Chemical reagents for attaching affinity molecules on surfaces

Abstract

Chemical linkage reagents, methods of making and method of using the same are provided. Chemical linkage reagents according to at least some of the embodiments of the present disclosure may be incorporated into or operatively-linked with affinity molecules for attachment to silicon oxide surfaces to, for example, measure interactions between an affinity molecule and its targeting biomolecules.

Claims

1. A compound of Formula I: ##STR00012## wherein: X is O, CH.sub.2, NH or NCH.sub.3; Y is O, CH.sub.2, NH or NCH.sub.3; P is CH.sub.2 or O; and s and t are each independently 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.

2. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is ##STR00013##

3. A compound of Formula III: ##STR00014## wherein: A is CH.sub.2 or O; and u is any integer ranging from 1 to 36.

4. The compound of claim 3, wherein A is O.

5. The compound of claim 3, wherein u is 12.

6. The compound of claim 3, wherein the compound is a compound of Formula IV: ##STR00015##

7. A composition comprising ##STR00016##

8. A method for preparing a compound according to Formula I, comprising contacting a silatrane to a functionalized acid in the presence of a coupling reagent.

9. The method of claim 8, further comprising an organic solvent.

10. The method of claim 8, where the organic solvent is dichloromethane.

11. The method of claim 8, wherein the silatrane is 1-(3-aminopropyl)silatrane (APS).

12. The method of claim 8, wherein the functionalized acid is 2-(cyclooct-2-yn-1-yloxy)acetic acid.

13. The method of claim 8, wherein the coupling agent is 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC).

14. The method of claim 8, wherein the compound of Formula I is ##STR00017##

15. A method of preparing compound 6a, comprising: a. mixing hexatheylene glycol and ##STR00018## in the presence of a first base to form ##STR00019## and b. mixing divinyl sulfone, ##STR00020## and a second base, to form ##STR00021##

16. The method of claim 15, wherein the first base is sodium hydride.

17. The method of claim 15, wherein the second base is a tert-butoxide.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein the tert-butoxide is potassium tert-butoxide.

19. A method for preparing immobilized affinity molecules attached to a functionalized AFM tip, comprising a step of mixing AFM tip with a compound of claim 1.

20. A method of functionalizing an AFM tip, comprising reacting the silatrane moiety of a compound of claim 1 with silanol on the surface of the AFM tip.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIGS. 1A-D is a series of images illustrating an AFM tip with an affinity molecule tethered at its apex to specifically recognize its protein cognates immobilized on a substrate (A). Using contact mode, a force of the affinity molecule unbinding from its cognate can be determined by retracting the tip along the Z direction (B). By tapping the functionalized tip on the surface along the X to Y direction, topographic and recognition images can be generated (C, D). The affinity molecule may be, without limitation, a ligand, an antibody, and/or an aptamer.

(2) FIG. 2 is an illustration of a strategy to attach a biomolecule to an AFM tip functionalized with cyclooctyne through a heterobifunctional PEG linker by means of two orthogonal click reactions.

(3) FIG. 3 is an illustration of a synthesis of N-(3-(silatranyl)propyl)-2-(cyclooct-2-yn-1-yloxy)acetamide.

(4) FIG. 4 is an illustration of a synthesis of a heterobifuntional PEG with 12 ethylene oxide units.

(5) FIG. 5 is an illustration of a synthesis of a heterobifuntional PEG with 36 ethylene oxide units.

(6) FIG. 6 is an illustration of a scheme to attach a molecular linker to anti-thrombin nucleic acid aptamer through Michael addition of thiol to vinyl sulfone.

(7) FIG. 7 is an illustration of a scheme to attach a molecular linker to a cyclic RGDfC peptide through Michael addition of thiol to vinyl sulfone.

(8) FIG. 8 is a graph depicting AFM force spectra of a thrombin binding aptamer (TBA) interacting with a thrombin (only retraction part shown) in which the solid line was taken from using a TBA functionalized tip against thrombin proteins immobilized on a mica surface, dotted line from after blocking the TBA tip with thrombin.

(9) FIG. 9 is a graph depicting AFM force spectra of RGD interacting .sub.5.sub.1 integrin proteins, in which the solid line was taken from using an RGDfC functionalized tip against .sub.5.sub.1 integrin proteins immobilized on a mica surface; dotted line from after blocking the RGDfC tip with integrin.

(10) FIGS. 10A-C is a series of illustrations of: A. the synthesis of N-(3-(silatranyl)propyl)-2-(cyclooct-2-yn-1-yloxy)acetamide (3); B. the synthesis of 6a, a heterobifuntional PEG linker with 12 ethylene oxide units; C. the synthesis of 6b, a heterobifuntional PEG with 36 ethylene oxide units.

(11) FIG. 11 is an illustration depicting tethering of a molecular linker to an affinity molecule, including the synthesis of two derivatised anti-thrombin nucleic acid aptamers (D-1a and D-1b) using linkers 6a and 6b in a Michael addition.

(12) FIG. 12 is an illustration of an exemplary method to attach an anchor molecule to an ATM tip (functionalization of the silicon oxide surface): (i-a) chemical vapor deposition of APTES; (i-b) coupling of compound 2 to the APTES surface in DCM; (ii) reacting with compound 3 in an aqueous solution. Estimated molecular lengths determined using ChemDraw 3D.

(13) FIG. 13 is an illustration of a process of functionalizing an AFM tip with an affinity molecule, including the steps of: (a) coupling cyclooctyne to an AFM tip through silanization; (b) attaching affinity molecules to an AFM tip through alkyne-azide click reaction (only one regioisomeric product is drawn).

(14) FIGS. 14A-F is a series of graphs depicting various force measurements. (A) Solid line: a force-distance curve of a TBA functionalized tip retracting from a thrombin immobilized mica surface; red dotted line: a force-distance curve taken after blocking the TBA tip with thrombin; (B) A distance histogram of the ruptures taking place with the TBA functionalized tip retracting from the surface; (C) A distance histogram of the ruptures taking place after blocking the TBA tip with thrombin; (D) Solid line: a force-distance curve of a RGDfC functionalized tip retracting from a .sub.5.sub.1 integrin immobilized mica surface; dotted line: a force-distance curve taken after blocking the RGDfC tip with integrin; (E) A distance histogram of the ruptures taking place with the RGD functionalized tip retracting from the surface; (F) A distance histogram of the ruptures taking place after blocking the RGD tip with integrin.

(15) FIGS. 15A-B is a pair of graphs depicting (A) A force histogram of TBA unbinding from thrombin immobilized on the mica surface; (B) A force histogram of RGD unbinding from integrin immobilized on the mica surface.

(16) FIG. 16 is a series of recognition images depicting (A) Topographic image of thrombin proteins on mica; (B) Corresponding recognition image of A; (C) a recognition image taken after using a thrombin solution to block the TBA tip; (D) Topographic of integrin proteins on mica; (E) Corresponding recognition imaging of D; (F) a recognition image taken after using a integrin solution to block the RGD tip; (the circles in the images indicate those protein molecules that were recognized whereas the square indicates the protein that was not recognized.

(17) FIGS. 17A-B is a pair of images depicting (A) Fluorescence image of Surface A due to possible click reaction (cyclooctyne-azide); (B) fluorescence image of Surface B, a negative control.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(18) The human proteome consists of millions of proteins, many of which occur in minute concentrations below limits of detection (LOD) of current technologies such as ELISA, mass spectrometry and protein microarrays. Thus, there has been a long-felt and until the present disclosure, unmet need for an effective tool to detect those disease relevant protein biomarkers present in low abundance. AFM has been envisioned as a mean of nanodiagnostics due to its single molecule sensitivity. In combination with irreversible binding, AFM can reach a concentration sensitivity limit of 10.sup.17 M. AFM has been exploited in the analysis of DNA, proteins and cells Moreover, AFM is useful for molecular analysis because it demonstrates chemical sensibility as well. As illustrated in FIG. 1, AFM is capable of seeing and counting target molecules when its tip is equipped with an affinity molecule. Affinity molecules may include, but are not limited to, proteins, DNA, peptides, drug molecules, ligands, receptors, carbohydrates, and metal complexes. For example, the interactions between antibody and antigen, ligand and receptor, DNA probe and target can be determined and characterized at a single molecule level by AFM force measurements, termed as Molecular Recognition Force Spectroscopy (MRFS). Also, AFM can probe individual biomolecules immobilized on a surface with an affinity molecule tethered to its tip, known as Recognition Imaging (RI). Both MRFS and RI may be used for identification and detection of protein biomarkers in a clinical setting, however, this combination is optimal when these techniques are robust because they are accompanied with well-designed chemistry and bioassays. Automated AFM-based force spectroscopy may facilitate the instrument operation. As demonstrated in this disclosure, facile attachment chemistry that works in aqueous solutions without any of organic solvents has been adapted to operate in biological laboratories and clinics.

(19) A molecular linker may be employed to attach affinity molecules to AFM tips, which provides an advantage in distinguishing between specific and nonspecific interactions. Heterobifunctional poly[ethylene glycol] (PEG) may be used as a molecular linker When using heterobifunctional PEG as a molecular linker, the attachment generally follows a three-step workflow that begins with functionalizing an AFM tip with chemically reactive groups, and then attaches the PEG linker to the AFM tip, followed by reacting with an affinity reagent to finish the process.

(20) (3-Arninopropyl)triethoxysilane (APTES) may be a reagent for amination of silicon tips, but it is notoriously problematic for forming uniform monolayers, especially when the reaction is carried out in a liquid phase. Chemical vapor deposition of APTES may be used to facilitate formation of uniform monolayers, for example, when the reaction is carried out in a liquid phase. This chemical vapor disposition may be facilitated by the use of an automated apparatus because, at least in part, the deposition chamber should be treated with argon to remove any trace amount of moisture. Preferably. APTES may be freshly redistilled before use.

(21) The reaction of amine with NHS (N-Hydroxysuccinimide) ester may be used for tethering carboxylated PEG linkers to AFM tips. NHS ester is sensitive to moisture and may rapidly hydrolyze under basic conditions (above pH 8). In aqueous solutions, the pH, temperature, and reaction time may be optimized to minimize moisture and hydrolysis.

(22) The disclosure provides a scheme for attaching affinity molecules to AFM tips based on click chemistry. Click chemistry may be characterized as a cyclization reaction of an alkyne and azide functionality (FIG. 2) but can also be a Michael addition of a vinyl sulfone with a nucleophile (e.g. amine or thiol moiety).

(23) In certain embodiments of the disclosure, two orthogonal catalyst-free click reactions are performed for the attachment of affinity molecules to silicon tips. First, a molecular anchor may be synthesized by coupling cyclooctyne to silatrane for the introduction of an alkyne function to the silicon tip. The silatrane moiety reacts with silanol on silicon surfaces to form a monolayer in aqueous solution. Silatrane may be less reactive than alkoxysilanes and resistant to polymerization at a neutral pH. 1-(3-aminopropyl)silatrane (APS) may be used as a substitute of APTES in functionalizing AFM tips and mica surfaces. The ring strained cyclooctyne promotes the alkyne-azide reaction without any copper catalyst. An azido-PEG-vinyl sulfone linker may be prepared for click attachment.

(24) In certain embodiments of the disclosure, thiolated oligonucleotide aptamers and affinity peptides may be attached to AFM tips. The reaction of vinyl sulfone with thiol in aqueous solution forms another category of click chemistry in bioconjugation, which may be used for the labeling of proteins and proteomes. The first click involves using the reaction of vinyl sulfone with thiol in aqueous solution to connect the thiolated affinity molecule to the linker as illustrated in, for example, in FIG. 2. The second click (azide to alkyne) may finish the process of the attachment. These two click reactions are orthogonal meaning that cross talk between these reactions is minimized.

(25) The disclosure provides a scheme to attach affinity molecules to AFM tips for force spectroscopy and recognition imaging, based on two orthogonal click chemistries: catalyst free azide-alkyne cycloaddition and thiol-vinyl sulfone Michael addition. Reactions of the disclosure can be carried out in aqueous solutions without the use of organic solvents. Two reagents were synthesized for implementation in the schemes and reactions of the disclosure. One reagent is an APS derivative of cyclooctyne for introduction of a chemically reactive group to AFM tips. The silatrane chemistry allows for the formation of a uniform monolayer in aqueous solution, which is particularly useful when the chemical is not volatile and the vapor deposition would not work. The operation is more convenient compared to the vapor deposition technique and the resulting surface is highly reproducible. Another reagent is a heterobifunctional linker azido-PEG-vinyl sulfone. This heterobifunctional linker works for both AFM based force measurement and recognition imaging. The attachment process is easy to follow since there are no special requirements for the chemical reactions. With an increasing number of affinity oligonucleotides and peptides, these synthetic reagents may be used to detect more and more proteins. Incorporating thiol to peptides and oligonucleotides may be accomplished by custom synthesis, and, therefore, the attachment method of the disclosure is applicable to a broad range of affinity molecules.

EXAMPLES

Example 1: General Procedures

(26) Chemicals were purchased from commercial suppliers (Sigma-Aldrich, Fluka, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Alfa Aesar). Anhydrous organic solvents were Sure/Seal from Aldrich. Thrombin aptamers were custom synthesized by IDT (Integrated DNA Technologies) and human a thrombin was purchased from Abeam, Azido-dPEG 36-alcohol was purchased from Quanta Biodesign, human 51 integrin from YO Proteins AB (Sweden), cylco(RGDfK) and cyclo(RGDfC) from Peptides international. All the synthetic reactions were carried out under nitrogen atmosphere. Thin layer chromatography (TLC) was used to monitor progress of organic reactions. An automated flash chromatography system (CombiFlash Rf, Teledyne Isco, Inc.) was used to separate the organic compounds with silica gel columns. FTIR data were collected using Thermo Scientific Nicole 6700 FT-IR spectrometer. The HPLC purification was carried out in Agilent 1100 series equipped with a UV detector and a fraction collector. Proton NMR(.sup.1H) spectra were recorded on a Varian 400 MHz instrument. .sup.1H chemical shifts were referenced relative to the residual solvent peak (such as CDCl.sub.3: .sub.H=7.24 ppm). MALDI-TOF analysis was performed on Voyager-DE STR instrument. Water was from Millipore's Milli-Q water purification system with a real time monitor of total of carbon (TOC) connected to a BioPak Polisher to remove biological contaminates. TOC level is strictly maintained below 5 ppb and resistivity at 18.2 Mcm.

Example 2: Synthesis of N-(3-(silatranyl)propyl)-2-(cyclooct-2-yn-1-yloxy)acetamide (3)

(27) EDC (115 mg, 0.6 mmol) was added to a solution of 2-(cyclooct-2-yn-1-yloxy)acetic acid (100 mg, 0.5 mmol) in anhydrous dichloromethane (2 mL), and the solution was stirred for 30 mins, followed by the addition of APS (140 mg, 0.6 mmol). After 3 hours, the reaction was stopped by rotary evaporation. The crude product was purified by flash chromatography in a silica gel column using a gradient of methanol (0-5% over 3 h) in dichloromethane to give a white solid (130 mg, 60%). .sup.1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl.sub.3): =0.4-0.44 (m, 2H), 1.15-2.25 (m, 10H), 1.58-1.64 (m, 2H), 2.79 (t, 6H, J=6 Hz), 3.24 (m, 2H), 3.74 (t, 6H, J=6 Hz), 3.81 (d, 1H, J=15.2 Hz), 4.0 (d, 1H, J=15.2 Hz), 4.2 (t, 1H), 6.65 (s, 1H, broad); .sup.13C NMR (50 MHz, CDCl.sub.3): =13.2, 20.6, 24.9, 26.2, 29.6, 34.2, 41.8, 42.1, 51.1, 57.7, 68.5, 73.0, 91.5, 101.3, 169.1. HRMS (FAB): r/z (M+H) calculated for C.sub.19H.sub.32+1N.sub.2O.sub.5Si: 397.2158. found: 397.2159. With respect to nomenclature, to avoid excessive use of long series of numbers, a mathematical shorthand for expressing arithmentic progressions is used to denote the positions of oxygen atoms in the elongated PEG chains, as proposed by Loiseau et al. (J. Org. Chem., 2004, 69, 639-647).

Example 3: Synthesis of 35-azido-3n333-undecaoxapentatriacontan-1-ol (5)

(28) Sodium hydride (0.71 g, 29.5 mmol) was added to a solution of hexaethylene glycol (6.42 g, 22.7 mmol) in anhydrous THF (40 mL) with stirring at 0 C. to which a solution of compound 4 (3.5 g, 7.5 mmol) in anhydrous THF (20 mL) was added after 1 h. The mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature, stirred for another 15 hours. The reaction was stopped by dropwise adding methanol (5 mL). After removing the solvent, the crude product was purified by flash chromatography in a silica gel column using a gradient of methanol (0-5% over 4 h) in dicholoromethane. Compound 5 was obtained as a colorless liquid (3.1 g, 71%). .sup.1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl.sub.3): =2.7 (s, 1H, broad), 3.34 (t, 2H, J=4.8 Hz), 3.55-3.69 (m, 46H); HRMS (FAB): m/z (M+H) calculated for C.sub.24H.sub.49+1N.sub.3O.sub.12: 572.3395. found: 572.3391.

Example 4: Synthesis of 1-Azido-35-(2-(vinylsulfonyl)ethoxy)-3n333-undecaoxapentatriacontane (6a)

(29) To a solution of 5 (100 mg, 0.18 mmol) in anhydrous THF (2 mL), divinyl sulfone (180 L, 1.8 mmol) was added with stirring, followed by the addition of potassium t-butoxide (23 mg, 0.2 mmol). The reaction was monitored by thin layer chromatography (TLC). Within one hour, the starting material was consumed and a less polar spot observed on the TLC plate. The reaction mixture was filtered, concentrated, and purified by flash chromatography in a silica gel column using 0-4% gradient (over 4 hours) of methanol in dicholoromethane to furnish compound 6a as a colorless liquid (77 mg, 64%). .sup.1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl.sub.3): =3.24 (t, 2H, J=5.2 Hz), 3.36 (t, 2H, J=5.2 Hz), 3.6-3.87 (in, 46H), 3.88 (t, 2H, J=5.2 Hz), 6.06 (d, 1H, J=9.6 Hz), 6.37 (d, 1H, J=16.8 Hz), 6.8 (dd, 1H, J=16.8 Hz and 10 Hz); .sup.13C NMR (50 MHz, CDCl.sub.3): characteristic peaks for PEG were observed. Two characteristic peaks for carbon atoms of vinyl sulfone was observed at =126.68, 137.99; HRMS (FAB): m/z (M+H) calculated for C.sub.28H.sub.55+1N.sub.3O.sub.12S: 690.3483. found: 690.3469.

Example 5: Synthesis of 1-Azido-35-(2-(vinylsulfonyl)ethoxy)-3n1053-pentatricontaoxaheptahectane (6b)

(30) To a solution of Azido-dPEG 36-alcohol (50 mg, 0.03 mmol) in anhydrous THF (I mL), divinyl sulfone (36 mg, 0.3 mmol) was added with stirring, followed by the addition of potassium t-butoxide (4 mg, 0.035 mmol). The reaction was monitored by thin layer chromatography (TLC). Within one hour, the starting material was consumed and a less polar spot observed on the TLC plate. The reaction mixture was filtered, concentrated, and purified by flash chromatography in a silica gel column using 0-4% gradient of methanol in dicholoromethane. The product 6b was separated as a white solid (33 mg, 61%). .sup.1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl.sub.3): =3.26 (t, 2H, J=5.6 Hz), 3.39 (t, 2H, J=5.6 Hz), 3.5-3.7 (m, 142H), 3.9 (t, 2H, J=5.6 Hz), 6.09 (d, 1H, J=10 Hz), 6.39 (d, 1H, J=16.4 Hz), 6.82 (dd, 1H, J=10 Hz and 16.4 Hz); .sup.13C NMR (50 MHz, CDCl.sub.3): characteristic peaks for PEG were observed. Two characteristic peaks for carbon atoms of vinyl sulfone was observed at =128.7, 137.9; MALDI MS: m/z (MH+Na) calculated for C.sub.76H.sub.151-1N.sub.3O.sub.38SNa: 1769.0651. found: 1769.2117.

Example 6: Reactions of DNA Aptamers with Molecular Linkers

(31) A solution (20 L, 10 mM) of Thrombin-binding DNA aptamer 5-GGTTGGTGTGGTTGG with a disulfide linker at 3-end (IDT code: 3ThioMC3-D) in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 8.0) was treated with TCEP (5 L, 170 mM in 0.1 M TEAA buffer, pH 7.0). After 3 h, the reaction mixture was passed through a size-exclusion G-25 column (GE Healthcare) to remove small thiol molecules. The G-25 column was prepared following the protocol described by the manufacturers. First, the storage buffer was removed by centrifugation (1 min, 735g). Then the column was rehydrated again with double distilled water, followed by centrifugation (1 min, 735g). Finally, the reaction mixture was added to the column, followed by centrifugation (2 min, 735g). The eluted solution containing thiol-functionalized aptamers (25 L) was then added to a solution of PEG linker 6a in 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH 8.0 (20 L, 50 mM). The reaction was finished in three hours, monitored by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The product D-1a was purified using reverse phase HPLC with a Zorbax Eclipse Plus C18 column (4.6150 mm, particle size 5 m) with a gradient of 0% to 70% over a period of 25 mins (solvent A: a 0.1 M TEAA buffer, pH 7.0; solvent B: acetonitrile). The product has retention time of 17.4 min (with 95% conversion). MALDI-TOF Mass: m/z (M+H) calculated for D-1a: 5570.51. found: 5571.63. After collecting the product using HPLC, the fraction was lyophilized to get the pure product.

(32) D-1b was synthesized in the same way and purified by HPLC with retention time of 17.1 min (with conversion 89%/). MALDI-MS: m/z (M+H) calculated for D-1b: 6649.23. found: 6650.37. After HPLC purification, the collected fraction was lyophilized.

Example 7: Reaction of Cyclo-RGD with Molecular Linkers (P-1b)

(33) A solution of cyclo(RGDfC) (4 mM, 10 L) in a phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 8.0) is mixed with 6b (4 mM, 10 L) dissolved in phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 8.0). The reaction was stirred for three hours at room temperature, monitored by MALDI mass spectrometry for its completion. The conversion was 99.5%, determined by HPLC analysis. The product was purified by HPLC using a Zorbax Eclipse Plus C18 column (4.6150 mm, particle size 5 m) under a gradient of 20% to 70% over a period of 25 mins (Solvent A: 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid in de-ionized water; Solvent B: 0.09% trifluoroacetic acid in 80:20 acetonitrile: De-ionized Water; injection volume: 14 L), monitored with a UV detector at a wavelength of 230 nm. The conjugate P-1b was eluted out at retention time of 17 min. MALDI-MS: m/z (M+H) calculated for P-1b: 2325.72. found: 2325.81.

(34) P-1a was prepared in the same way as P-1b, purified by RP-HPLC, and characterized by MALDI-MS. MALDI-MS: m/z (M+H) calculated for P-1a: 1268.57. found: 1268.49. The conversion of peptide to its conjugate was quantitative. Both P-1a and P-1b fractions were lyophilized after HPLC purification.

Example 8: Functionalization of Silicon Substrates

(35) Reactions i-a and i-b in FIG. 12:

(36) A silicon substrate (11 cm2) was cleaned thoroughly with ethanol, dried by nitrogen, and then treated with oxygen plasma for two minutes using Harrick Plasma Cleaner (medium power). APTES was deposited on the substrate using a vapor deposition method (H. Wang, et al. Biophys. J., 2002, 83, 3619-3625). The aminated substrate was immersed in a solution of compound 2 (1 mg/mL). NHS/EDC (1 mg each) and triethyl amine (5 L) in dry dicholoromethane. After three hours, the substrates were taken out and rinsed with dry dichloromethane (twice) followed by ethanol (twice) and dried with argon.

(37) Reaction ii in FIG. 12:

(38) A silicon substrate (11 cm2) was cleaned as described with respect to reactions 1-a nd 1-b, and then immersed in an aq. solution of silatrane derivative 3 (50 mM). After one hour, the substrates were taken out and rinsed five times with deionized water and dried with argon.

Example 9: Characterization of Monolayers

(39) Contact angles were measured using Kruss EasyDrop. For the measurement, 2 L of water droplets were deposited on different positions of a substrate placed on the sample plate and contact angles were measured in the video window of manufacturer's DSA software. Thicknesses of the monolayers were measured using Gaertner Scientific Corporation ellipsometer. For the thickness calculation, the refractive indices of both silicon oxide layers and organic layers were assumed to be 1.46 (T. Nguyen et al. J. Adhesion, 1995, 48, 169-194). Five different arbitrary positions on the substrate were chosen and the average value was taken. The thickness of the monolayer was determined by subtracting the silicon oxide thickness from the measured one.

Example 10: Reaction of Fluorescent Dye Labeled Azido-TBA on a Monolayer

(40) Oligonucleotide 5-GGTTGGTGTGGTTGG with fluorescent tag (6-Carboxyfluorescein) at 5-end and disulphide linker at 3-end (IDT code: 3ThioMC3-D) was functionalized with an azide group exactly in the same way as for D-1a using linker 6a. MALDI-MS: m/z (M+H) calculated for azide functionalized fluorescent aptamer: 6101.04. found: 6102.17. The azide functionalized fluorescent aptamer was added to the cyclooctyne functionalized surface (FIG. 17A); meanwhile, another cyclooctyne functionalized surface (FIG. 17B) was treated with the fluorescent aptamer containing disulfide at the 3-end. After one hour, both of the surfaces were washed thoroughly using phosphate buffer (0.1 M, pH 7.4). Fluorescence images were taken using a Zeiss LSM 510 Meta confocal microscope. As shown in FIGS. 17A-17B, the fluorescence intensity on surface A was four times time stronger than that on surface B.

Example 11: Synthesis in FIG. 3

(41) The molecular anchor (3) was synthesized simply by reacting APS (1) with 2-(cyclooct-2-yn-1-yloxy)acetic acid (2) in the presence of 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (EDC, FIG. 10). The desired product was separated as a white solid by silica gel chromatography with a yield of 60%. The molecular linker for RI (6a, FIG. 4) was synthesized starting from hexaethylene glycol. First, azido-(CH.sub.2CH.sub.2O).sub.6-Ts (4, Ts=tosyl) was synthesized in a multi-gram scale (Loiseau, F. A. et al. J. Org. Chem. 2004, 69, 639-647; Svedhem, S.; et al. J. Org. Chem. 2001, 66, 4494-4503). The azido-(CH.sub.2CH.sub.2O).sub.12OH (5) was prepared in a 71% yield by reacting 4 with sodium hexaethylene glycoxide (3 times excess) that was generated in situ by treating hexaethylene glycol with sodium hydride. In presence of potassium t-butoxide, 5 reacted with divinyl sulfone to furnish the desired product 6a in a yield of 64%. In the same manner, the linker azido-(CH.sub.2CH.sub.2O).sub.36-vinyl sulfone (6b) was synthesized by reacting azido-dPEGalcohol with divinyl sulfone in a yield close to that of 6a (FIG. 5). These two products were characterized with FTIR, NMR, and mass spectroscopy. Although vinyl sulfones may react with azides in presence of CuSO.sub.4 and sodium ascorbate, it was determined by NMR monitoring that 6a and 6b were stable both in its pure form and in chloroform at room temperature at least for two days. They have been stored at 78 C. already for one year and no degradation has been observed. Maleimide is another reactive group that is functionally similar to vinyl sulfone in bioconjugation, but it may be less amenable to coexisting with azide because a [3+2]cycloaddition could spontaneously take place between these two functions in some circumstances. In addition, maleimide can undergo the thiol exchanges and ring hydrolysis (above pH 8), which may complicate outcomes of the conjugating reaction. Thus, vinyl sulfone was chosen as a Michael addition receptor of thiols in this attachment chemistry.

Example 12: Synthesis in FIGS. 6 and 7

(42) Two affinity molecules, thrombin-binding DNA aptamer (TBA) and cyclic RGDfC peptide containing a RGD motif that binds to integrin receptors such as 51, were chosen to study the attachment chemistry. First, the disulfide at the 3-end of the DNA aptamer from custom synthesis was reduced to thiol by tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) treatment, which then reacted with linker 6a and 6b at pH 8.0 in phosphate buffered aqueous solutions, respectively. Through the Michael addition of thiol to vinyl sulfone (FIG. 6), the DNA aptamer was converted to azido-PEGylated products D-1a with a 95% yield and D-1b with a 89% yield, based on HPLC analysis. The disulfide DNA was used as a negative control and it did not react with 6a and 6b, indicating that the vinyl sulfone is specific to thiol under the current conditions. The reaction between the vinyl sulfone and the thiolated DNA at pH 7-7.5 was very slow and did not complete even after one day. The thiol reaction is driven by the thiolate that is a much stronger nucleophile than its conjugate acid thiol. Since the alkyithiol is fairly acidic with pKa of about 10 to 11, the increase of pH may increase existence of the thiolate anion, resulting in an increased reaction rate. Under the similar conditions, the thiolated RGDfC was converted to products P-1a and P-1b quantitatively (FIG. 7). We did not observe side products by MALDI mass spectrometer and reverse phase HPLC analysis. In addition, time differences between reacting with 6a and 6b were not observed. These reactions were completed within three hours when starting with DNA or peptides in a range of millimolar concentrations.

(43) Vinyl sulfone also reacts with alkyl amines under basic conditions. In these experiments, the amine functionalized aptamer and the cyclic RGDfK reacted with both 6a and 6b in phosphate buffered solutions at pH 8.8, but the reactions were very slow and not completed even after ten hours. With a well-tuned pH value, thus, the vinyl sulfone can specifically react with thiol in the presence of amino function.

Example 13: Synthesis in FIGS. 12 and 13

(44) To gain insight into the attachment chemistry of the disclosure, a pilot study was conducted on planar thermally oxidized silicon substrates, the surface of which may have a chemical reactivity similar to that of silicon AFM tips. It was found that compound 3 formed a monolayer with its physical properties close to those of the monolayer generated by reacting cyclooctynyloxy-acetic acid 2 with the APTES functionalized silicon substrate. As illustrated in FIG. 12, when APTES was deposited on a silicon oxide surface by chemical vapor deposition (route i-a), it changed the contact angle of water on the surface from 0 to 46 (Table 1). The measured thickness of the organic layer was about 7.3 , slightly larger than the calculated distance from nitrogen to oxygen of APTES, indicating formation of a monolayer. Treating the APTES monolayer with compound 2 in the presence of EDC increased the contact angle to 76 and thickness to 15.9 , close to the expected value. When the same silicon substrates were treated directly with an aqueous solution of compound 3 (route ii in FIG. 12), the measured contact angle and thickness were 78 and 15.3 , respectively. This indicates that compound 3 may form a monolayer with a structure as suggested in S-3. In turn, the cyclooctyne surface was generated with a solution of fluorescent TBA containing an azide at its 3-end and it became highly fluorescent after incubation for one hour, whereas the same surface treated with the fluorescent aptamer containing disulfide at the 3-end (negative control) had negligible fluorescence (see FIG. 17). It has been confirmed that the azide functionalized TBA and cyclo-peptides reacted with the cyclooctyne effectively in the liquid phase (monitored by MALDI mass) before applying them to substrates or tips.

(45) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Physical properties of surfaces derivatized with chemical functions Contact Angle () Thickness () S-2 (Route i-a) 45.8 0.9 7.3 0.3 S-3 (Route i-b) 75.8 0.8 15.9 0.5 S-3 (Route ii) 77.9 1.2 15.3 0.3

(46) A two-step protocol for the attachment was developed. As illustrated in FIG. 16, a bare AFM tip is first functionalized with the molecular anchor 3 in aqueous solution, followed by reacting with the azide functionalized affinity molecules under physiological conditions. It is worth noting that all of the reactions were carried out in aqueous solutions without using any of organic solvents (such as halogenated chloroform). The reaction between cyclooctyne and azide may yield two regioisomeric triazoles. Apparent regioisomeric effects on the following AFM measurements have not been observed. The attachment chemistry works well on two different AFM tip materials: SiN tipped probes (from Olympus and Bruker) and silicon probes (from NanoWorld). Before the chemical functionalization, these tips were cleaned sequentially with UV-ozone and oxygen plasma to increase the silanol density on the silicon surface for the silanization reaction.

Example 14: Validation of Attachment Chemistry Using Force Measurement

(47) The attachment chemistry was validated using the functionalized SiN tips to measure forces of affinity molecules unbinding from their respective protein cognates. The protein sample was immobilized on APS-modified mica substrate using glutaraldehyde as a crosslinker (for procedure, see Wang, et al. Biophys. J. 2002, 83, 3619-3625). Initially, about 1000 force-distance curves were collected from each of measurement experiments with either D-1b against thrombin or P-1b against integrin .sub.5.sub.1. The solid lines in Panel A and D of FIG. 14 show exemplary retracting force-distance curves used for data analysis, which accounts for more than one fourth of the collections. The selection was based on an assumption that a rupture directly related to unbinding of an affinity molecule from its protein cognate is likely to take place around the distance corresponding to the stretched length of a PEG linker (13.5 nm in this instance). A distance histogram was created from each data set (Panel B and E of FIG. 14). They showed that the unbinding events were mainly distributed in the regions of 2-7 nm and 13-16 nm. Ratios of the rupture events between these two regions were 1:1.2 for the TBA tip against the thrombin protein and 1:1.3 for the RGD tip against the integrin protein respectively. After finishing the initial measurements, a thrombin or integrin solution was injected to the flow cell accordingly, and then another set of force curves were collected to determine the specificity of unbinding (see, for example, Lee, et al. Micron 2007, 38, 446-461). A disappearance of the specific unbinding ruptures from the force-distance curves was anticipated because the interactions of the affinity molecule tethered to the tip with its cognates on the substrate were blocked by protein from the solution. In fact, force-distance curves were obtained appearing like the dotted lines in Panel A and D of FIG. 14. Overall, the ruptures around the longer distances were reduced to a great extent and those around the shorter distances remained (Panel C and F of FIG. 14) in comparison with those prior to blocking. The rupture ratios between these two regions were changed to 12.3:1 for the TBA tip against the thrombin modified surface and 12:1 for the RGD tip against the integrin modified surface. To best interpret these results, the ruptures occurring at the distance around 13.5 nm were assigned as specific unbinding of the affinity molecule from its protein cognates and those at shorter distances as non-specific unbinding in Panel B and E of FIG. 17.

(48) In total, there were 26.5% of force-distance curves containing the specific ruptures of TBA unbinding from thrombin in those initial ones. They were plotted as a force histogram and fitted into a Gaussian function, yielding a curve with the peak at 80 piconewton (pN) (Panel A of FIG. 15). Similarly, 29.4% of the initial force-distance curves showed the specific unbinding ruptures for the RGD-integrin interactions, which results in a Gaussian curve with the peak at 48 pN (Panel B of FIG. 15).

(49) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Statistical data of functionalized AFM tips interacting with varied surfaces based on force-distance curves. Unbinding On the tip On the substrate events (%)* Unbinding force (pN) TBA thrombin 26.5 80.2 34.5 TBA (blocked) thrombin 7.0 15.6 12.9 TBA BSA 6.1 14.4 9.4 TBA bare mica 3.0 6.9 3.8 RGD integrin 29.4 48.0 27.8 RGD (blocked) integrin 6.7 11.1 10.7 RGD BSA 5.6 15.3 14.4 RGD bare mica 2.5 6.7 4.0 *The percentage of ruptures taking place around the specific unbinding distance over total collected force curves.

(50) Non-specific interactions between functionalized AFM tips with both bare and bovine serum albumin (BSA) immobilized mica substrates were examined. The results are given in Table 2. The functionalized AFM tips generally formed featureless force-distance curves on these surfaces. Only 6.1% of collected curves show unbinding ruptures from the nonspecific TBA-BSA interaction (median force 14.4 pN) and 5.6% from the nonspecific RGD-BSA interaction (median force 15.3 pN) around the expected distance, respectively. The functionalized tips interacted with the bare mica surfaces with even lower statistics and smaller unbinding forces. The non-specific unbinding forces that were measured were significantly smaller than those specific ones. These data demonstrate that the attachment chemistry of the disclosure has effectively tethered affinity molecules to AFM tips as well as maintained their specificity.

Example 15: Recognition Imaging (RI)

(51) The AFM based recognition imaging is an effective tool for clinical diagnostics. The attachment and click chemistry of the disclosure works well in combination with the RI technique. Prior to this disclosure, the recognition imaging of clinically relevant proteins thrombin and integrin had not been reported. It has been demonstrated that a PEG linker with 12 units of ethyleneoxy (CH.sub.2CH.sub.2O) long can effectively produce quality recognition images. Linker 6a was tailored for RI. Its conjugate D-1a or P-1a was attached to Ni-coated MacMode tips (from Nanoworld) following the same protocol above mentioned. The protein samples (thrombin or 51 integrin) were deposited on mica using the same glutaraldehyde chemistry. However, the optimal protein concentration (50 pg/L in 1PBS buffer, pH 7.4) for the RI was 20 times lower than that for the force measurements, which was pre-determined by imaging the surface with bare AFM tips in the air mode, ensuring that the protein molecules were well distributed in a predefined area. For one measurement, only 2-3 L of protein sample is needed in the current setup. Thus, a few femtomoles of proteins can readily be detected by the AFM based recognition imaging. FIG. 16 shows the images obtained from these RI experiments. RI simultaneously produces both topographic and recognition images. Each bright round spot in the topographic image represents a protein molecule (thrombin in Panel A and integrin in panel D of FIG. 16). This representation can be verified by examining the recognition images (Panel B and E of FIG. 16) where the dark spots represent recognition of those bright ones within the corresponding locations in the topographic image as expected protein molecules. About 77% recognition of thrombin and 84% recognition of integrin was obtained by comparison between their topography and recognition images. The recognition was further confirmed by the same blocking experiments as applied in the force measurements. After injecting a protein (thrombin or integrin) solution to the flow cell, most of the dark spots disappeared from the recognition images (Panel C and F of FIG. 16). These experiments demonstrate that the attachment chemistry of the disclosure is suitable for RI as well.

Example 16: Exemplary Procedure for Attaching an Affinity Molecule to an AFM Tip

(52) AFM tips (a batch of four or five) were first immersed in ethanol for five minutes, dried with ultrapure argon, and then treated with ultraviolet-ozone in a Boekel UV cleaner for 15 minutes and oxygen plasma (medium power) in a Harrick Plasma Cleaner for 2 minutes. These tips were immediately placed in a petri dish, to which an aqueous solution of compound 3 (50 mM) was added. After one hour, the tips were taken out, rinsed with water thrice, and dried gently with nitrogen.

(53) In a humid surrounding, the cyclooctyne functionalized tips were placed in a petri dish and a solution of D-1a (50 M, 20 l) in 1PBS buffer (pH 7.4) was added to cover all the tips, incubated at room temperature for one hour, and then the tips were rinsed thrice with the same buffer and used immediately. Other conjugates including D-1b, P-1a, and P-1b were also attached to the AFM tips under the exactly same conditions.

Example 17: Immobilization of Proteins on Mica Substrates

(54) Freshly cleaved mica sheets (1.52.0 cm.sup.2) were immersed in an aqueous solution of APS (50 mM). After one hour, the mica sheets were taken out and rinsed thoroughly with water thrice. In a humid surrounding, an aqueous solution of glutaraldehyde (1 mM, 200 L) was added on the APS mica sheet. After 10 minutes, the mica substrates were rinsed with water thrice, and then a solution of protein in a 1PBS buffer (3 L) was placed on it, incubated for one hour, and rinsed with the 1PBS buffer thrice. In general, protein concentrations were made around 10 ng/L for force measurements and 0.05 ng/L for recognition imaging. It should be noted that integrin we used was a lyophilized product from a solution containing: 0.26 mg/ml 51, 20 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 2 mM MgCl2, 0.2% Triton X-100, which was reconstituted by dissolving it in 1PBS buffer.

Example 18: AFM Experimental Setup

(55) An Agilent AFM 5500 (with inverted light microscope) system was used for the AFM experiments. Both force measurement and recognition imaging were carried out in 1PBS buffer (pH 7.4). For force measurements, Veeco probes (Bicker, SiN tips) were used, having a force constant 0.05 N/m and a gold back coating, and the loading rate was 25000 pN/s.

(56) For Recognition Imaging, magnetic cantilevers were used in AC (MAC) mode operation. Tips from NanoWorld were made of silicon and had a length of 125 m, width 35 m and thickness 800 nm with force constant value of 0.14 N/m. Backsides of these tips were coated with 1 nm Ti/40 nm Ni. They have a remarkably low spread in force constant (a few percentage) and give stable MacMode operation in even quite reactive solution. Also, Olympus tips (silicon nitride, a force constant 0.08 N/m) were functionalized and used for few recognition experiments. Each of images was taken by scanning a 11 m2 area.

(57) For a blocking experiment, a protein solution (50 L, 0.01 ng/L in 1PBS buffer, pH 7.4) was added to the flow cell, and the surface was imaged again. In general, a 15-20 minute waiting time is needed to effectively block the tip. The blocking for force measurements proceeded in the same way.

Example 19: Data Analysis

(58) Topography images, recognition images and force spectra were recorded using Agilent PicoView software. The force-distance curves were analyzed in PicoView, and the corresponding unbinding forces were plotted in the form of histograms and fitted into the Gaussian function using MathWorks-MATLAB.

Other Embodiments

(59) The patent and scientific literature (e.g., see below) referred to herein establishes the knowledge that is available to those with skill in the art. All United States patents and published or unpublished United States patent applications cited herein are incorporated by reference. All published foreign patents and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference. All other published references, documents, Manuscripts and scientific literature cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference.

(60) While at least some embodiments have been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended merely to illustrate some embodiments of the disclosure and not limit the scope of any inventions disclosed herein. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of any and all inventions supported by the present disclosure.

REFERENCES

(61) Deshpande, P. S. White. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2012, 12, 645-659 (2012). F. S. Ong, K. Das, J. Wang, H. Vakil. J. Z. Kuo, W.-L. B, Blackwell, S. W. Lim, M. O. Goodarzi. K. E. Bernstein, J. I. Rotter, W. W. Grody, Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2012, 12, 593-602. S. Ogino, C. S. Fuchs, E. Giovannucci, Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2012, 12, 621-628. Zieba, K. Grannas, O. Soderberg, M. Gullberg, M. Nilsson, U. Landegren, New biotechnology 2012, 29, 634-640. D. A. Giljohann, C. A. Mirkin, Nature 2009, 462, 461-464. I. Archakov. Y. D. Ivanov, A. V. Lisitsa, V. G. Zgoda, Proteomics 2007, 7, 4-9. H. Zhang, Q. Zhao, X. F. Li, X. C. Le, The Analyst 2007, 132, 724-737. M. Hu, J. Yan, Y. He, H. Lu, L. Weng, S. Song, C. Fan, L. Wang, ACS nano 2010, 4, 488-494. Q. Zhang, B. Zhao, J. Yan, S. Song, R. Min, C. Fan, Anal Chem 2011, 83, 9191-9196. H. Li, W. Qiang, M. Vuki, D. Xu, H. Y. Chen, Anal Chem 2011, 83, 8945-8952; (e) J. He, D. L. Evers, T. J. O'Leary, J. T. Mason, Journal of nanobiotechnology 2012, 10, 26. J. Foote, H. N. Eisent, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92, 1254-1256. S. K. Grebe, R. J. Singh, Clin Biochem Rev 2011, 32, 5-31. Ruppen-Canas, P. P. Lopez-Casas, F. Garcia, P. Ximenez-Embun, M. Munoz, M. P. Morelli, F. X. Real, A. Senna, M. Hidalgo, K. Ashman, Proteomics 2012, 12, 1319-1327. T. Shi, T. L. Fillmore, X. Sun, R. Zhao, A. A. Schepmoes, M. Hossain, F. Xie, S. Wu, J. S. Kim. N. Jones, R. J. Moore, L. Pasa-Tolic, J. Kagan, K. D. Rodland, T. Liu, K. Tang, D. G. Camp, 2nd, R. D. Smith, W. J. Qian, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2012, 109, 15395-15400. D. M. Rissin, C. W. Kan. T. G. Campbell, S. C. Howes, D. R. Fournier, L. Song. T. Piech, P. P. Patel, L. Chang, A. J. Rivnak, E. P. Ferrell, J. D. Randall, G. K. Provuncher, D. R. Walt, D. C. Duffy, Nat Biotechnol 2010, 28, 595-599. H. G. Hansma. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2001, 52, 71-92. E. Oroudjev, S. Danielsen, H. G. Hansma, in NanobiotechnologyConcepts, Applications and Perspectives (Eds.: C. M. Niemeyer, C. A. Mirkin), John Wiley & Sons 2004, pp. 387-403. R. J. Heinisch, P. N. Lipke, A. Beaussart, S. E. K. Chatel, V. Dupres, D. Alsteens, Y. F. Dufrene, Journal of Cell Science 2012, 125, 1-7. D. J. Muller, J. Helenius, D. Alsteens, Y. F. Dufrene, Nat Chem Biol 2009, 5, 383-390. S. Ramachandran, F. Teran Arce, R. Lal, Wiley interdisciplinary reviews. Systems biology and medicine 2011, 3, 702-716. V. Safenkova, A. V. Zherdev, B. B. Dzantievf, Biochemistry 2012, 77, 1536-1552; (g) X. Shi, X. Zhang, T. Xia, X. Fang, Nanomedicine (2012) 7(10), 2012, 7, 1625-1637; hL. B. Oddershede, nature Chemical Biology 2012, 8, 879-886. E.-L. Lorin, V. i. T. Moy, H. Gaub, Science 1994, 264, 415-417. U. Dammer, M. Hegner, D. Anselmetti, P. Wagner, M. Dreier, W. Huber, H.-J. Guntherodt, Biophysical Journal 1996, 70, 2437-2441. P. F. Luckham, K. Smith, Faraday Discussions 1999, 111, 307-320. S. ALLEN, J. DAVIES, M. C. DAVIES, A. C. DAWKES, C. J. ROBERTS, S. J. B. TENDLER, P. M. WILLIAMS, Biochem. J. 1999, 341, 173-178. R. Avci, M. Schweitzer, R. D. Boyd, J. Wittmeyer, A. Steele, J. Toporski, I. Beech, F. T. Arce, B. Spangler, K. M. Cole, D. S. McKay, Langmuir: the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids 2004, 20, 11053-11063. T. Tanaka, T. Sasaki, Y. Amemiya, H. Takeyama, S. Chow, T. Matsunaga, Anal Chim Acta 2006, 561, 150-155. G. Neuert, C. Albrecht, E. Pamir, H. E. Gaub, FEBS letters 2006, 580, 505-509. F. A. Carvalho, S. Connell, G. Miltenberger-Miltenyi, S. n. V. Pereira, A. Tavares, R. A. S. A. ns, N. C. Santos, ACS Nano 2010, 4, 4609-4620. Meng, E. Paetzell, A. Bogorad, W. O. Soboyejo, Journal of Applied Physics 2010, 107, 114301. S. Zapotoczny, R. Biedron, J. Marcinkiewicz, M. Nowakowska, Journal of molecular recognition: JMR 2012, 25, 82-88. Y. J. Jung. J. A. Albrecht, J. W. Kwak. J. W. Park, Nucleic Acids Res 2012, 40, 11728-11736. R. Zhu, S. Howorka, J. Proll, F. Kienberger, J. Preiner, J. Hesse, A. Ebner, V. P. Pastushenko, H. J. Gruber, P. Hinterdorfer, Nature Nanotechnology 2010, 5, 788-791. Raab. W. Han, D. Badt, S. J. Smith-Gill, S. M. Lindsay, H. Schindler, P. Hinterdorfer. Nature Biotechnology 1999, 17, 902-905. Stroh, H. Wang, R. Bash, B. Ashcroft, J. Nelson, H. Gruber. D. Lohr, S. M. Lindsay, P. Hinterdorfer, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2004, 101, 12503-12507. F. Kienberger. A. Ebner, H. J. Gruber, P. Hinterdorfer, Acc. Chem. Res. 2006, 39, 29-36. Lin, H. Wang, Y. Liu. H. Yan, S. Lindsay, Biophys J 2006, 90, 4236-4238. H. Wang, Y. Dalal, S. Henikoff, S. Lindsay, Epigenetics & chlrmatin 2008, 1, 10. A. Chtcheglova, P. Hinterdorfer, J. Mol. Recognit. 2011, 24, 788-794; (g) R. Creasey, S. Sharma, C. T. Gibson, J. E. Craig, A. Ebner, T. Becker. P. Hinterdorfer, N. H. Voelcker, Ultramicroscopy 2011, III, 1055-1061 Wang, C. Guo, M. Zhang, B. Park, B. Xu, J. Phys. Chem. B 2012, 116, 5316-5322. P. Hinterdorfer. F. Kienberger. A. Raab, H. J. Gruber, W. Baumgartner, G. Kada, C. Riener, S. Wielert-Badt, C. Borken, H. Schindler, Single Mol. 2002, 1 99-103. K. Riener, C. M. Stroh, A. Ebner, C. Klampfl, A. A. Gall, C. Romanin, Y. L. Lyubchenko, P. Hinterdorfer, H. J. Gruber, Anal Chim Acta 2003, 479, 59-75. P. Hinterdorfer. H. J. Gruber, F. Kienberger, G. Kada, C. Riener, C. Borken, H. Schindler, Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 2002, 23, 115-123. Ebner, L. Wildling, A. S. M. Kamruzzahan, C. Rankl, J. r. Wruss, C. D. Hahn, M. Holzl, R. Zhu, F. Kienberger, D. Blaas. P. Hinterdorfer. H. J. Gruber, Bioconjugate Chem. 2007, 18, 1176-1184. Bruker, Application Note #130; eA. Ebner, P. Hinterdorfer, H. J. Gruber, Ultramicroscopy 2007, 107, 922-927; (f) E. Jauvert. E. Daguc, M. Sverac, L. Ressier. A.-M. Caminade, J.-P. Majoral, E. Trvisiol, Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 2012, 168, 436-441. W. T. Johnson, Application Note, Agilent Technologies. S. M. Kamruzzahan, A. Ebner, L. Wildling, F. Kienberger, C. K. Riener, C. D. Hahn, P. D. Pollheimer, P. Winklehrer, M. Holzl, B. Lackner, D. M. Schorkl, P. Hinterdorfer. H. J. Gruber. Bioconjugate Chem. 2006, 17, 1473-1481. G. Li, N. Xi, D. H. Wang. Proceedings of 2005 5th IEEE Conference on Nanotechnology 2005; (j) A. P. Limanskii, Biophysics 2006, 51, 186-195. K. Riener, F. Kienberger, C. D. Halm, G. M. Buchinger, I. 0. C. Egwim, T. Haselgrbler, A. Ebner, C. Romanin, C. Klampfl, B. Lackner, H. Prinz, D. Blaas, P. Hinterdorfer, H. J. Gruber, Anal Chim Acta 2003, 497, 101-114. Wildling. B. Unterauer. R. Zhu, A. Rupprecht, T. Haselgrubler, C. Rankl, A. Ebner, D. Vater, P. Pollheimer, E. E. Pohl, P. Hinterdorfer, H. J. Gruber, Bioconjug Chem 2011, 22, 1239-1248. P. Limansky, L. S. Shlyakhtenko, S. Schaus, E. Henderson, Y. L. Lyubchenko, Probe Microscopy 2002, 2, 227-234. T. Vandenberg, L. Bertilsson, B. Liedberg, K. Uvdal, R. Erlandsson, H. Elwing, I. Lundstrom, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 1991, 147, 103-118. S. Guha Thakurta. A. Subramanian, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemnrical and Engineering Aspects 2012, 414, 384-392. S. Shlyakhtenko, A. A. Gall, A. Filonov, Z. Cerovac, A. Lushnikov, Y. L. Lyubchenko. Ultramicroscopy 2003, 97, 279-287. Y. L. Lyubchenko, L. S. Shlyakhtenko, A. A. Gall, Methods in Molecular Biology 2008, 543, 337-351. cY. L. Lyubchenko, L. S. Shlyakhtenko, Methods 2009, 47, 206-213. Y. L. Lyubchenko, L. S. Shlyakhtenko, T. Ando, Methods 2011, 54, 274-283.