Thermoelectric energy storage system with an intermediate storage tank and method for storing thermoelectric energy

Abstract

A system and method are provided for storing electric energy in the form of thermal energy. A thermoelectric energy storage system includes a working fluid circuit for circulating a working fluid through a heat exchanger, and a thermal storage medium circuit for circulating a thermal storage medium. The thermal storage medium circuit includes at least one hot storage tank, an intermediate temperature storage tank, and a cold storage tank connected together via the heat exchanger. A proportion of the storage medium is redirected to or from the intermediate storage tank from or to the hot or cold storage tank, joining another proportion which flows directly between the cold and hot storage tank.

Claims

1. An energy storage system having a charging cycle for providing thermal energy to a thermal storage, and a discharging cycle for generating electricity by retrieving the thermal energy from the thermal storage, the energy storage system comprising: a heat exchanger; a working fluid circuit for circulating a working fluid through said heat exchanger; a thermal storage medium circuit for circulating a thermal storage medium, the thermal storage medium circuit having at least one hot storage tank, one intermediate temperature storage tank and one cold storage tank connected together via the heat exchanger; means for joining or dividing a stream of thermal storage medium; and wherein the means for joining or dividing a stream of thermal storage medium comprise an internal stream splitter comprised in the heat exchanger.

2. The energy storage system according to claim 1, wherein at least one further intermediate storage tank is connected in the thermal storage medium circuit, and the heat exchanger has a further internal stream splitter for each further intermediate storage tank.

3. The energy storage system according to claim 1, wherein the charging and/or discharging cycle run transcritically.

4. An energy storage system having a charging cycle for providing thermal energy to a thermal storage, and a discharging cycle for generating electricity by retrieving the thermal energy from the thermal storage, the energy storage system comprising: a heat exchanger; a working fluid circuit for circulating a working fluid through said heat exchanger; a thermal storage medium circuit for circulating a thermal storage medium, the thermal storage medium circuit having at least one hot storage tank, one intermediate temperature storage tank and one cold storage tank connected together via the heat exchanger; means for joining or dividing a stream of thermal storage medium; and wherein the heat exchanger is divided into a first section and a second section and the thermal storage medium flows through both the first section and the second section, and wherein the means for joining or dividing a stream of thermal storage medium comprise a stream splitter located between the first section and second section of the heat exchanger.

5. An energy storage system having a charging cycle for providing thermal energy to a thermal storage, and a discharging cycle for generating electricity by retrieving the thermal energy from the thermal storage, the energy storage system comprising: a heat exchanger; a working fluid circuit for circulating a working fluid through said heat exchanger; a thermal storage medium circuit for circulating a thermal storage medium, the thermal storage medium circuit having at least one hot storage tank, one intermediate temperature storage tank and one cold storage tank connected together via the heat exchanger; means for joining or dividing a stream of thermal storage medium; and wherein the energy storage system converts electricity into heat and stores said heat in the charging cycle.

6. A method for storing and retrieving energy in an energy storage system, comprising: charging the system by heating a thermal storage medium, wherein the charging comprises: the thermal storage medium circulates between a hot storage tank, an intermediate storage tank and a cold storage tank connected together via a heat exchanger, wherein some proportion of thermal storage medium from the cold storage tank is split off and directed to the intermediate storage tank after passing through some part of the heat exchanger, or a portion of thermal storage medium from the intermediate storage tank is combined with thermal storage medium from the cold storage tank before passing through some other part of the heat exchanger; and discharging the system by heating a working fluid in a working fluid circuit with heat from the thermal storage medium, and expanding the working fluid through a thermodynamic machine.

7. The method according to claim 6, wherein during discharging, thermal storage medium from the intermediate storage tank is combined with thermal storage medium from the hot storage tank before passing through some part of the heat exchanger, or some proportion of thermal storage medium from the hot storage tank is split off and directed to the intermediate storage tank after passing through some other part of the heat exchanger.

8. The method according to claim 6, wherein thermal storage medium from the cold storage tank is pumped through the heat exchanger into the hot storage tank, and partially into the intermediate storage tank.

9. The method according to claim 6, wherein thermal storage medium from the hot storage tank and the intermediate storage tank are pumped through the heat exchanger into the cold storage tank.

10. The method according to claim 6, wherein a rate of flow of the thermal storage medium through the heat exchanger is modified by varying the input rate of flow of thermal storage medium to the intermediate storage tank, and by varying the output rate of flow of thermal storage medium from the intermediate storage tank.

11. The method according to claim 10, wherein the step of modifying the rate of flow comprises minimizing the temperature difference between the working fluid and the thermal storage medium during charging and discharging cycles.

12. The method according to claim 6, further comprising: connecting at least one further intermediate storage tank via the heat exchanger, and further dividing or joining the stream of the thermal storage medium for each further intermediate storage tank.

13. The method according to claim 6, wherein the charging and/or the discharging cycle are performed transcritically.

14. The method according to claim 6, wherein the energy storage system is a thermoelectric energy storage system, and wherein electricity is converted into heat and stored in the charging cycle.

15. A method for storing and retrieving energy in an energy storage system, comprising: charging the system in a charging cycle, wherein the charging comprises: the thermal storage medium circulates between a hot storage tank, an intermediate storage tank and a cold storage tank connected together via a heat exchanger, wherein all the thermal storage medium from the cold storage tank is routed to the intermediate storage tank after a first heat exchanger section of the heat exchanger, and then a portion of the thermal storage medium is piped out of the intermediate storage tank and fed into a second heat exchanger section of the heat exchanger and subsequently to the hot storage tank; and discharging the system by heating a working fluid in a working fluid circuit with heat from the thermal storage medium, and expanding the working fluid through a thermodynamic machine.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) Additional refinements, advantages and features of the present disclosure are described in more detail below with reference to exemplary embodiments illustrated in the drawings, in which:

(2) FIG. 1 shows a heat flow-temperature diagram of the heat transfer from the cycles in a known transcritical TEES system;

(3) FIG. 2 shows a simplified schematic diagram of a charging cycle of a transcritical TEES system according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure;

(4) FIG. 3 shows a simplified schematic diagram of a discharging cycle of a transcritical TEES system according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure;

(5) FIG. 4 shows a heat flow-temperature diagram of the heat transfer from the cycles in a transcritical TEES system according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure;

(6) FIG. 5 shows a simplified schematic diagram of a charging cycle according to an exemplary embodiment of a transcritical TEES system of the present disclosure;

(7) FIG. 5A shows a simplified schematic diagram of a charging cycle according to an exemplary embodiment of a transcritical TEES system of the present disclosure having a further intermediate storage tank; and

(8) FIG. 6 shows a simplified schematic diagram of a charging cycle according to an exemplary embodiment of a transcritical TEES system of the present disclosure.

(9) For consistency, the same reference numerals are used to denote similar elements illustrated throughout the drawings.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(10) Exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure provide a thermoelectric energy storage system for converting electrical energy into thermal energy to be stored and converted back to electrical energy with an improved round-trip efficiency. Exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure provide a thermoelectric energy storage system and a method for storing and retrieving energy in a thermoelectric energy storage system.

(11) According to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, a thermoelectric energy storage system has a charging cycle for providing thermal energy to a thermal storage, and a discharging cycle for generating electricity by retrieving the thermal energy from the thermal storage. The thermoelectric energy storage system includes a working fluid circuit for circulating a working fluid through a heat exchanger, and a thermal storage medium circuit for circulating a thermal storage medium. The thermal storage medium circuit includes at least one hot storage tank, an (e.g., one) intermediate temperature storage tank, and a (e.g., one) cold storage tank connected together via the heat exchanger. A rate of flow of the thermal storage medium in the heat exchanger is modifiable by a variation in the input rate of flow of the thermal storage medium to the intermediate storage tank and variation in the output rate of flow of the thermal storage medium from the intermediate storage tank. Modifying or adapting the flow rate of the thermal storage medium in the heat exchanger enables controlling the heat exchange process in view of an improved round-trip efficiency.

(12) In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, the temperature of the hot storage tank is greater than the temperature of the intermediate temperature storage tank, which in turn is greater than the temperature of the cold storage tank. During charging and discharging, the temperature of each storage tank remains constant.

(13) In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, the rate of flow of the thermal storage medium is modified in order to minimize, at any point of contact between the thermal storage medium and the working fluid in the heat exchanger, and during both charging and discharging cycles, the temperature difference between the working fluid and the thermal storage medium. In other words, the rate of flow of the thermal storage medium in the heat exchanger is adapted such that the isobar of the thermal storage medium closely follows the curvature of the isobar of the working fluid, during both charging and discharging cycles. To this purpose, a maximum temperature difference between the thermal storage medium and the working fluid is kept below 20%, for example, below 15%, of the temperature difference between the cold storage tank and the hot storage tank.

(14) In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, the heat exchanger has an internal stream splitter configured to divide or join the stream of the thermal storage medium from the intermediate storage tank.

(15) In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, the heat exchanger is divided into a first section and a second section. The thermal storage medium flows through both the first section and the second section, and a stream splitter is located between the first section and second section of the heat exchanger. The stream splitter is configured to divide or join the stream of the thermal storage medium from the intermediate storage tank.

(16) In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, the heat exchanger is divided into a first section and a second section, and the thermal storage medium flows through both the first section and the second section via the intermediate storage tank.

(17) In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, at least one further intermediate storage tank is connected in the thermal storage medium circuit, and the heat exchanger has a further internal stream splitter for each further intermediate storage tank.

(18) At least one of the charging cycle or discharging cycle runs transcritically. Thus, the working fluid may undergo a transcritical cooling in the heat exchanger during a charging cycle of the thermoelectric energy storage system. When the thermoelectric energy storage system is in a charging cycle, the system includes an expander, an evaporator and a compressor. Further, the working fluid may undergo a transcritical heating in the heat exchanger during a discharging cycle of the thermoelectric energy storage system. When the thermoelectric energy storage system is in a discharging cycle, the system includes a pump, a condenser and a turbine.

(19) An exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure provides a method for storing and retrieving energy in a thermoelectric energy storage system is provided. The method includes charging the system by heating a thermal storage medium. The thermal storage medium circulates between a hot storage tank, an intermediate storage tank and a cold storage tank connected together via a heat exchanger. The method also includes discharging the system by heating a working fluid in a working fluid circuit with heat from the thermal storage medium and expanding the working fluid through a thermodynamic machine. The rate of flow of the thermal storage medium through the heat exchanger is modified by varying the input rate of flow of thermal storage medium to the intermediate storage tank, and varying the output rate of flow of thermal storage medium from the intermediate storage tank.

(20) FIGS. 2 and 3 schematically depict a charging cycle system and a discharging cycle system, respectively, of a transcritical TEES system in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure.

(21) The charging cycle system shown in FIG. 2 includes a work recovering expander 10, an evaporator 12, a compressor 14 and a heat exchanger 16 having an internal stream splitter 18. A working fluid circulates through these components as indicated by the solid line with arrows in FIG. 2. Further, a cold-fluid storage tank 20, an intermediate storage tank 22 and a hot-fluid storage tank 24 containing a fluid thermal storage medium are connected together in parallel via the heat exchanger 16.

(22) In operation, the charging cycle system performs a transcritical cycle and the working fluid flows around the TEES system in the following manner. The working fluid in the evaporator 12 absorbs heat from a cold thermal bath and evaporates. The vaporized working fluid is circulated to the compressor 14 and surplus electrical energy is utilized to compress and heat the working fluid to a supercritical state. (In such a supercritical state, the fluid is above the critical temperature and critical pressure.) The working fluid is fed through the heat exchanger 16 where the working fluid discards heat into the thermal storage medium. The compressed working fluid exits the heat exchanger 16 and enters the expander 10. Here the working fluid is expanded to the lower pressure at the evaporator inlet. The working fluid flows from the expander 10 back into the evaporator 12.

(23) The thermal storage medium, represented by the dashed line in FIG. 2, is pumped from the cold-fluid storage tank 20 through the heat exchanger 16 into the hot-fluid storage tank 24 and partially into the intermediate storage tank 22. The temperature of the thermal storage medium is detected on either side of the internal stream splitter 18 by temperature sensors such as thermocouples or resistive sensors, for example. The heat discarded from the working fluid into the thermal storage medium is stored in the form of sensible heat.

(24) Following detection of the temperature of the thermal storage medium on either side of the internal stream splitter 18, the flow rate of the thermal storage medium into the intermediate storage tank 22 and the hot-fluid storage tank 24 is adjusted. This is achieved by means of appropriate piping and valve arrangements. The initial valve openings are determined according to the desired temperature profile and the valve openings are fine-tuned during operation according to the temperature measurements.

(25) The heat exchanger system is designed such that the position of the stream splitter 18 within the heat exchanger 16 coincides with the point of the heat exchanger 16 at which the storage medium is at the temperature level of the intermediate storage tank 22. The diverted stream is stored in the intermediate tank 22. The second stream continues through the rest of the heat exchanger 16 into the hot storage tank 24.

(26) It is noted that in the heat exchanger 16 the working fluid pressure will be above the critical pressure, however the working fluid temperature may go below the critical temperature. Therefore, while the working fluid enters the heat exchanger 16 in a supercritical state, it may leave the heat exchanger in a subcritical state.

(27) In the exemplary embodiment having a single stream splitting, the internal stream splitter 18 functions to join or divide the stream of thermal storage medium in the charging cycle and functions to join or divide the streams of thermal storage medium in the discharging cycle.

(28) The discharging cycle system shown in FIG. 3 includes a pump 26, a condenser 28, a turbine 30 and a heat exchanger 16 having an internal stream splitter 18. A working fluid circulates through these components as indicated by the dotted line with arrows in FIG. 3. Further, a cold-fluid storage tank 20, an intermediate storage tank 22 and a hot-fluid storage tank 24 containing a fluid thermal storage medium are connected together in parallel via the heat exchanger 16. The thermal storage medium, represented by the dashed line in FIG. 3, is pumped from the hot-fluid storage tank 24 and from the intermediate storage tank 22 into the cold-fluid storage tank 20.

(29) In operation, the discharging cycle system also performs a transcritical cycle and the working fluid flows around the TEES system in the following manner. Heat is transferred from the thermal storage medium to the working fluid causing the working fluid to go through transcritical heating. The working fluid then exits the heat exchanger 16 in a supercritical state and enters the turbine 30 where the working fluid is expanded, thereby causing the turbine coupled to a generator to generate electrical energy. Next, the working fluid enters the condenser 28, where the working fluid is condensed by exchanging heat with a cold thermal bath. The condensed working fluid exits the condenser 28 via an outlet and is pumped again beyond its critical pressure into the heat exchanger 16 via the pump 26.

(30) The thermal storage medium, represented by the dashed line in FIG. 3, is pumped from the hot-fluid storage tank 24 and the intermediate storage tank 22, through the heat exchanger 16 into the cold-fluid storage tank 20. The temperature of the thermal storage medium is detected and monitored on either side of the internal stream splitter 18.

(31) While the charging cycle system of FIG. 2 and the discharging cycle system of FIG. 3 have been illustrated separately, the heat exchanger 16, cold-fluid storage tank 20, intermediate fluid storage tank 22, hot-fluid storage tank 24 and thermal storage medium are common to both. The charging and discharging cycles may be performed consecutively, not simultaneously.

(32) In other words, an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure provides a thermoelectric energy storage system which has a charging cycle for providing thermal energy to a thermal storage, and a discharging cycle for generating electricity by retrieving the thermal energy from the thermal storage. The thermoelectric energy storage system includes a thermal storage medium conduit with at least one cold storage tank 20 and a (e.g., one) hot storage tank 24, a thermal storage medium and means to transfer the thermal storage medium from the cold storage tank 20 to the hot storage tank 24 during charging and from the hot storage tank 24 to the cold storage tank 20 during discharging. The thermoelectric energy storage system also includes at least one heat exchanger 16 connected to the thermal storage medium conduit between the cold storage tank 20 and the hot storage tank 24 for exchanging heat between the thermal storage medium and a working fluid of a working fluid circuit, where the working fluid undergoes a transcritical process during heat transfer. In addition, the thermal storage medium conduit branches to at least one additional intermediate storage tank 22 with a temperature between that of the cold storage tank (20) and that of the hot storage tank 24. During charging some proportion of the thermal storage medium from the cold storage tank 20 is split off and directed to the intermediate storage tank 22 after passing through some part of the heat exchanger 16, or alternatively a portion of thermal storage medium from the intermediate storage tank 22 is combined with the thermal storage medium from the cold storage tank 24 before passing through some other part of the heat exchanger 16. During discharging, the thermal storage medium from the intermediate storage tank 22 is combined with the thermal storage medium from the hot storage tank 24 before passing through some part of the heat exchanger 16, or alternatively some proportion of the thermal storage medium from the hot storage tank is split off and directed to the intermediate storage tank 22 after passing through some other part of the heat exchanger 16.

(33) In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, the flow rate of the various streams of thermal storage medium within the heat exchanger 16 can be controlled and modified to optimize round-trip efficiency of the transcritical TEES of the present disclosure. Further explanation follows herein with reference to FIG. 4.

(34) FIG. 4 shows a heat flow-temperature diagram of the heat transfer in the heat exchanger 16 during the cycles in a TEES system in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure. The solid line indicates the temperature profile of the working fluid in the TEES charging cycle. The dotted line indicates the temperature profile of the working fluid in the TEES discharging cycle. The dashed line and dot-dashed line indicates the temperature profile of the thermal storage medium in the TEES cycles. The arrows indicate the flow directions in the heat exchanger 16. Heat can only flow from a higher to a lower temperature. Consequently, the characteristic profile for the working fluid during cooling in the charging cycle has to be above the characteristic profile for the thermal storage medium, which in turn has to be above the characteristic profile for the working fluid during heating in the discharging cycle.

(35) In the exemplary embodiment represented in FIG. 4, the stream splitting/joining point is indicated at a thermal storage medium temperature of approximately 340 C. On the right hand side of this point on the graph, the gradient of the temperature profiles increases. This relatively increased gradient is shown by a dot-dashed line and is a consequence of a different flowrate of the thermal storage medium after the stream splitting/joining point. Thus, FIG. 4 illustrates the temperature profiles from a transcritical TEES in which two different flow rates of the thermal storage medium are present. The two flow rates may occur within a single heat exchanger, before and after the stream splitter. In accordance with another exemplary embodiment, having a first and a second heat exchanger in series separated by a stream splitter, there may be a different flow rate in each heat exchanger.

(36) In this particular embodiment of the present disclosure, the temperature of the cold storage tank is approximately 100 C., the temperature of the intermediate storage tank is approximately 340 C., and the temperature of the hot storage tank is approximately 520 C. A minimum approach temperature of around 25 C. is assumed (e.g., the minimum temperature difference between two fluids exchanging heat is 25 C.). In such an embodiment, the flowrates of the thermal storage medium between the cold storage tank and the stream splitter, and between the stream splitter and hot storage tank, are controlled such that they have a ratio approximately 2:1.

(37) It can be seen from FIG. 4 that the isobars representing the working fluid in the charging and discharging cycles closely follow the form of the isobar representing the thermal storage liquid. Thus, the temperature differences in both the charging and discharging cycles, Tmin and Tmax, respectively, are significantly smaller than in the case without stream split depicted in FIG. 1. Thus, the roundtrip efficiency of the system is increased, regardless of the size of the heat exchanger.

(38) The skilled person will be aware that, a heat flow-temperature diagram of the heat transfer in the heat exchanger may have a different form in accordance with another exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure. For example, it is possible the gradient of the working fluid isobar on the left of the stream splitting point is greater than the gradient of the working fluid isobar to the right of the splitting point. This would indicate that the streams output from the cold storage tank and the intermediate tank are joined at the stream splitter during charging, and divided at the stream splitter during discharging.

(39) The temperature profiles are stationary in time due to the sensible heat storage in the thermal storage medium. Thus, while the volume of thermal storage medium in the heat exchanger remains constant, the volume of hot and cold thermal storage medium stored in the hot-fluid, intermediate and cold-fluid storage tanks changes. Also, the temperature distribution in the heat exchanger remains constant.

(40) FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure in which two distinct heat exchangers 16a, 16b in series are separated by a stream splitter 18. FIG. 5 shows a charging cycle of this embodiment in which a first heat exchanger 16a is fed by thermal storage medium from the cold storage tank 20. The thermal storage medium leaving the first heat exchanger 16a enters a stream splitter 18, where a portion of the thermal storage medium is diverted to the intermediate storage tank 22. The remaining portion of the thermal storage medium is fed into a second heat exchanger 16b. The thermal storage medium leaving the second heat exchanger 16b is routed to the hot storage tank 24. The working fluid passes through both the first heat exchanger 16a and the second heat exchanger 16b, in the opposite direction to the thermal storage medium flow. The operation of this transcritical TEES system during a discharging cycle is equivalent to the cycle explained with respect to FIG. 3. Advantageously, this embodiment avoids the need to locate a stream splitter within a heat exchanger. It is noted that the point of variation of the flow rate occurs at the location of the stream splitter.

(41) FIG. 6 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, in which the heat exchanger 16a, 16b is sectioned to enable the thermal storage medium to enter and leave the intermediate storage tank 22 on a continuous path, instead of having an internal stream splitter arrangement. In this exemplary embodiment, during the TEES charging cycle, all the thermal storage medium from the cold storage tank 20 is routed to the intermediate storage tank 22 after a first heat exchanger section 16a, and then a portion of the thermal storage medium is piped out of the intermediate storage tank 22 and fed into a second heat exchanger section 16b and subsequently to the hot storage tank 24. The operation of this transcritical TEES system during a discharging cycle is equivalent to the cycle explained with respect to FIG. 3. Advantageously, this embodiment avoids the need for a stream splitter. The rate of flow of the thermal storage medium through the first and second heat exchangers 16a, 16b is controlled such that the representative isobar on a heat flow-temperature diagram (such as shown in FIG. 4) will closely follow the form of the isobars representing the working fluid. Consequently, there may be a variation in the flow rate of the thermal storage medium through each of the storage tanks. It is noted that the point of variation of the rate of flow occurs at the input or output of the intermediate storage tank 22.

(42) In every embodiment of the present disclosure, where there is a variation in the flow rate through the intermediate storage tank, it is understood that variation in the flow rate from and to the cold and hot storage tanks will consequently occur.

(43) The above descriptions of the charging cycles of FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 provided for inputting a portion of the thermal storage medium into the intermediate storage tank 22 during a charging cycle. However, it will be apparent to the skilled person, that the TEES system may output a portion of the thermal storage medium from the intermediate storage tank 22 during a charging cycle where this would result in the isobar representing the thermal storage medium running closely in parallel to the isobar representing the working fluid in a heat flow-temperature diagram of the heat transfer. In accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure, a second intermediate thermal storage tank is added to the thermal storage medium circuit. A second stream splitting/joining point within the heat exchanger is provided in this embodiment. Where the streams in such a heat exchanger are controlled to have differing flow rates, then the associated temperature profile would show three distinct gradient sections. This embodiment would be represented by a further linear section in the thermal storage medium temperature profile, thereby enabling the temperature profiles of the working fluid and the thermal storage medium to follow parallel paths more exactly.

(44) Further embodiments of the present disclosure are envisaged in which a third (or higher count) intermediate thermal storage tank is added to the thermal storage medium circuit. Again, a third (or further) stream splitting/joining point within the heat exchanger is provided in such further embodiments. The streams in such a heat exchanger may be controlled to have differing flow rates. The skilled person will understand the advantage of enabling the addition of one or more further distinct linear sections in the associated thermal storage medium temperature profile to increase round-trip efficiency. It is also possible to realize such embodiments with distinct heat exchangers in series separated by the stream splitting/joining valve and piping arrangements or with direct connections to the intermediate storage tanks.

(45) In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, the heat exchanger is a countercurrent flow heat exchanger, and the working fluid of the cycle can be carbon dioxide, for example. Further, the thermal storage medium is a fluid, such as water, for example. In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, the compressor of the present embodiment can be an electrically powered compressor. The skilled person will be aware that the TEES system, as illustrated in FIGS. 2 and 3, may be realized in several different ways. Alternative embodiments include:

(46) Different working fluids may be utilized for the charging and discharging cycles in order to maximize the roundtrip efficiency. Examples of working fluids that may be used are any refrigerant with a critical temperature below the high temperature level of the cycles.

(47) Either the ambient or a dedicated cold storage can be used as a heat source for the charging cycle and a heat sink for discharging cycle. The cold storage can be realized by producing an ice-water mixture during charging of the storage, and using the stored ice-water mixture to condense the working fluid during the discharge cycle.

(48) While the thermal storage medium may be water (if necessary, in a pressurized container), other materials, such as oil or molten salt, may also be used. Advantageously, water has relatively good heat transfer and transport properties and a high heat capacity, and therefore a relatively small volume is required for a predetermined heat storage capability. Clearly, water is non-flammable, non-toxic and environmentally friendly. Choice of a cheap thermal storage medium would contribute to a lower overall system cost.

(49) Multiple hot storage tanks instead of a single hot storage tank or multiple cold storage tanks instead of a single cold storage tank could be utilized within the present inventive concept. This could be envisaged where, for example, two small cold storage tanks are more practical than a single large storage tank.

(50) The skilled person will be aware that the condenser and the evaporator in the TEES system may be replaced with a multi-purpose heat exchange device that can assume both roles, since the use of the evaporator in the charging cycle and the use of the condenser in the discharging cycle will be carried out in different periods. Similarly, the turbine and the compressor roles can be carried out by the same machinery, referred to herein as a thermodynamic machine, capable of achieving both tasks.

(51) In accordance with an exemplary embodiment, the working fluid for the present disclosure can be carbon dioxide, which can be chosen mainly due to the higher efficiencies in heat transfer processes and the amiable properties of carbon dioxide as a natural working fluid, for example, non-flammable, no ozone depletion potential, no health hazards etc. However, the present disclosure is not limited thereto, as other suitable working fluids are also envisaged.

(52) Thus, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the present invention can be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The presently disclosed embodiments are therefore considered in all respects to be illustrative and not restricted. The scope of the invention is indicated by the appended claims rather than the foregoing description and all changes that come within the meaning and range and equivalence thereof are intended to be embraced therein.