alloy composition is mainly governed by the concentrations of the electroactive species Al.sub.2Cl.sub.7 and Mn.sup.2+. [Al.sub.2Cl.sub.7] strongly depends on the acidity of the electrolyte. Under Lewis base conditions (molar fraction of AlCl.sub.3<0.5), [Al.sub.2Cl.sub.7.sup.] is close to zero (<10.sup.7 M). Thus, maintaining a Lewis acid electrolyte is desirable for the deposition of an AlMn binary alloy. It should also be noted, however, that this condition is not necessary for AlMn deposition in inorganic chloroaluminate electrolyte systems in which the deposition can take place involving the discharge of Al.sub.2Cl.sub.4.sup. in basic solution.

(27) AlMn microsandwich structures were successfully electrodeposited from acidic AlCl.sub.3-EMIC-MnCl.sub.2 electrolyte contains 0.05 M [Mn.sup.2+] following the procedures described above in relation to FIG. 2. Galvanostatic control was chosen to better control the size of the deposited structures. FIG. 4A shows a SEM image of the microsandwich structure having approximately 11 m thick end plates separated by 27.60.6 m tall pillars, which resembles the ancient Temple of Athena Nike. FIG. 4B shows a partial cross-section of the microsandwich structure. Both the Cu coating (light contrast) and the AlMn pillar (dark contrast) can be seen clearly in this figure. In this example, the pillars were formed as solid rods.

(28) To evaluate the microsandwich growth kinetics, selected electrodeposition was carried out for 3 and 10 minutes using one Al plate as an anode. The deposited microstructures were free standing microtubes having various wall thicknesses. Typical SEM images of the microtubes are shown in FIGS. 3C and 3D. The microtubes were hollow and had an average height of 9.80.9 m. Increasing the deposition time from 3 to 10 min lead to thickening of the tube walls from 670100 nm to 1.20.4 m without affecting the tube length. The inset in FIG. 4D shows a close-up of a microtube after 10 minutes of deposition. It can be seen that the deposition advanced in the radial direction of the pore and the inner microtube surface roughness increased with deposition time. During electrodeposition, kinetic roughening is often observed following a power law <w>t.sup., where w represents the surface width, i.e., the average edge length projected on the substrate, and t is the deposition time. The power exponent typically varies from 0.2 to 0.5, depending on deposition parameters such as the current density and electrolyte concentration. Measurements of the inner microtube surfaces indicate an approximate 36% increase of the surface width as the deposition time increased from 3 to 10 minutes, yielding a power exponent 0.25.

(29) XRD results of the microtube and microsandwich structures are presented in FIG. 5. At 0.05 M [Mn.sup.2+], the XRD pattern of the microtube and microsandwich structures exhibited a single set of fcc peaks (lattice constant4.00 ) in addition to Cu (111), indicating the formation of a superstaturated solid solution of AlMn. This Mn concentration (9.0 at. %) is significantly higher than the equilibrium solubility of Mn in Al at room temperature (0.62 at. %). For the microsandwich structure, a pronounced <111> fiber texture developed along the pillar direction, similar to that observed in other fcc metallic nanowires. At 0.25 M [Mn.sup.2+], the XRD pattern of the microsandwich structure indicates the formation of a complete amorphous phase (with possible local ordering), as represented by the diffuse peak at 242. These results indicate that Mn, which has a Goldschmidt radius approximately 11% smaller than Al, is substitutionally incorporated into the Al lattice. Further increasing alloy content frustrates the ordered structure and leads to the formation of amorphous phase.

(30) The hardness of the crystalline (Al-9 at. % Mn) and amorphous (Al-26 at. % Mn) deposits was 2.590.21 GPa and 6.140.35 GPa respectively, obtained using Oliver-Pharr method. Given the low density of Al alloys (.sub.Al-9Mn3.12 g/cm.sup.3 and .sub.Al-26Mn3.94 g/cm.sup.3) and the open architecture, the density of the microsandwich structures is estimated to be approximately 1.50 g/cm.sup.3 (relative density p=0.48) and 1.89 g/cm.sup.3 (relative density p=0.48) for the crystalline and amorphous structure respectively. The estimated specific strengths of the microsandwiches were between 277 and 520 kN.Math.m/kg, which is well in excess of most commercial engineering alloys such as steel (130 kN.Math.m/kg) and Ti-6Al-4V (240 kN.Math.m/kg).

(31) A preliminary study was performed to evaluate the impact damage resistance of the microsandwich structures under a 20 to 25 N normal load. It was observed that top plate cracks began to develop in the crystalline microsandwich at loads larger than approximately 22 N. On the other hand, large scale cracks were observed on the top plates of the amorphous microsandwich structures under all investigated loads. FIGS. 5A-D show typical SEM images of the surface of the microsandwich structures indented with forces of 21 and 22 N. The failure modes were similar to those reported for macroscale sandwich structures. The crystalline microsandwich structures mainly failed by pillar compression (see FIG. 6E) with minimal deformation of the top plate. The height of the deformed pillars beneath the indent was approximately 8.30.5 m, corresponding to a local compressive strain of approximately 70%. An arc-shaped crack was developed near the edge of the contact area under 22 N (see FIG. 6A), characteristic of ductile intergranular fracture. The failure mode of the amorphous microsandwich structure (see FIGS. 6B and 6D) was mainly the brittle fracture and collapse of the top plate, while the pillars underneath retained their original shapes (see FIG. 6F). Debonding between the top plates and the cores was observed in both samples.

(32) During indentation of a microsandwich structure, the core yield load (P.sub.1) can be estimated as

(33) $\begin{array}{cc}{P}_1=1.52{}_c\mathrm{bt}\left(\frac{E_c}{E_f}\frac{c}{t}\right)1/4& \left(3\right)\end{array}$
where the core yield strength (.sub.c, listed in Table 1) is calculated from nanoindentation hardness assuming a Tabor factor of three, the plate thickness t is 11 m, the sample width b is 1 mm, the core thickness c is 27.6 m, and the core-to-end plate elastic modulus ratio is approximately 1. The load for top plate fracture (P.sub.2) and the plastic zone size (2s, as defined in FIG. 4) can be solved numerically from Equations (4) and (5):

(34) $\begin{array}{cc}\frac{3}{2{}_{c}b}{P}_2=\frac{\begin{array}{c}2z^3\left({\sinh }^2{z}^{}+{\sin }^2{z}^{}\right)+\\ 3\left(\sinh z^{}\cosh z^{}-\sin z^{}\cos z^{}\right)\left(2z^2-1\right)-6z\end{array}}{\begin{array}{c}{z}^2\left({\sinh }^2{z}^{}+{\sin }^2{z}^{}\right)+\\ 2z\left(\sinh z^{}\cosh z^{}-\sin z^{}\cos z^{}\right)-\left({\cosh }^2{z}^{}+{\cos }^2{z}^{}\right)\end{array}}& \left(4\right)\end{array}$

(35) and

(36) $\begin{array}{cc}\left(\frac{}{{}_{c}b}\right)P_2=\frac{\frac{{}^2{t}_f^{2_{}}}{3c}+z^2+2zA+B}{z+A}& \left(5\right)\end{array}$

(37) Where

(38) $z=s,z^{}=s^{},=\left(\frac{3E_f}{E_{c^{\mathrm{ct}}}^3}\right)1/4,A=\frac{\sinh z^{}\cosh z^{}-\sin z^{}\cos z^{}}{{\sinh }^2{z}^{}+{\sin }^2{z}^{}}$
and

(39) $B=\frac{{\sinh }^2{z}^{}-{\sin }^2{z}^{}}{{\sinh }^2{z}^{}+{\sin }^2{z}^{}}.$
The calculated results are listed in Table 1. For the crystalline microsandwich structure, the predicted plate fracture load was 23.4 N, which is close to the crack initiation load measured experimentally (22 N). This load was also larger than the core yield load (18.2 N). Thus, extensive core compression occurred prior to plate crack formation. In addition, the predicted plastic zone size (300 m) agrees well with the experimentally measured fracture size (dashed arc in FIG. 6C). For the amorphous microsandwich structure, the predicted core yield load (43.1 N) was much higher plate the applied loads. Thus, no core compression was expected in this case. On the other hand, the brittle fracture of the top plate, in spite of a high plate fracture load (55.6 N), was likely related to the near-zero tensile ductility of amorphous metals, which lacks sufficient intrinsic micromechanisms to mitigate high stress concentrations at crack tips.

(40) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Plastic Core Micro- Elastic Yield zone yield Skin sandwich modulus Poisson's strength size load fracture composition (GPa) ratio (MPa) (m) (N) load (N) Al-9 at. % Mn 81.5 0.301 863 300 18.2 23.4 Al-26 at. % Mn 103 0.318 2,050 300 43.1 55.6

(41) To gain a further understanding of the failure mechanism of the microsandwich structures, finite element analysis (FEA) was performed using Ansys Workbench over an area of 7070 m.sup.2 with pillars separated 10 m apart. The dimensions of the microsandwich structure were taken from experimental measurements. Both Al-9 at. % Mn and Al-26 at. % Mn were assumed to be elastic-perfectly plastic with material properties listed in Table 1. The microsandwich structures were loaded at 0.81 N and subsequently unloaded to reproduce the experimentally measured displacement. The FEA results are shown in FIGS. 7A-7D. Under the same load, the crystalline microsandwich structures were plastically deformed with large displacement (see FIG. 7A), while the amorphous microsandwich structure only experienced elastic deformation (mainly on top plate, as shown in FIG. 7B). In both cases, the maximum equivalent stress and the critical shear strains always appeared near the end plate-core interface, in agreement with the pillar delamination location observed experimentally. The absorption energy per unit volume of the crystalline microsandwich structure was estimated to be approximately 43.2 MJ/m.sup.3, which was much higher than that of conventional aluminum foams under similar strain (e.g., 1-4 MJ/m.sup.3 for ALPORAS).

(42) From the foregoing disclosure, it can be appreciated that the crystallinity of the electrodeposited AlMn alloys of a microstructure can be tuned by controlling [Mn.sup.2+] in the electrolyte. Microsandwich pillars were found to grow along the radial direction of the template pores with tunable wall thickness by the deposition time. Given the flexibility and scalability of the electrodeposition process, the methods described herein present an interesting future direction for designing ultra-lightweight energy adsorbers with open architecture, high strength, and high damage resistance.