Apparatus, method and system for generating optical radiation from biological gain media

Abstract

In one exemplary embodiment, an apparatus can be provided which includes at least one biological medium that causes gain. According to another exemplary embodiment, an arrangement can be provided which is configured to be provided in an anatomical structure. This exemplary arrangement can include at least one emitter having a cross-sectional area of at most 10 microns within the anatomical structure, and which is configured to generate at least one laser radiation. In a further exemplary embodiment, an apparatus can be provided which can include at least one medium which is configured to cause gain; and at least one optical biological resonator which is configured to provide an optical feedback to the medium. In still another exemplary embodiment, a process can be whereas, a solution of an optical medium can be applied to a substrate. Further, it is possible to generate a wave guide having a shape that is defined by (i) at least one property of the solution of the optical medium, or (ii) drying properties thereof.

Claims

1. An apparatus comprising at least one engineered or modified biological gain medium including at least one biologically-produced molecule that causes gain; wherein the at least one biological medium includes at least two different fluorescent protein molecules, wherein the at least two different fluorescent protein molecules are configured or structured to support a fluorescent resonant energy transfer from a first fluorescent protein molecule to a second fluorescent protein molecule, and wherein the gain is provided by a stimulated emission in the at least one biological medium.

2. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the at least one biological medium includes biological molecules in at least one of a solution or a solid state within an anatomical structure.

3. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the at least two different fluorescent proteins are situated within at least one living cell.

4. The apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising at least one arrangement which is configured to pump the at least one biological medium to cause the gain.

5. The apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the at least one arrangement includes at least one of a bioluminescent source or a chemiluminescent source of an optical radiation.

6. The apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the at least one biological medium is configured to generate at least one electromagnetic radiation with at least one spectral peak.

7. The apparatus according to claim 4, further comprising at least one optical resonator configured to provide an optical feedback to the at least one biological medium.

8. The apparatus according to claim 7, wherein the at least one optical resonator at least partially includes at least one of a linear or ring cavity, photonic crystals, a biological tissue, a random scattering medium, a micro-scale reflecting chamber, a nano-scale reflecting chamber, plasmonic nano-particles, or includes a biological structure that is at least partially periodic.

9. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the least one biological medium is further configured to receive at least one first electro-magnetic radiation, and transmit at least one second electro-magnetic radiation, and wherein the least one biological medium is configured to amplify a magnitude of at least one of energy, power or intensity of the at least one first electro-magnetic radiation to produce the at least one second electro-magnetic radiation.

10. The apparatus according to claim 9, wherein the at least one second electro- magnetic radiation is the at least one amplified first electro-magnetic radiation.

11. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the at least one biological medium is configured to generate at least one of (i) at least one amplified spontaneous emission, or (ii) at least one laser emission.

12. The apparatus according to claim 11, further comprising a particular arrangement which is configured detect the at least one laser emission, and generate information as a function of the at least one laser emission.

13. The apparatus according to claim 12, further comprising a further arrangement which is configured generate at least one image of at least one of (i) the at least one biological medium, or (ii) at least one sample associated with the at least one biological medium using the information.

14. An apparatus comprising: a substrate wherein at least one engineered or modified biological gain medium including a plurality of biologically-produced molecules that cause gain is deposited; at least one arrangement which is configured to pump the at least on biological gain medium to cause the gain; and wherein the at least one biological gain medium is configured as ring resonator to provide optical feedback.

15. The apparatus according to claim 14, wherein the plurality of biologically-produced molecules includes fluorescent proteins.

16. The apparatus according to claim 15, wherein the fluorescent proteins are selected from the group consisting of GFP, eGFP, turboRFP, DsRed, tdTomato, YFP, CFP, and mixtures thereof.

17. The apparatus according to claim 14, further comprising one or more fluorescent polymers configured within the circular waveguide.

18. The apparatus according to claim 17, wherein the one or more fluorescent polymers is selected from the group consisting of poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly-co-fluorene, rhodamine, fluorescein, coumarin, stilbene, umbelliferone, tetracene, malachite green, and mixtures thereof.

19. The apparatus according to claim 14, wherein the at least one biological medium includes biological molecules in at least one of a solution or a solid state.

20. The apparatus according to claim 14, further comprising an optical fiber or a waveguide configured in proximity of the ring resonator, wherein evanescent coupling procedures can be used to extract energy.

21. The apparatus according to claim 20, wherein the distance between the ring resonator and the optical fiber or waveguide is between 10 nm to 100 m.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) Further objects, features and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures showing illustrative embodiments of the present disclosure, in which:

(2) FIG. 1A is a schematic diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a protein solution laser in accordance with the present disclosure;

(3) FIG. 1B is a graph of energy of laser output as a function of pump energy;

(4) FIG. 1C is a graph of normalized output spectra of the protein laser filled with eGFP solutions of different concentrations;

(5) FIG. 1D is a set of illustrations of a spatial profile of a laser emission for ideal cavity alignment and of several deliberate misalignments of cavity mirrors;

(6) FIG. 1E is a graph of an exemplary measured lasing threshold for different concentrations of eGFP in the cavity;

(7) FIG. 2A is a diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a solid-state protein laser in accordance with the present disclosure;

(8) FIG. 2B is a graph of energy of laser output of the exemplary laser of FIG. 2A as a function of the pump energy;

(9) FIG. 2C is a set of graphs of an output spectrum for lasers with two different mirror separations, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(10) FIG. 3A is a graph of energy of laser output as a function of the pump energy associated with characteristics of a laser based on GFP expressing E. coli cells, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(11) FIG. 3B is a set of graphs showing an output spectrum of the laser associated with FIG. 3A at two excitation pulse energies;

(12) FIG. 3C is an illustration of E. coli cells in lasing action, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(13) FIG. 4A is a side view of a solid-state protein structure implementing a self-assembly process, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(14) FIG. 4B is a top view of the solid-state protein structure of FIG. 4A implementing the self-assembly process;

(15) FIG. 4C is a side view of the solid-state protein structure of FIG. 4A implementing further procedures of the exemplary self-assembly process, where non-volatile parts of solutions are transported toward a rim of a droplet, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(16) FIG. 4D is a top view of the solid-state protein structure of FIG. 4C implementing further procedures of the exemplary self-assembly process, wherein non-volatile parts of the solutions are transported toward the rim of the droplet;

(17) FIG. 5A is an image of surface topography of the protein stain, the self-assembled eGFP ring resonator laser, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(18) FIG. 5B is a combination of exemplary perspective view image and graph of an output energy of the ring resonator laser as a function of the pump energy for an intact and a disabled resonator;

(19) FIG. 5C is a set of images of the ring laser taken at certain exemplary pump energies, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(20) FIG. 5D is an exemplary graph of an emission spectrum from the eGFP ring resonator laser at the pump energies of FIG. 5C and from a turboRFP ring resonator laser;

(21) FIG. 6A is an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell laser which includes a micro-sphere cavity filled with a fluorescent protein, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(22) FIG. 6B is an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell laser having non-linear emission characteristics determining a position of individual particles or particle clusters, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(23) FIG. 6C is an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell laser in which single cells are embedded in suitable cavities, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(24) FIG. 6D is an illustration of a nano-scale, protein cell laser in which single cell lasing are applied for sorting of fluorescent labeled cells, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(25) FIG. 6E is an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell micro laser in a cell, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(26) FIG. 6F is an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell nano laser in a cell, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(27) FIG. 7A is an illustration of an amplification of electromagnetic radiation by stimulated emission in a biological gain medium, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure; and

(28) FIG. 7B is an illustration of a generation of an amplified spontaneous emission light from the biological gain medium of FIG. 7A, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure.

(29) Throughout the figures, the same reference numerals and characters, unless otherwise stated, are used to denote like features, elements, components or portions of the illustrated embodiments. Moreover, while the subject invention will now be described in detail with reference to the figures, it is done so in connection with the illustrative embodiments. It is intended that changes and modifications can be made to the described exemplary embodiments without departing from the true scope and spirit of the subject disclosure as defined by the appended claims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

(30) A gain medium generally amplifies light, and usually can replicate the quantum-mechanical state (phase, polarization, etc) of the amplified light by a process known as a stimulated emission. The laser can be one application of this stimulated emission process which is known in the art. For example, a laser can consist of three elements, e.g., a gain medium, an optical cavity (e.g., a resonator), and a pump source. Other exemplary uses of the stimulated emission known to the art include, e.g., optical amplifiers and amplified spontaneous emission sources.

(31) According to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, a biological medium can be used as a gain medium. One example of a class of the biological media that can be used as the gain media can include fluorescent proteins. For example, a protein laser or a protein optical amplifier can utilize fluorescent proteins as the gain medium. The protein can be in the form of a solution. In particular, the protein can be within a living organism, such as a biological cell, which can contain the protein in the cytoplasm, nucleus, and/or organelles via, e.g., the expression of FP-encoding gene or the internalization or endocytosis of FP-containing particles. The fluorescent protein (or FP) can also be in the form of solid, such as an aggregate (e.g., after drying of a solution) or crystal. The protein crystal may have the advantage of having a low transmission loss. For example, various small organic dyes, when in a high concentration solution or in an aggregate, tend to lose their ability of a fluorescence emission, a phenomenon known as quenching. The relatively large molecular size and the encapsulation of the fluorophore in fluorescent proteins by a -can structure permit high concentrations without quenching.

(32) Various designs for a laser cavity or resonator have been described. One example of such a design is the use of structures which include a linear Fabry-Perot and a ring cavity. A distributed feedback resonator structure is also described. While these exemplary resonators are generally in a one-dimensional form, two or three-dimensional (2D or 3D) cavities can also be used, which use 2D and/or 3D photonic crystals or random scattering (known as random lasers). Further, micro-scale and nano-scale cavities have been described, which can use a plasmonic effect or structure to enhance a local light-matter interaction and receive the pumping light more efficiently. The resonant wavelength(s) of the laser cavity can be selected to overlap with the emission band(s) of fluorescent proteins used as the gain medium.

(33) The energy levels of most fluorescent proteins are relatively well known. Typically, such energy levels can form a three-level system, where the electrons in the ground state are pumped to upper excited states by a pumping source and relax to lower excited states through a nonradiative decay. The electrons at the lower excited states fall back to the ground state, either by the spontaneous emission or the stimulated emission. The stimulated emission is predominant typically during lasing or optical amplification. The inherent lifetime of the lower excited states is typically in the order of 0.5 to 10 ns. For the optical gain to occur (which can be important for lasing and amplification), a pump source can be used to deliver sufficient energy to the gain medium so that more electrons are present in the lower excited state than in the ground states, a condition known as a population inversion.

(34) The pumping is typically achieved optically by using a pump light source emitting excitation light at the wavelength(s) corresponding to the absorption band(s) of the fluorescent proteins used in the gain medium. Available pump sources include Q-switched solid-state nanosecond lasers, femtosecond solid-state lasers, pulsed or continuous-wave semiconductor lasers, flashlight, and tunable optical parametric oscillator sources. Alternatively, pumping may be possible by fluorescent resonance energy transfer or electrically by injection current. Such pumping can also be achieved by bio- or chemi-luminescence, for instance based on Luciferase systems, as a way to form a bio-pumped laser or optical amplifier.

(35) Exemplary GFP Solution Laser

(36) According to one particular exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, as shown in FIG. 1A, a solution 2 containing at least one fluorescent protein can be used as the gain medium of a laser arrangement 1.

(37) In this exemplary embodiment, the exemplary laser arrangement 1 can include a rear cavity mirror 3 coated with a reflective coating 3b and a front cavity mirror 4 with a reflective coating 4b. The protein solution 2 can be placed between the mirrors 3, 4, where at least one of mirrors 3, 4 can be semi-transparent to light with the wavelength of the light emitted by at least one of the fluorescent proteins being utilized. One or both of the mirrors 3, 4 can be flat and/or curved, preferably with concave curvature, with radii of the curvature between 5 mm and 1000 mm, and between 8 mm and 100 mm. The distance of the mirrors 3, 4 can be matched to their radius of curvature so as to form a cavity configuration, e.g., a stable cavity. The mirrors 3, 4 can be based on and/or use metallic or dielectric reflection(s), e.g., preferably a dielectric reflection. The solution 2 can be optically excited using, for example, an output from the laser arrangement 1, an optical parametric oscillator and/or an optical parametric amplifier, from the emission from a flash lamp or in other ways known to those having ordinary skill in the art.

(38) In the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 1A, the light 6 that excites the fluorescent protein can be focused onto the solution 2 containing at least one fluorescent protein through one of the mirror 4 forming the cavity. In this exemplary embodiment, the mirror 4 is at least semi-transparent to the light, with the wavelength of the light used to excite the fluorescent protein. The transmission can be higher than 10% of the light, and preferably higher than 60%. According to another exemplary embodiment, an additional dichroic mirror 5 can be used to reflect the light 6, with the wavelength used to excite one of the fluorescent proteins into the cavity, while transmit the light 7 emitted by at least one of the fluorescent proteins within the cavity.

(39) To demonstrate that the fluorescent proteins can be used as the gain medium of a laser, according to one exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, a simple laser cavity consisting of two concave dichroic mirrors can be filled with, e.g., an aqueous 50 M solution of recombinant eGFP, an enhanced and widely used mutant of the wild-type GFP. The cavity mirrors in this exemplary embodiment can be highly reflective in the range of the spectrum where eGFP emits (e.g., reflectivity >99.9% for 500 nm<<560 nm), and transparent at wavelengths <480 nm, e.g., in the region of the spectrum where eGFP is absorbing. This exemplary configuration facilitates a strong optical feedback for a stimulated emission generated within the cavity, while also facilitating an efficient optical pumping of the eGFP solution which was in our case achieved by focusing the pulsed output from an optical parametric oscillator (OPO) operating at approximately 465 nm into the cavity.

(40) FIG. 1B shows a graph of energy/light of an output of a laser arrangement as a function of the pump energy Ep of the excitation pulses generated by the OPO, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. The solid line 21 represents a linear fit to the data. The exemplary eGFP solution (c=50 M) can be placed inside a cavity with a length d=7 mm, curvature of mirrors r1=10 mm and r 2=50 mm. The solution can be excited by the focused output of an optical parametric oscillator (e.g., with pulse duration of 5 ns, =465 nm). The lower inset shown in FIG. 1B shows the data from the main panel on a magnified scale. The arrow 20 in FIG. 1B indicates the intersection of the linear fit with the x-axis. In particular, according to the graph of FIG. 1B, for Ep<14 nJ, no emission from the protein solution inside the cavity was observed. This can be expected, as the dichroic mirrors reflect the fluorescence from eGFP almost entirely back into the cavity. However, once Ep is increased beyond 14 nJ, the cavity can begin to emit green light, and the cavity output can grow rapidly as the pump energy is increased further.

(41) FIG. 1C illustrates a graph of normalized output spectra of the protein laser filled with eGFP solutions of different concentrations. For example, these exemplary concentrations include 2.5 M (line 30), 50 M (line 31), and 250 M (line 32). The spontaneous fluorescence spectrum and the normalized absorption spectrum of eGFP are also shown in FIG. 1C as lines 33 and 34, respectively. In particular, the spectrum of the emitted light (line 31) can be substantially narrowed (e.g., about 12 nm FWHM) compared to the spontaneous fluorescence spectrum of the eGFP solution (line 33) (e.g., about 37 nm FWHM). The presence of a distinct threshold pump energy above which the cavity output rapidly can increase and the spectrally narrow output can be indications of lasing.

(42) FIG. 1D shows illustrations of the spatial profile of the output beam from the fluorescent protein laser for four slightly different alignments of the cavity mirrors. In particular, the exemplary patterns can be interpreted as higher transversal modes of the laser cavity (image iiTEM01, image iiiTEM02, and image ivTEM11). For an exemplary optimal alignment, a Gaussian emission profile can be seen in image i of FIG. 1C, as can be understood for a laser arrangement operating at the zero-order transverse (TEM00) mode. Upon a deliberate misalignment (e.g., by slightly tilting one of the cavity mirrors), the spatial profile can be changed to patterns indicating operation at higher order modes.

(43) FIG. 1E shows a graph of a measured lasing threshold for different concentrations of eGFP in the cavity. The inset of FIG. 1E illustrates an exemplary variation of the output energy of the 50 M eGFP laser. Data normalized to the initial output energy. In particular, in order to test the operational stability of our fluorescent protein laser, the fluorescent protein laser can be operated at pump energies of approximately 200 times above the threshold (Ep=2500 nJ). As shown in the inset to FIG. 1E, no significant reduction in the output energy was observed over the course of 5000 pulses.

(44) The above exemplary experiment was repeated for different concentrations of the eGFP solution, and it was determined that lasing occurs down to concentrations of 2.5 M. As the concentration is reduced, the lasing wavelength shifts towards the blue (see spectrum line 30 in FIG. 1C). This is expected, as self-absorption from the tail of the eGFP absorption band is less significant at low concentrations. For example, at the same time, the pump energy used to reach threshold increases as fewer fluorophores are available to overcome the cavity losses (see FIG. 1D). We note that typical intracellular fluorescent protein concentrations are in the micro-molar to milli-molar range. Since this can be comparable to our lasing range, fluorescent protein based lasing may be possible in-vivo or even in single cells if an appropriately designed/structured cavity is utilized.

(45) Exemplary Solid-state eGFP Laser

(46) Similar to simple dye lasers, the line-width of the emission from the exemplary protein laser based on solutions of the protein can be relatively broad. This can result from the broad optical transition in eGFP and from the fact that the cavity effectively supports a continuum of modes with nearly identical roundtrip loss. Unlike conventional fluorescent dyes, however, fluorescent proteins maintain their bright fluorescence at high concentrations and in solid state. This can facilitate the use of the solid-state eGFP as the laser gain medium and provide for an exemplary cavity configuration that can feature a reduced emission line-width, a considerably lower lasing threshold, and may utilize substantially less protein.

(47) Another exemplary embodiment of the arrangement according to the present disclosure is shown in FIG. 2B, which illustrates a diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a solid-state protein laser. The exemplary solid-state protein laser can include a first flat back mirror 100 with a reflective coating/surface 100a, and a second flat front mirror 102 with a reflective coating 102a. A solid protein 101 can be sandwiched between both mirrors 100, 102. The distance between the mirrors 100, 102 can be adjusted by silica beads 103. The solid protein 101 can be optically excited by a blue light 106. The laser can be configured to emit a green light 107 through the front and the back mirror 100, 102.

(48) In particular, according to one exemplary embodiment, a droplet of an eGFP solution (c=0.1 mM) was left to dry on the surface 100a of the first flat back mirror 100 with a reflective coating as described above and then covered with the second flat front mirror 102, using calibrated silica beads (103) (e.g., diameter d=18 m) to adjust the mirror separation. Due to the short distance between the mirrors 100, 102, this cavity can support likely only discrete longitudinal modes, separated by .sup.2/(2dn)=5.6 nm, where n1.51 is the refractive index of the medium inside the cavity. The spectrum which can be emitted by this laser cavity can consist of several sharp lines as shown by a spectrum 130 of FIG. 2C, which illustrates a set of graphs of an output spectrum for lasers with two different mirror separations, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. Such laser cavity can have a spacing (e.g., 5.40.2 nm) that can be in good agreement with the value estimated from the above equation. When the cavity length is reduced further (e.g., by leaving out the silica beads 103), the laser can generate a single line with a spectral width below the resolution of the spectrometer (e.g., FWHM<0.2 nm). Similar to the solution-based laser, the solid-state eGFP laser showed a distinct kink in output energy with increasing pump energy (see FIG. 2B which illustrates a graph of energy of laser output of the exemplary laser of FIG. 2A as a function of the pump energy) but began to lase at considerably lower pump energies (1.90.2 nJ). The reduced threshold of the solid-state protein laser can be attributable to the increased concentration of eGFP, which can result in a substantially higher gain per unit volume. The usable pump energies can be well within the range of output energies available from commercial diode pumped solid-state lasers and high repetition rate femto-second laser systems which can provide applications of lasing from fluorescent proteins in imaging or sensing applications.

(49) Exemplary Bio Laser Using Proteins in a Living Cell

(50) Fluorescent proteins can also facilitate lasing in-vivo. In one exemplary arrangement according to the present disclosure, a culture of E. coli expressing wild-type GFP can be smeared out on the surface of a flat mirror and covered with a second flat mirror as described above. The cavity can be optically pumped, and the output can be monitored as a function of the excitation pulse energy, as shown in FIG. 3A. This drawing illustrates a graph of energy of laser output as a function of the pump energy associated with characteristics of a laser based on GFP expressing E. coli cells, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. A distinct kink can be observed, although at a higher pump energy (15010 nJ) than for the recombinant protein laser. This can be attributed to the presence of additional intracavity losses introduced by scattering of light at the cell walls and at intracellular structures. Since the cell laser is based on the less efficient wild-type GFP variant and the reduced protein concentration (compare the illustrations of FIG. 1D) may also contribute to the increased lasing threshold. For pump energies just above the lasing threshold, the output spectrum of the cell laser can include well-defined sharp lines (as indicated by spectrum 231 in FIG. 3B which illustrates a set of graphs of an output spectrum of the laser associated with the illustration of FIG. 3A at two excitation pulse energies). At higher pump energies, however, these lines widened into an ensemble of closely spaced peaks (as indicated by spectrum 230 in FIG. 3B), which can be indicative of optical inhomogeneities inside the laser cavity. Among other factors, this can be due to the different orientation of individual E. coli cells. FIG. 3C shows an illustration of E. coli cells in lasing action, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(51) Exemplary Ring Resonator Laser

(52) In another exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, the resonator of the laser arrangement can be provided or created by a self-assembly process that can use a pattern formed during the drying of a drop of the solution or dispersion on a surface. The drop can have a volume of, e.g., 100 l or less. The resonator can have a closed geometry, such as circular, or an open geometry, such as linear, or be closed by reflecting structures.

(53) In one exemplary embodiment of the arrangement according to the present disclosure as shown in FIGS. 4A-4D, the interplay between the surface energy of the solution 300 on a substrate 301 is illustrated. In particular, FIGS. 4A and 4B show respective side and top views of a solid-state protein structure implementing a self-assembly process, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. FIGS. 4C and 4D shows respective side and top views of the solid-state protein structure of FIG. 4A implementing further procedures of the exemplary self-assembly process, whereas non-volatile parts of solutions are transported toward a rim of a droplet, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure;

(54) For example, as shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, the droplet of fluorescent protein solution 300 is applied during the drying process on the substrate 301. The non-volatile parts of the solutions are transported towards the rim of the droplet as indicated by the arrows 302. As shown in FIGS. 4C and 4D, a dried droplet 300a is formed with a donut-shaped structure on the substrate 301. The material diffusion within the solution and the evaporation dynamics is responsible for the formation of a well-defined rim 300a of the non-volatile material or materials dissolved or dispersed in the solution at the outer contact line of the droplet 300. The droplet 300 can be produced by pipetting, ink-jet printing, electro-spray processes or other methods known to the art. The rim 300a formed during the drying of the droplet defines or assist with defining a waveguide with a circular shape.

(55) According to a certain exemplary embodiment of the arrangement according to the present disclosure, the solution or dispersion used in the exemplary process shown in FIGS. 4A-4D can contain one or more different fluorescent proteins that can be used to provide an optical gain within the circular waveguide formed during the drying of the droplet. According to another exemplary embodiment of the arrangement according to the present disclosure, the solution can contain one or more fluorescent polymers, including but not limited to polymers of the poly(p-phenylene vinylene) and poly-co-fluorene families, or monomers of synthetic nature, including but not limited to rhodamine, fluorescein, coumarin, stilbene, umbelliferone, tetracene and malachite green, to provide the gain and possibly additional compounds that serve the purpose of improving the properties of the emissive species and the material in general, in particular the mechanical and optical properties.

(56) According to a further exemplary embodiment of the arrangement according to the present disclosure, evanescent coupling procedures can be used to extract energy from the resonator. For example, according to this exemplary embodiment, the resonator can be placed in the proximity of a tapered optical fiber or a slab waveguide. The distance between resonator and fiber or waveguide can be in the range of about 10 nm to 100 m, preferably about 10 nm to 10 m.

(57) According to an additional exemplary embodiment of the arrangement according to the present disclosure, fluorescent proteins can be used as gain medium and also form a ring resonator and thus generate laser light without an external cavity. Whenever a drop of a solution dries on a substrate, the capillary flow during solvent evaporation causes the non-volatile components of the solution to be primarily deposited at the outer edge of the drop, which is also known as coffee stain effect. l-droplets of an eGFP solution (1 mM) form very homogeneous rings of protein with m-scale width and thickness. This can be compared to the illustration of FIG. 5A, which shows an image of surface topography of the protein stain, the self-assembled eGFP ring resonator laser, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. Indeed, the surface topography of the protein stain can be formed by drying a 1 l drop of a 1 M eGFP solution, and the data can acquired by optical profilometry.

(58) In this example, a single droplet of the eGFP solution can be deposited on a low refractive-index substrate (e.g., n1.34) to utilize these protein stains as circular waveguides and ring resonators. The exemplary difference in refractive index from the protein (n1.51) to the substrate and the surrounding air, respectively, can lead to waveguiding inside the protein ring. If the optical gain in this exemplary circular waveguide is sufficient to overcome the loss, such a structure acts as a laser, with the optical feedback provided by the ring that feeds the light back onto its original trajectory after each roundtrip. A fraction of the circulating light can be continuously extracted, e.g. by inherent bending losses. This light can be emitted in the plane of the ring and can propagate along tangents to the ring as illustrated in the inset to FIG. 5B, which illustrates a combination of exemplary perspective view image and graph of an output energy of the ring resonator laser as a function of the pump energy for an intact resonator. This drawing can be produced for the intact ring (e.g., see closed symbols as shown in FIG. 5B) or after the ring is cut open (e.g., see open symbols as shown in FIG. 5B), with straight lines 320 and 320a representing linear fits, and the inset portion of the drawing illustrating the pump configuration and the light-leakage from the ring resonator. The leakage can become significant compared to omni-directional non-guided emission from the protein if the circulating light is amplified by stimulated emission. As shown in the inset to FIG. 5B, the protein ring can be optically excited from the top with pulses of blue light. The emission from the protein ring resonator can be collected from the edge of the sample and either imaged or passed to a spectrometer.

(59) FIG. 5C shows images taken of the ring laser taken at certain exemplary pump energies, according to exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure at two different pump energies (e.g., top image: Ep=0.5 J, bottom image: Ep=3 J). For the lower pump energy, the entire ring can emit homogeneously. At the higher pump energy, however, the light can be mostly emitted from the left and the right edge of the ring, e.g., in the regions where any light leaking from the circulating waveguide mode propagates towards the camera. The additional bright spot in the left upper half of the ring can result from a small defect which can cause scattering of the waveguided light. As shown in FIG. 5B, the intensity of the light emitted from the edge of the ring increases rapidly for Ep >1 J. This threshold energy corresponds to a flux of 100 nJ/mm.sup.2.

(60) Above the threshold, the spectrum of the emitted light is dominated by several closely spaced sharp lines, as shown in a spectrum 340 in FIG. 5D, which illustrates an exemplary graph of an emission spectrum from the eGFP ring resonator laser at the pump energies of FIG. 5C). The emission spectrum from the eGFP ring resonator laser at pump energies of 0.5 J is shown as a line 340a, and 3 J as a line 340. The exemplary change in the spatial profile of the emission, the threshold behavior and the collapse of the emission spectrum can indicate that the protein ring resonator indeed forms a laser. To confirm that waveguiding in the protein ring is the responsible mechanism for optical feedback, a small section (200 m) of the ring can be cut away, and the above described measurements can be repeated. A kink in the input-output characteristics (see FIG. 5B, e.g., open symbols) or spectral narrowing of the emission would likely not be observed.

(61) For example, lasing from fluorescent proteins is not limited to the green part of the spectrum. A ring resonator formed by the red fluorescent protein turboRFP can also provide indications of lasing. The exemplary graph of FIG. 5D also shows the emission spectrum of this laser above the lasing threshold 345 along with the spontaneous fluorescence spectrum of turboRFP 345a. There can be significant improvements in the efficiency and directionality of these ring resonator lasers if, e.g., the light is extracted into an adjacent linear waveguide by evanescent coupling.

(62) Exemplary Crystal Laser

(63) An exemplary drying process can leave a randomly distributed aggregate of proteins. Alternatively or in addition, since the molecular structure and genetic sequence of many proteins can already be known, protein crystals can be formed and utilized as a gain medium with the advantage of high concentration and negligible optical scattering-induced loss.

(64) The crystalline lens in the eye can be transparent mainly because of the periodic stacking of lens fibers. A lens that is engineered to produce fluorescent proteins can be used as a gain medium to produce laser light in vivo.

(65) Exemplary Fiber Laser

(66) According to still another exemplary embodiment of the arrangement of the present disclosure, a hollow optical fiber or photonic crystal fiber can be filled with a solution containing one or several fluorescent proteins. The fiber can be made of glasses, plastics, or biodegradable polymers. The guiding of light in such fiber can be achieved by making a portion of the cladding of the fiber air-filled or by using anti-guiding structures and/or by using a fiber consisting of a cladding material with a refractive index that can be lower than the index of refraction of the protein solution. At least one of the proteins in the fiber can be optically excited by coupling light into the fiber. The emission from at least one of the proteins is guided inside the fiber.

(67) According to yet another exemplary embodiment of the arrangement of the present disclosure, such exemplary structure can be used as a laser and optical feedback is provided by reflecting elements, such as mirrors or Bragg gratings, at the two ends of the fiber or by an optical feedback structure distributed along the fiber or by closing the fiber to a ring resonator structure.

(68) According to yet a further exemplary embodiment of the arrangement of the present disclosure, the exemplary structure can be used as an amplifier. For example, light carrying an optical signal can be coupled into the fiber, together with light exciting at least one of the proteins in the fiber. The optical signal can be amplified by a stimulated emission from at least one of the proteins as it propagates along the fiber. The optical signal can be extracted from the other end of the fiber and separated from any residual excitation light using filters or other suitable means.

(69) Exemplary Laser Particles

(70) According to yet another exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, it is possible to provide a variety of miniature lasers using fluorescent proteins. As shown in the exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure of FIG. 6A, it is possible to utilize a highly reflective micro-shell structure 400 encapsulating fluorescent proteins 401 in a solution or solid-state. If the shell provides sufficient reflectivity, lasing can be possible. For example, the cavity can be a spherical or tubular structure and range from 1 mm to below ten nanometers in diameter. Other gain materials, such as fluorescent polymers or dyes, can replace the proteins as the gain medium.

(71) Such exemplary micro-lasers can be used for a variety of biomedical applications. For example, it is possible to inject the laser particles into a live animal, intravenously, orally, or subcutaneously. The particles can diffuse into specific locations in the body, or their surface can be functionalized so that they target specific cells and compartments preferentially. Under sufficient pump light, the particles emit laser light that can facilitate detection, diagnosis, and/or treatment. FIG. 6B shows an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell laser having non-linear emission characteristics determining a position of individual particles or particle clusters, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. For example, as shown in FIG. 6B, the nonlinear threshold of lasing can facilitate the location of the particle to be determined in 3D space, in a similar way as used in multiphoton microscopy. In particular, the non-linear emission characteristics can determine the position of individual particles or particle clusters 410 inside tissue 411 in 3D as particles 410a located in the focus of an excitation beam 412 reach threshold at lower absolute excitation intensity.

(72) Exemplary Single Cell Laser

(73) Lasing from a single biological cell should be possible. FIG. 6C illustrates a micro-scale, protein cell laser in which single cells are embedded in suitable cavities, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. As shown in FIG. 6C, a cell 420, e.g., either eukaryote or prokaryote, can be configured or engineered to produce fluorescent proteins and/or prepared to contain fluorescent proteins in the cytoplasm, and then provided inside a high-finesse cavity 421. The cavity 421 can be a 1D, 2D, or 3D photonic crystal made of silicon, sapphire, silica or silicon nitride (Si.sub.3N.sub.4), for example, by lithography. FIG. 6D illustrates a micro-scale, protein cell laser in which single cell lasing are applied for sorting of fluorescent labeled cells, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. In this exemplary embodiment, a fluorescent labeled cell 430 can be delivered to a laser cavity consisting of a back reflector 432 and a partial front reflector 433 by a microfluidic channel 431, which can be used for cell detection and sorting with an advantage of higher and directed signal intensity. In particular, single cell lasing procedure can be facilitated for sorting of the fluorescent labeled cells 430 present in the fluidic channel 431 equipped with the cavity 432, 433. For example, the emitted radiation 434 provides information about the cells.

(74) Exemplary Intracellular Lasing

(75) FIG. 6E shows an exemplary illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell micro laser in a cell, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. For example, lasing particles 440 with sizes that can be less than 10 micron or preferably less than 200 nm can be used to produce the laser light from within a biological cell 442. Particularly configured or engineered nanoparticles, such as gold rods, with plasmonic absorption peaks matched to the absorption and/or emission band of fluorescent proteins can be used to produce laser light from within the cell 442. Such nanoparticles can serve as an antenna for the pump light as well as the cavity of lasing light. FIG. 6D shows an illustration of a micro-scale, protein cell nano laser in a cell, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. In particular, exemplary nano particles 441 or lasers can be provided in the cell 442. For example, metallic nano-particles can act as antenna 443 for the pump light and form a plasmonic lasing cavity.

(76) Such intracellular lasing or single-cell lasing can be useful for various applications including imaging, detection, drug screening, or cellular biology. The number of fluorescence channels used in imaging and cytometry can be limited by the broad spectral widths, typically about 50 to 100 nm, of fluorescence emission. The line-width can be reduced to sub nanometer in the laser emission. The center wavelength of the emission can be adjusted by the resonance of the cavity. This features can avail more than 100 channels for more accurate, high-throughput measurement.

(77) Exemplary Laser Based on Biological Structures

(78) In one exemplary embodiment according to the present innovation, photonic structures that are formed in living organisms can be used as the resonator of a laser. In one example, a wing of a butterfly, in particular of those species with wings colored by structural color, or sections of such a wing can be used. The wing or section thereof can be soaked in a solution containing a fluorescent protein, fluorescent polymer, or laser dye, including but not limited to the materials listed in the pervious embodiments. The fluorescent material can also be applied by spray deposition, ink-jetting or other suitable procedures known in the art. The fluorescent material can also comprise, at least in part, fluorescent proteins that can be expressed in the organism, creating a situation where both the laser resonator and the gain medium are formed by a living organism. The wing or section thereof can then be excited by light with a wavelength that is absorbed by the fluorescent material present, using, e.g., a pulsed light source, as described in the exemplary embodiments herein.

(79) Exemplary Amplifier and Amplified Spontaneous Emission Source

(80) For example, an excited biological gain medium can be used for amplifying the magnitude of electromagnetic radiation. In an exemplary illustration shown in FIG. 7A which provides an illustration of an amplification of electromagnetic radiation by stimulated emission in a biological gain medium, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure, population inversion can be accomplished in a biological gain medium 510 by a pumping arrangement 520. The excited biological gain medium 510 can receive an input electromagnetic radiation 530, and produce an output electromagnetic radiation 540. The magnitude of the output radiation 540 can be higher than that of the input radiation 530. Certain exemplary applications of such biological amplifier can be implemented. For example, such amplifier can be used to amplify optical signals in integrated optic circuits or opto-fluidic devices, and also to boost fluorescence or inelastic scattering signals within tissues. When a population inversion is accomplished and/or when the gain is greater than one, the gain medium can produce an output electromagnetic radiation with a substantial magnitude even in the absence of an input electromagnetic radiation. One such phenomenon is known as amplified spontaneous emission (ASE).

(81) FIG. 7B shows an illustration of a generation of an amplified spontaneous emission light from the biological gain medium of FIG. 7A, according to certain exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. According to the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 7B, seed photons can be generated within the gain medium 510 via a spontaneous emission, such as the fluorescence light. Once generated, the emission can propagate through the gain medium, get amplified by the gain medium via the stimulated emission process, and result in an output light 550 with a substantially higher magnitude than the spontaneous emission seed. The spectrum of the ASE light can be narrower than that of the seed light.

(82) The foregoing merely illustrates the principles of the present disclosure. Various modifications and alterations to the described embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of the teachings herein. For example, more than one of the described exemplary arrangements, radiations and/or systems can be implemented to implement the exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. It will thus be appreciated that those skilled in the art will be able to devise numerous systems, arrangements and methods which, although not explicitly shown or described herein, embody the principles of the present disclosure and are thus within the spirit and scope of the present disclosure. In addition, to the extent that the prior art knowledge has not been explicitly incorporated by reference herein above, it is explicitly being incorporated herein in its entirety.