Micro-scale piezoelectric resonating magnetometer

Abstract

A magnetometer has a resonating structure which is naturally resonant in at least first and second resonant modes, a resonant frequency of the second mode being at least an order of magnitude greater than a resonant frequency of the first mode, the resonating structure having two sense electrodes disposed on opposing major surfaces of the resonating structure and having a conductive path formed as a loop, the loop being disposed near or at edges of the resonating structure and the two sense electrodes being formed inwardly of the edges of the resonating structure and also inwardly of said loop. First and second oscillators are provided, the first oscillator being coupled to the loop for applying an oscillating current to the loop, the oscillating current having a frequency essentially equal to the resonant frequency of the first mode of the resonating structure, the second oscillator being coupled to said sense electrodes, the second oscillator oscillating with a fundamental frequency corresponding to the resonant frequency of the second mode of the resonating structure, the second oscillator also producing sidebands indicative of the magnetometer sensing an external magnetic field.

Claims

1. A magnetometer comprising a resonating structure which is naturally resonant in at least first and second resonant modes, a resonant frequency of the second mode being at least an order of magnitude greater than a resonant frequency of the first mode, the resonating structure having two sense electrodes disposed on opposing major surfaces of the resonating structure and having a conductive path formed as a loop, the loop being disposed near or at edges of the resonating structure and the two sense electrodes being formed inwardly of the edges of the resonating structure and also inwardly of said loop, first and second oscillator circuits, the first oscillator circuit being coupled to said loop for applying an oscillating current to said loop, the oscillating current having a frequency essentially equal to the resonant frequency of the first mode of the resonating structure, the second oscillator circuit being coupled to said sense electrodes, the second oscillator circuit oscillating with a fundamental frequency corresponding to the resonant frequency of the second mode of the resonating structure, the second oscillator also producing sidebands indicative of the magnetometer sensing an external magnetic field.

2. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 1 where a resonating structure is constructed from a piezoelectric material.

3. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 2 where the piezoelectric material is single crystal quartz.

4. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 3 where the resonating beam is anchored to a substrate a proximate end thereof and free at a distal end thereof.

5. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 1 where the sense electrodes are positioned near a fixed end of the resonating beam.

6. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 1 wherein the oscillating current applied to said loop and the external magnetic field generate an out-of-plane force on the resonating structure.

7. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 6 where the resonating structure exhibits flexure-mode mechanical vibration in response to the oscillating current applied to said loop and the external magnetic field.

8. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 7 wherein the first resonant mode of the resonating structure is a flexure mode and the second resonant mode of the resonating structure is a thickness shear mode.

9. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 8 where the mechanical vibration of the resonating structure induces bending stress/strain which is detected with the higher frequency thickness shear mode via a frequency change of said second oscillator.

10. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 3 where the crystallographic orientation of the quartz material is chosen to provide an optimal or minimal slope frequency-temperature characteristic.

11. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 9 where increasing the quality factor of the flexure mode of the resonating structure proportionally enhances the sensitivity of the magnetometer.

12. A magnetometer as claimed in claim 9 wherein the resonating structure has a major axis and wherein the frequency change is proportional to the magnitude of external magnetic field in direction parallel to said major axis of the resonating structure.

13. A resonating structure formed of a beam of dielectric material, the beam of dielectric material being naturally resonant in at least first and second resonant modes, wherein the first resonant mode is a flexure mode and the second resonant mode is a thickness shear mode, a resonant frequency of the thickness shear mode being at least an order of magnitude greater than a resonant frequency of the flexure mode, the resonating structure having two sense electrodes disposed on opposing major surfaces of the resonating structure and having a conductive path formed as a loop on said beam of dielectric material, the loop being disposed near or at edges of the beam of dielectric material and the two sense electrodes being formed inwardly of the loop.

14. A resonating structure as claimed in claim 13 where the beam of dielectric material is formed from a piezoelectric material.

15. A resonating structure as claimed in claim 14 where the piezoelectric material is single crystal quartz.

16. A resonating structure as claimed in claim 15 where the beam of dielectric material is anchored to a substrate at a proximate end thereof and free at a distal end thereof.

17. A magnetometer comprising a resonating structure which is naturally resonant in at least first and second resonant modes, a resonant frequency of the second mode being at least an order of magnitude greater than a resonant frequency of the first mode, the resonating structure having two sense electrodes disposed on opposing major surfaces of the resonating structure and having a conductive path formed as a loop, the loop being disposed near or at edges of the resonating structure and the two sense electrodes being formed inwardly of the edges of the resonating structure and also inwardly of said loop, an oscillating device coupled to said loop for applying an oscillating current to said loop, the oscillating current having a frequency at least within a bandwidth of a flexure mode frequency of the resonating structure, and an oscillator sustaining circuit coupled to said sense electrodes, the oscillator sustaining circuit oscillating with a fundamental frequency corresponding to the resonant frequency of the second resonant mode of the resonating structure, the oscillator sustaining circuit also producing sidebands indicative of the magnetometer sensing an external magnetic field.

18. The magnetometer of claim 17 wherein the first resonant mode is a flexure mode and the second resonant mode is a thickness shear mode.

19. The magnetometer of claim 17 where the resonating structure comprises a single crystal quartz beam.

20. A method of sensing a magnetic field using a crystalline quartz resonator disposed in said magnetic field, the method including inducing acoustic coupling between a mechanical mode of oscillation of said resonator caused by the magnetic field to be sensed and a piezoelectric mode of oscillation induced by applying an AC voltage to sense electrodes disposed on opposing sides of the quartz resonator and applying an AC current to a loop conductor disposed on said crystalline quartz resonator which enables the crystalline quartz resonator to sense the magnetic field due to sidebands which occur in said AC voltage which sidebands are indicative of the sensing the magnetic field through a resulting Lorentz force.

21. A method of sensing a magnetic field using a quartz resonator disposed in said magnetic field, the method comprising: applying an RF signal to sense electrodes disposed on opposing sides of the quartz resonator thereby inducing the quartz resonator to vibrate in a shear mode of vibration at a fundamental frequency of f.sub.t.s., applying an AC signal, having a substantially lower frequency f.sub.flex than the frequency f.sub.t.s. of the RF signal, the AC signal being applied to at least one loop electrode disposed on the quartz resonator, and disposing the quartz resonator with the AC signal applied to the at least one loop conductor and the RF signal applied to the sense electrodes in the magnetic field to be sensed, the magnetic field interacting with the AC signal in the at least one loop conductor to drive the quartz resonator in a flexure mode of oscillation at the frequency f.sub.flex, the flexure mode of oscillation of the quartz resonator acoustically coupling with the shear mode of vibration to induce one or more sidebands in the AC signal, the at least one sideband having an amplitude which is related at least in part to an intensity of the magnetic field sensed by the quartz resonator.

22. The method of claim 21 wherein the shear mode of vibration of the quartz resonator at the fundamental frequency of f.sub.t.s. is induced in the quartz resonator due to a piezoelectric response of the quartz resonator to the RF signal applied to the sense electrodes disposed on opposing sides of the quartz resonator and wherein the flexure mode of oscillation of the quartz resonator at the frequency f.sub.flex is induced due to a Lorentz force response to both the AC signal applied to the at least one loop conductor and to the magnetic field sensed by the quartz resonator.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 depicts the basic design of a Lorentz-based resonant magnetometer with the magnetic Lorentz force deflecting the doubly-clamped mechanical beam.

(2) FIG. 2a is a SEM image and while FIGS. 2b and 2c are a schematic drawings of a UHF quartz cantilevered resonator of the present invention showing out-of-plane Lorentz force due to coupling between the B-field and the current flow, FIG. 2b being a perspective view while FIG. 2c being a side elevational view,

(3) FIG. 3 is a top-down layout of a specific embodiment of the quartz MEMS micro-resonator.

(4) FIGS. 4a and 4b show embodiments of sensing circuits which may be utilized with the disclosed quartz MEMS micro-resonator, FIG. 4a being a block diagram while FIG. 4b is a schematic diagram showing greater detail.

(5) FIG. 5a depicts phase noise of the quartz resonator with excitation frequency of 9 kHz and varying acceleration.

(6) FIG. 5b depicts overlaid plots of normalized stress (red) and acceleration sensitivity (blue) shows excellent agreement between the analytical and a Finite Element Model (FEM) model.

(7) FIG. 6 shows the minimum detectable magnetic field for various beam lengths and thicknesses.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(8) Lorentz Force Sensing

(9) FIG. 1 shows the basic principle behind a conventional Lorentz-force magnetometer. In the depicted configuration, the magnetometer consists of a suspended doubly-clamped beam 1 that is anchored at both ends 2. An alternative design would comprise a singly-clamped cantilever beam (not shown) anchored at one end instead of both ends. Singly-clamped magnetometer are also known in the prior art. See R. Sunier, T. Vancura, Y. Li, K.-U. Kirstein, H. Baltes, and O. Brand, Resonant Magnetic Field Sensor With Frequency Output, J. MEMS, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 1098-1107, October 2006.

(10) The external magnetic field {right arrow over (B)} interacts with the current {right arrow over (i)} that flows along the length of the beam. The coupling between the {right arrow over (B)} field and the current {right arrow over (i)} generates a Lorentz magnetic force {right arrow over (F)}.sub.Lorentz directed perpendicular to both the magnetic field {right arrow over (B)} and current flow {right arrow over (i)} as described by Eqn. 1 below where {right arrow over (i)} is the current, L is the length of the current line, and {right arrow over (B)} is the magnetic field strength:
F.sub.Lorentz={right arrow over (i)}L{right arrow over (B)}Eqn. (1)

(11) An increase in either the drive current or current length generates larger forces and greater deflection for increased sensitivity and a lower detectable field limit. In the prior art, the amount of beam deflection that occurs as a result of the Lorentz force is normally measured capacitively or optically by an appropriate sensor to ascertain the strength of the magnetic field causing the beam 1 to deflect.

(12) Further improvement in sensitivity can be achieved when a sensor is driven into resonance by an AC drive current applied to a loop 12 (see FIG. 2b), the applied AC having an actuation frequency which desirably matches the beam's flexure mode frequency. The AC current applied to loop 12 is preferably generated by a first oscillator circuit 16 connected to loop 12 as is depicted by FIGS. 4a and 4b. At resonance, the beam deflection d.sub.AC (deflection d.sub.AC is the deflection measured at the tip (free end) of a cantilever beamwhen the beam is vibrating under flexure mode resonance (the beam vibrating up and down normal to its major surface at resonance)this deflection can be much larger than the DC deflection d.sub.DC of the beam under an equal static force) is a function (see Eqn. 2 below) of the actuation frequency f, the flexure mode frequency f.sub.flexure of the beam and the quality factor or Q of the beam. A beam with a higher Q tends to enhance the sensitivity of the resulting magnetometer proportionally compared to a beam with a relatively lower Q. A quartz beam should have higher intrinsic Q compared to a silicon beam, for example, and therefor a quartz beam would be preferred compared to a silicon beam in most applications.

(13) $\begin{array}{cc}{d}_{AC}\left(f\right)=\frac{d_{DC}}{\sqrt{{\left(1-\frac{f^2}{f_{f_{\mathrm{lexture}}}^2}\right)}^2+{\left(\frac{1}{Q}\frac{f}{f_{f_{\mathrm{lexture}}}}\right)}^2}}.fwdarw.d_{AC}\left(f_{f_{\mathrm{lexture}}}\right)={\mathrm{Qd}}_{DC}& \mathrm{Eqn}.\left(2\right)\end{array}$
where d.sub.DC is the static deflection of the beam, f is the drive frequency and f.sub.flexure is the mechanical resonant frequency of the beam.

(14) Note should be made of the different orientation of the B field to be measured by the disclosed magnetometer compared to the orientation of the B field of the prior art device of FIG. 1.

(15) As the drive frequency of the applied AC approaches the beam's flexure mode frequency, the AC deflection equation (Eqn. 2) reduces to the product of the DC deflection (d.sub.DC) and the quality factor (Q). Vacuum packaging increases the quality factor (Q) by allowing a MEMS magnetometer to operate with greater deflection at low pressure without viscous damping. As such, the disclosed magnetometer is preferably packaged so that it can operate in a vacuum environment. So, if one drives the beam's loop 12 with an AC signal whose drive frequency matches the frequency of the beam's natural mechanical resonance, then the deflection with AC drive will be the static deflection (from a DC drive signal) amplified by the Q of the beam. Ideally, the desired frequency match is perfect. But in real life, few things are perfect and hence the frequency of the AC drive current must at least be within the bandwidth of the flexure mode frequency (where its bandwidth is inversely proportional to the Q of the beam) for a match to occur.

(16) Quartz Resonant Magnetometer Operation Principal

(17) In one aspect, the present invention provides a micro-magnetometer which is preferably based on the MEMS quartz micro-resonator shown in FIGS. 2a, 2b, 2c and in the attached Appendix A. The MEMS quartz micro-resonator has a resonating structure provided by a quartz cantilever 10 which is preferably fixed (thus clamped) at one end of same where it is preferably integrally connected to a wider quartz base 50 which in turn may be directly anchored to a substrate 60 which may be made of silicon for example. The fabrication of the quartz resonant magnetometer depicted in FIG. 2a preferably mirrors the apparatus and process that is described in the US patent Method for Fabricating a Resonator, U.S. Pat. No. 7,830,074 noted above, but with additional metal patterns disposed along the two parallel side edges (see metal 12e) and along the tip (see metal 12t) of the quartz cantilever 10 thereby forming an electrically conductive loop 12 (preferably comprising two metal segments 12e and one metal segment 12t) for conducting the AC current loop when a appropriate current (the AC signal mentioned in the preceding paragraph) is applied to the electrically conductive loop 12.

(18) Opposing sense electrodes 14a and 14b are formed, preferably of metal, on the quartz cantilever 10, one of which (sense electrode 14a) is depicted in FIG. 2b disposed on the upper surface of the quartz cantilever 10. There is another sense electrode 14b, opposing sense electrode 14a, disposed on the lower surface of the quartz cantilever 10 (see FIG. 2c). The two opposing sense electrodes 14a and 14b are surrounded by the current loop formed by the electrically conductive loop 12 (which metal pattern 12 is not shown in FIG. 2c for ease of illustration). The current loop formed by the electrically conductive loop 12 is shown disposed on an upper surface of the quartz cantilever 10 in FIG. 2b. The current loop formed by the metal pattern 12 may be disposed only on the upper surface of the quartz cantilever 10 or the current loop formed by the metal pattern 12 may be disposed on both the upper and lower surfaces of the quartz cantilever 10, with the two loops then being connected preferably in parallel with each other. If two loops 12 are formed, then of course there are four metallic segments 12e along the parallel edges of the quartz cantilever 10 and two metallic segments 12t along the tip of the quartz cantilever 10. Also, the current loop formed by the electrically conductive loop 12 may alternatively be formed only on the lower surface of the quartz cantilever 10 if desired.

(19) The dimensions of the quartz beam 10 will vary depending upon the application in which it is used as well as upon environmental conditions. Beam 10 thickness (t) will affect the frequency of the sensing mode (thickness-shear). Currently, beams are being developed having a nominal thickness of about 2-3 m thick, but such a thickness may not necessarily be optimum. In terms of the specific embodiment shown in FIG. 3, the beam 10 has a thickness (t) of 2.2 m, a length of 235.0 m and a width of 105.0 m. The width of the beam does not seem to be particularly critical in terms of affecting the thickness-shear mode frequency, so long as the sense electrodes 14a and 14b and drive current loop 12 are able to fit within an available area on the beam. But the width of the beam 10 is important for other reasons which are discussed below. Typically the cantilevered beam 10 is beam-like, that is, longer than it is wide. But that is not necessarily the case as a longer beam does allow more deflection but possibly at a cost of a lower Q, so there may be some engineering trade offs be made in this regard.

(20) Mode Coupling Between Drive and Sense

(21) In FIGS. 2a and 2b the drive current runs along a loop conductor 12 disposed at or near the perimeter of the cantilever 10, the conductor 12 preferably continuing onto the quartz base 50. The drive current for loop conductor 12 is produced by an oscillator 16 depicted by FIGS. 4a and 4b. Oscillator 16 generates a drive current i(f.sub.flex) which is applied to loop conductor 16. Turning again to FIGS. 2a and 2b, the current and magnetic field vectors are oriented such that the resultant Lorentz force is directed through the quartz thickness in the out-of-plane axis as shown in FIGS. 2a and 2c. With the AC drive current i(f.sub.flex) running in opposite directions in edge segments 12e on either side of the cantilevered beam 10, the net Lorentz force resides along the free end due to segment 12t at the tip of the cantilever beam 10. The thickness (t) of the quartz cantilever 10 and the base 50 is preferably selected to be significantly smaller than either the width or length of the cantilevered quartz beam 10 to ensure the greatest amount of deflection and force sensitivity in the out-of-plane direction while maintaining good isolation along the other two axes. In the specific embodiment of FIG. 3, the thickness (t) is at least 50 times smaller that either of the other two dimensions. The flexure mode frequency can then be expressed as a function of the quartz thickness (t) and the beam length (L) knowing the Young's modulus of Quartz (E) and the density of Quartz () as follows:

(22) $\begin{array}{cc}{f}_{\mathrm{flexure}}=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{2{\mathrm{Et}}^2}{2L^4}}& \mathrm{Eqn}.\left(3\right)\end{array}$

(23) At the same time the AC current in the loop 12 and the magnetic field drives the beam into flexure mode resonance, the quartz resonator also undergoes resonance in the thickness shear between the top and bottom conductive sense electrodes 14a and 14b. An RF signal is applied between the opposing sense electrodes 14a and 14b which induces thickness shear acoustic waves that propagate through the thickness of the quartz volume bounded by the sense electrodes 14a and 14b. If one looks at the Lorentz force equation, the force is directional and depends on the vector of both the current and B-field. The B-field will always be along one direction (see FIG. 1). But the currents in the loop 12 along the opposing edges of the cantilever 10 are in opposite directions so the Lorentz force generated along both sides are pointed in opposite directions thus will cancel each other leaving only the Lorentz force generated by the AC drive current i(f.sub.flex) in loop segment 12t along the tip of the free end of beam 10. The thickness shear mode frequency f.sub.t.s. is dictated by the quartz density , thickness t of the quartz cantilever 10 and the elastic coefficient c.sub.66 which varies depending on the cut of quartz. See Eqn. (4) below. Thus the invention can be further optimized by selecting the optimum cut with the desired elastic coefficient.

(24) $\begin{array}{cc}{f}_{t.s.}=\frac{1}{2t}\sqrt{\frac{c_{66}}{}}& \mathrm{Eqn}.\left(4\right)\end{array}$

(25) The sensing mechanism of the magnetometer is based on acoustic coupling between two resonance modes where one mode is driven into mechanical vibration by the Lorentz force and a second higher frequency thickness shear mode detects the low-frequency vibration and resultant bending strain in the form of a frequency shift. With the sustaining amplifier loop 18 of FIG. 4a or 4b closed across the opposing sense electrodes 14a and 14b but no current excitation along the current loop 12, the quartz magnetometer resonates at the thickness shear mode frequency f.sub.t.s. and outputs a carrier signal (the peak at f.sub.t.s. in FIG. 3a) that is unperturbed by the external magnetic field. Once the AC drive current i(f.sub.flex) is applied to loop 12 and interacts with the external magnetic field {right arrow over (B)}, the generated Lorentz force {right arrow over (F)}=i(f.sub.flex)L{right arrow over (B)} (see also Eqn. 1) at the tip of the resonator drives the plate into mechanical vibration at the fundamental flexural mode frequency f.sub.flex. This flexural motion modulates the stiffness of the active thickness shear region due to strain sensitivity of the quartz elastic moduli of the quartz cantilever, resulting in frequency modulation of the thickness shear mode and FM sidebands signals (shown in FIG. 4a) offset at f.sub.flex from either side of the thickness shear frequency f.sub.t.s.. The amplitude of the sideband signals is a function of the resonator frequency, sensitivity S.sub.B.sup.f, drive current i(f.sub.flex) and external magnetic field {right arrow over (B)}.

(26) Force Detection Demonstration

(27) The beam deflection of the quartz magnetometer can be detected by several means including capacitive and optical. However, employing a quartz resonator as a sensor provides yet an additional detection scheme through the coupling between the drive (flexure) mode and the sensing (thickness shear) mode. The coupling between these two modes is the result of the longitudinal stress induced by the flexing cantilevered beam 10. The bending stress alters the overall beam dimensions and the stiffness coefficient c.sub.ij. Changes to these two parameters shift f.sub.t.s. by a detectable amount. By implementing an oscillator sustaining circuit 18 around the quartz micro-magnetometer, one can easily monitor f.sub.t.s.. The oscillator sustaining circuit 18 forms a second oscillator which outputs a carrier at f.sub.t.s. with upper and lower side bands spaced from the carrier by F.sub.flex, where F.sub.flex is the frequency of the AC drive current in loop 12, which frequency must at least be within the bandwidth of the flexure mode frequency of the beam 10 (where its bandwidth is inversely proportional to the O of the beam 10).

(28) Sensing Demonstration

(29) We demonstrated the operating principle of this invention by evaluating the force sensing capability of a specific embodiment of a quartz micro-resonator whose layout is shown in FIG. 3. The quartz active region for this evaluation comprised a embodiment of the quartz cantilever 10 having dimensions of 105.0 by 235.0 m. The cantilevered micro-resonator of FIG. 3 has a thickness of 2.2 m and a f.sub.t.s. of 705 MHz. The fully packaged resonator die was soldered onto an oscillator circuit board on substrate 50 which was in turn mounted to a shaker table for this evaluation where the resonator on the cantilevered beam 10 was subjected to a sinusoidal acceleration force serving as a surrogate for a magnetic force. The minimum detectable acceleration force extracted from this experiment can be converted to a minimum detectable magnetic field by the equation (Eqn. (5)) below where x is the distance from the fixed edge to the center of the electrode, t is the plate thickness, I is the moment of inertia, m is the plate mass, and L is the beam length and w is the beam width.

(30) $\begin{array}{cc}{a}_{min}\frac{\mathrm{mt}}{8\mathrm{IL}}\left(2\mathrm{Lx}-L^2-x^2\right)={\stackrel{.Math.}{B}}_{min}\frac{\stackrel{.Math.}{i}\mathrm{wt}}{2I}\left(x-L\right)& \mathrm{Eqn}.\left(5\right)\end{array}$

(31) The f.sub.t.s. shift response to the induced force is reflected in a jump in the phase noise measurement at an offset frequency matching that of the acceleration force. A peak in the phase noise was found at 9 kHz. The relationship between the resonator's phase noise, the flexure frequency, and acceleration is expressed below:

(32) $\begin{array}{cc}L=20\log \left(\frac{a{f}_{t.s.}}{2f_{\mathrm{vib}}}\right)& \mathrm{Eqn}.\left(6\right)\end{array}$

(33) The sensitivity is intrinsic to the quartz resonator and affects the magnitude of the frequency shift in response to an induced force on the resonator. We shall see in the later part of this disclosure that is directly related to the beam stress. From the phase noise vs. acceleration plot in FIG. 5a the noise floor of the resonator in the absence of a force is 138 dBc. We can then extrapolate the minimum acceleration (0.048 g) that can be detected by this resonator by assuming a phase noise of 3 dB above this noise floor. We also determined that the resonator has an acceleration sensitivity of 5.6310.sup.11/g at 9 kHz offset.

(34) Beam Stress and Acceleration Sensitivity

(35) We compared the analytical model of longitudinal stress on a quartz cantilever beam with a Finite Element Model (FEM) model of the force sensitivity for the same beam. The results were used to optimize the beam dimensions, particularly the beam length and thickness to maximize the resultant frequency shift for a given force. The results in FIG. 5b show excellent agreement between the analytical model of beam stress and the FEM model of acceleration sensitivity. Both the stress and the acceleration sensitivity is a linear function of the beam length. As one designs longer beams, the sensitivity and beam stress increase proportionately.

(36) Given the minimum acceleration and resultant stress values from FIGS. 5a and 5b, we can parameterize the quartz micro-magnetometer design to obtain the lowest possible detection limit of the magnetic field. FIG. 6 shows the minimum detectable magnetic field for various beam lengths and thicknesses. To achieve B-field detections below 50 nT for navigation-grade heading referencing, the quartz magnetometer should comprise of a thinner and/or longer beam than what was measured on the phase noise plot. The plot shows the possibility to achieving field detection limit as low as 5 nT with further reduction in this value when operating under vacuum and high Q.

(37) Addition technical information regarding the disclosed sensor and regarding a prototype sensor built using this technology can be found in Appendix A hereto. Appendix A is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

(38) This concludes the description of embodiments of the present invention. The foregoing description of these embodiments has been presented for the purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form or methods disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teachings. It is intended that the scope of the invention be limited not by this detailed description, but rather by the claims appended hereto.