Crystal structures of human Torsin-A and methods of determining and using the same

Abstract

A protein composition including TorsinA or TorsinA mutant, LULL1, and a nanobody obtained by immunization using TorsinA and LULL1 is used to grow complex crystals, and three dimensional structures are determined using x-ray data of the crystals. A screening platform is built based on the determined three dimensional structures for designing a drug lead to cure dystonia.

Claims

1. A protein composition, comprising: a target protein; a modulator of the target protein; and a nanobody comprising a polypeptide as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 5 or a portion thereof, wherein said nanobody or said portion thereof specifically binds to at least one of the target protein and the modulator.

2. The protein composition of claim 1, wherein the target protein is TorsinA, a mutant of TorsinA, or a portion thereof.

3. The protein composition of claim 2, wherein the target protein comprises an amino acid sequence as set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NO: 1-3 or a portion thereof.

4. The protein composition of claim 1, wherein the modulator is LULL1 or a portion thereof.

5. The protein composition of claim 4, wherein the modulator comprises the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 4.

6. The protein composition of claim 1, wherein the nanobody is specific for a complex comprising the target protein and the modulator.

7. The protein composition of claim 6, wherein the nanobody is obtained by immunization using the target protein comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 2 and the modulator comprising the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 4.

8. The protein composition of claim 7, wherein the target protein comprises the amino acid sequence set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NO: 1-3 or a portion thereof, the modulator comprises the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 4 or a portion thereof, the nanobody comprises the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 5 or a portion thereof, and the protein composition is co-expressed, and optionally purified together.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The accompanying drawings illustrate one or more embodiments of the invention and together with the written description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers are used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like elements of an embodiment.

(2) FIG. 1 shows a protein composition according to one embodiment of the present invention.

(3) FIG. 2A shows a schematic diagram of TorsinA according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2B shows a schematic diagram of LULL1 according to one embodiment of the present invention. The gray areas mark the crystallized segments. Large domain of TorsinA is darker than the small domains of TorsinA. SS, signal sequence; H, hydrophobic region; TM, transmembrane helix.

(4) FIG. 3 shows a flowchart of preparing a TorsinA protein composition according to one embodiment of the present invention.

(5) FIG. 4 shows a flowchart of obtaining crystals from a TorsinA protein composition according to one embodiment of the present invention.

(6) FIG. 5 shows a flowchart of determining three dimensional structures of TorsinA according to one embodiment of the present invention.

(7) FIG. 6 is a cartoon representation of the TorsinA-LULL1 complex in two orientations. Large domain of TorsinA is darker than the small domains of TorsinA. A nanobody (VHH-BS2, grey; with complementarity determining regions darker) was used as a crystallization chaperone. Numbers refer to secondary structure elements.

(8) FIG. 7 is a close-up of the ATP binding site. Key residues are labeled. 2Fo-Fc electron density contoured at 2 displayed as grey mesh.

(9) FIG. 8 is a close-up of the proximal cysteines 280 and 319 next to the adenine base of the bound ATP. 2Fo-Fc electron density is contoured at 1. The cysteine pair adopts three alternate conformations, but remains reduced in all of them.

(10) FIGS. 9, 10A and 10B are Analysis of the TorsinA-LULL1 interface. FIG. 9 is side-by-side comparison of TorsinA-ATP-LULL1 (left) and TorsinAE-ATP-LULL1 (right). Zoomed insets show the atomic details of the interactions between TorsinA/TorsinAE and LULL1, with a focus on the E303 area. FIGS. 10A and 10B are mutational analysis of the TorsinA-LULL1 interface. Substitution or deletion of residues involved in TorsinA-LULL1 binding were probed using a Ni-affinity co-purification assay with recombinant, bacterial-expressed protein. Only TorsinA is His-tagged. SDS-PAGE analysis is shown. Lack of binding is observed by the absence of complex (uncomplexed His-tagged TorsinA is insoluble). t, total lysate, e, Ni eluate. Asterisk denotes an unrelated contaminant.

(11) FIGS. 11A and 11B shows oligomerization of TorsinA-LULL1. FIG. 11A, Left, Schematic representation of a hypothetical heterohexameric (TorsinA-LULL1).sub.3 ring model, in analogy to canonical AAA+ ATPases. White star represents ATP. Since LULL1 cannot bind a nucleotide, there would be three catalytic (nucleotide-bound) and three non-catalytic interfaces per ring. Open-book representation of the catalytic interface between TorsinA and LULL1, as seen in this study. Black line marks the outline of the interface. Color gradient marks conservation across diverse eukaryotes. FIG. 11B, the same analysis as in a, but for the hypothetical non-catalytic interface. The interface model on the right is based on swapping the TorsinA and LULL1 positions in the TorsinA-LULL1 complex.

(12) FIGS. 12A and 12B show structure comparisons. FIG. 12A, human TorsinA-ATP (left) displayed as a cartoon, compared to the D2 domain of the double-ringed AAA+ ATPase ClpB-AMPPCP from Thermus thermophilus [46] (PDB code 4119; right) in the same orientation. Important structure motifs are labeled. FIG. 12B, human LULL1 (orange) superposed on human LAP1 (grey, PDB code 4TVS). The one region of major structural difference is labeled.

(13) FIG. 13 shows phylogenetic analysis of Torsins. Maximally diverged torsins are aligned. Secondary structure elements of human TorsinA are displayed above the alignment. Important sequence motifs are boxed. LULL1 contacts, red circles, conserved cysteines, yellow circles. Proximal cysteines 280 and 319 connected with a dashed yellow line. Asterisk denotes putative torsin homologs based on sequence analysis. hs, Homo sapiens; oa, Ornithorhynchus anatinus; gg, Gallus gallus; tr, Takifugu rubripes; dr, Danio rerio; nv, Nematostella vectensis; bf, Branchiostoma floridae; stp, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus; ci, Ciona intestinalis; ce, Caenorhabditis elegans; dm, Drosophila melanogaster; ta, Trichoplax adherens. hsTOR1A (SEQ ID NO: 11); hsTOR1B (SEQ ID NO: 12); hsTOR2A (SEQ ID NO: 13); hsTOR3A (SEQ ID NO: 14); oaTOR (SEQ ID NO: 15); ggTOR (SEQ ID NO: 16); trTOR (SEQ ID NO: 17); drTOR (SEQ ID NO: 18); nvTOR (SEQ ID NO: 19); dfTOR (SEQ ID NO: 20); stpTOR (SEQ ID NO: 21); ciTOR (SEQ ID NO: 22); ceTOR2 (SEQ ID NO: 23); ceTOR1 (SEQ ID NO: 24); ceOOC-5 (SEQ ID NO: 25); dmTOR1 (SEQ ID NO: 26); taTOR (SEQ ID NO: 27); dmTOR2 (SEQ ID NO: 28); dmTOR3 (SEQ ID NO: 29); hsTOR4A (SEQ ID NO: 30).

(14) FIG. 14 shows phylogenetic analysis of LAP1/LULL1. Maximally diverged LAP1 and LULL1 sequences are aligned. If not experimentally confirmed, sequences were assigned as LAP1 or LULL1 based on the presence of an N-terminal, extraluminal domain with basic signature, characteristic of LAP1. Secondary structure elements of human LULL1 are displayed above the alignment. The strictly conserved Arg-finger is boxed. TorsinA contacts, red circles, conserved cysteines, yellow circles. Disulfide bridge depicted as a yellow line. hs, Homo sapiens; oa, Ornithorhynchus anatinus; gg, Gallus gallus; tr, Takifugu rubripes; dr, Danio rerio; nv, Nematostella vectensis; bf, Branchiostoma floridae; stp, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus; ci, Ciona intestinalis; ce, Caenorhabditis elegans; dm, Drosophila melanogaster; ta, Trichoplax adherens. hsLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 31); hsLAP1 (SEQ ID NO: 32); ggLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 33); ggLAP1 (SEQ ID NO: 34); trLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 35); trLAP1 (SEQ ID NO: 36); drLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 37); drLAP1 (SEQ ID NO: 38); oaLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 39); oaLAP1 (SEQ ID NO: 40); stpLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 41); stpLAP1 (SEQ ID NO: 42); taLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 43); bfLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 44); bfLAP1 (SEQ ID NO: 45); nvLAP1 (SEQ ID NO: 46); ciLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 47); dmLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 48); cdLULL1 (SEQ ID NO: 49); ceLAP1 (SEQ ID NO: 50).

(15) FIG. 15 shows nanobody interaction. The heterotrimeric TorsinA(ATP)-LULL1-VHH-BS2 complex is shown in two orientations. Nanobody and interacting secondary structure elements of TorsinA and LULL1 are shown in full color, non-interacting elements in faded colors. Complementarity determining regions (CDRs) in red. Insets show close-ups with important interacting residues labeled.

(16) FIG. 16 shows dystonia mutations. All known point mutations and deletions that lead to dystonia are marked as green dots and shown in light green color, respectively, on the TorsinA-ATP-LULL1 structure. A modifier TorsinA mutation, D216H, is marked as a blue dot. The structural equivalent of the LAP1 missense mutation (E482A) would be the LULL1 E368A, marked as a green dot. See Table 2 in FIG. 18 for an explanation of the likely structural consequence.

(17) FIG. 17 shows data collection and refinement statistics for TorsinA-LULL1.sub.233-470 and TorsinAE-LULL1.sub.233470.

(18) FIG. 18 shows a table of tystonia mutations.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(19) The present invention is more particularly described in the following examples that are intended as illustrative only since numerous modifications and variations therein will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Various embodiments of the invention are now described in detail. Referring to the drawings, like numbers indicate like components throughout the views. As used in the description herein and throughout the claims that follow, the meaning of a, an, and the includes plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Also, as used in the description herein and throughout the claims that follow, the meaning of in includes in and on unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Moreover, titles or subtitles may be used in the specification for the convenience of a reader, which shall have no influence on the scope of the present invention. Additionally, some terms used in this specification are more specifically defined below.

(20) Some references, which may include patents, patent applications and various publications, are cited and discussed in the description of this invention. The citation and/or discussion of such references is provided merely to clarify the description of the present invention and is not an admission that any such reference is prior art to the invention described herein. All references cited and discussed in this specification are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties and to the same extent as if each reference was individually incorporated by reference.

(21) The terms used in this specification generally have their ordinary meanings in the art, within the context of the invention, and in the specific context where each term is used. Certain terms that are used to describe the invention are discussed below, or elsewhere in the specification, to provide additional guidance to the practitioner regarding the description of the invention. For convenience, certain terms may be highlighted, for example using italics and/or quotation marks. The use of highlighting has no influence on the scope and meaning of a term; the scope and meaning of a term is the same, in the same context, whether or not it is highlighted. It will be appreciated that same thing can be said in more than one way. Consequently, alternative language and synonyms may be used for any one or more of the terms discussed herein, nor is any special significance to be placed upon whether or not a term is elaborated or discussed herein. Synonyms for certain terms are provided. A recital of one or more synonyms does not exclude the use of other synonyms. The use of examples anywhere in this specification including examples of any terms discussed herein is illustrative only, and in no way limits the scope and meaning of the invention or of any exemplified term. Likewise, the invention is not limited to various embodiments given in this specification.

(22) It will be understood that when an element is referred to as being on another element, it can be directly on the other element or intervening elements may be present therebetween. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being directly on another element, there are no intervening elements present. As used herein, the term and/or includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items.

(23) It will be understood that, although the terms first, second, third etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections, these elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections should not be limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element, component, region, layer or section from another element, component, region, layer or section. Thus, a first element, component, region, layer or section discussed below could be termed a second element, component, region, layer or section without departing from the teachings of the present invention.

(24) Furthermore, relative terms, such as lower or bottom and upper or top, may be used herein to describe one element's relationship to another element as illustrated in the Figures. It will be understood that relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in addition to the orientation depicted in the Figures. For example, if the device in one of the figures is turned over, elements described as being on the lower side of other elements would then be oriented on upper sides of the other elements. The exemplary term lower, can therefore, encompasses both an orientation of lower and upper, depending of the particular orientation of the figure. Similarly, if the device in one of the figures is turned over, elements described as below or beneath other elements would then be oriented above the other elements. The exemplary terms below or beneath can, therefore, encompass both an orientation of above and below.

(25) Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of the relevant art and the present disclosure, and will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein.

(26) As used herein, around, about or approximately shall generally mean within 20 percent, preferably within 10 percent, and more preferably within 5 percent of a given value or range. Numerical quantities given herein are approximate, meaning that the term around, about or approximately can be inferred if not expressly stated.

(27) As used herein, plurality means two or more.

(28) As used herein, the terms comprising, including, carrying, having, containing, involving, and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to.

(29) The terms TorsinA or Torsin-1A, as used herein, refer to a protein that in humans that is encoded by the TOR1A gene (also know as DQ2 or DYT1).

(30) The term nanobody, as used herein, refers to a single-domain antibody. The single-domain antibody is an antibody fragment consisting of a single monomeric variable antibody domain. Like a whole antibody, it is able to bind selectively to a specific antigen. With a molecular weight of only 12-15 kDa, single-domain antibodies are much smaller than common antibodies (150-160 kDa) which are composed of two heavy protein chains and two light chains, and even smaller than Fab fragments (50 kDa, one light chain and half a heavy chain) and single-chain variable fragments (25 kDa, two variable domains, one from a light and one from a heavy chain).

(31) The term modulator, as used herein, refer to a substance influencing the binding of a target protein to its ligand or agonist, or inverse agonist.

(32) The most common cause of early onset primary dystonia, a neuromuscular disease, is a glutamate deletion (E) at position 302/303 of TorsinA, a AAA+ ATPase that resides in the endoplasmic reticulum including the perinuclear space [1, 2]. While the actual function of TorsinA remains elusive [3-6], the E mutation is known to diminish binding of two TorsinA ATPase activators: lamina-associated protein 1 (LAP1) and its paralog, luminal domain like LAP1 (LULL1) [7-9]. Therefore, E is likely a loss-of-function mutation [10]. A single-chain antibody fragment, a so-called nanobody, which specifically binds the TorsinA LULL1 complex, is generated. The nanobody is called VHH BS2. The resulting trimeric TorsinA(ATP)-LULL1-VHH-BS2 complex is stable in vitro and was crystallized. In addition, and most importantly, VHH-BS2 is able to stabilize the weak TorsinAE(ATP)LULL1 interaction, thus a TorsinAE(ATP)-LULL1-VHH-BS2 can also be made and was crystallized as well. The ability to stabilize a weak interaction with a reagent like VHH-BS2 is extremely rare. Using a nanobody as a crystallization chaperone, both crystal structures are solved and refined to 1.4 resolution. A comparison of these structures at this very high resolution shows, in atomic detail, the subtle differences in activator interactions that separate the healthy wild type from the diseased state DYT1 mutant TorsinA. This structure information may provide a structural platform for drug development, as a small molecule that rescues TorsinAE could serve as a cure for primary dystonia.

(33) In one aspect, the present invention relates to a protein composition. As shown in FIG. 1, in certain embodiments, the protein composition 100 includes a target protein 110, a modulator 130 of the target protein, a nanobody 150 specifically binds to at least one of the target protein and the modulator.

(34) The target protein 110 may be human wild type TorsinA (SEQ ID NO: 1), mutant TorsinA.sub.EQ with a glutamate (E) to Glutamine (Q) mutation at position 171 (SEQ ID NO: 2), mutant TorsinA.sub.EQE with a glutamate (E) to Glutamine (Q) mutation at position 171 and a glutamate deletion at position 303 (or 302) (SEQ ID NO: 3), as well as TorsinA mutants having F323-Y328, R288Q, F2051, D194V, A14-P15, E121K, V129I, or D216H mutations, and portions of the above proteins. In certain embodiments, the target protein 110 includes the amino acid sequence set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NO: 1-3 (SEQ ID NO: 1 is human TorsinA 51-332, SEQ ID NO: 2 is TorsinA 51-332 with E171Q; SEQ ID NO: 3 is human TorsinA 51-332 with E171Q and E303) or portions thereof. FIG. 2A is schematically diagram of TorsinA, where important residues and sequence motis are indicated. For example, SS is signal sequence, and H is hydrophobic region.

(35) The modulator 130 may be an activator, an agonist, an antagonist, or an inverse agonist, of the target protein 110. When the target protein 110 is TorsinA or a mutant of TorsinA, the modulator 130 may be LAP1, LULL1, a domain or a portion of LAP1 or LULL1. In certain embodiments, the modulator may also be a drug lead that is able to bind to TorsinA or its mutant, and the drug lead may be improved based on the three dimensional complex structure of the TorsinA or its mutant and the drug lead. In certain embodiments, the modulator 130 is LULL1 or portions thereof. In one embodiment, the modulator comprises the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 4 (SEQ ID NO: 4 is LULL1 233-470) or portions thereof. FIG. 2A is schematically diagram of LULL1, where important residues and sequence motis are indicated. For example, TM is transmembrane helix.

(36) The nanobody 150 specifically binds to at least one of the target protein 110 and the modulator 130. In certain embodiment, the nanobody 150 may be obtained by immunizing a model animal using both the target protein 110 and the modulator 130. In certain embodiments, the nanobody is obtained by immunization using the target protein 110 having the amino acid sequence set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NO: 1-3 and the modulator 130 having the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 4, or portions thereof. In certain embodiments, the obtained nanobody 150 has the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO:5, or portions thereof.

(37) In certain embodiments, the target protein 110 includes the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 2 or SEQ ID NO: 3 or portions thereof, the modulator 130 includes the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 4 or portions thereof, the nanobody 150 includes the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 5 or portions thereof, and the target protein 110, themodulator 130 and the nanobody 150 in the protein composition are co-expressed and purified together.

(38) Referring to FIG. 3, in certain embodiments, the protein composition 100 is obtained through steps 301 to 309. In step 301, a first nucleotide sequence encoding the target protein 110 and a second nucleotide sequence encoding the modulator 130 are cloned into a first vector, and in step 303 a third nucleotide sequence encoding the nanobody 150 is cloned into a second vector. At step 305, the first vector and the second vector are used to transform bacteria. In certain embodiments, the first nucleotide sequence comprises the nucleic acid sequence set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NO: 6-8 (encoding the proteins SEQ ID NO: 1-3, respectively), the second nucleotide sequence comprises the nucleic acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 9 (encoding the protein SEQ ID NO: 4), and the third nucleotide sequence comprises the nucleic acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 10 (encoding the protein SEQ ID NO: 5). In certain embodiments, the first vector is a modified ampicillin resistant pETDuet-1 vector, the second vector is a pET-30b(+) vector, and the bacteria is E. coli strain LOBSTR(DE3) RIL. At step 307, the bacteria is cultured and the expression of the target protein 110, the modulator 130 and the nanobody 150 is induced. At step 309, the bacteria culture is harvested and the target protein 110, the modulator 130 and the nanobody 150 are purified together.

(39) In certain embodiments, the target protein 110 includes the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 2, the modulator 130 includes the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 4, and the protein composition 100 is crystallized to obtain crystals of space group P2.sub.12.sub.12.sub.1 with approximate a=75.7 , b=90.7 , and c=105.1 such that the three dimensional structure of the crystallized protein composition 110 can be determined to a resolution of about 1.4 or better (TorsinA.sub.EQ51-332 structure).

(40) In certain embodiments, as shown in FIG. 4, the protein composition 100 is crystallized to obtain crystals by the following steps. At step 401, the protein composition 100 is prepared, for example, by concentrating, to a concentration of about 4-4.5 mg/ml. At step 403, about 2 mM ATP is added to the concentrated protein composition 110 to form a protein stock solution. At step 405, a mother liquor is prepared. The mother liquor used in this embodiment includes 13% (w/v) polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000, 5% (v/v) 2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol, and 0.1M MES pH6.5. At step 407, crystals are grow using hanging drop/vapor diffusion method. In this embodiment, approximately equal amount of protein stock solution and the mother liqor, for example 1 l of the protein stock solution and 1 l of the mother liquor, are mixed and disposed on a cover slip, and the cover slip is inverted, sealed, and covered on a reservoir having certain amount of the mother liquor, such as 0.5 ml or 1 ml. The vapor diffusion process between the hanging drop and the mother lique is conducted under a temperature, such as 18 C. or room temperature, and crystals are obtained in about a few days, such as 3-5 days.

(41) After the crystals are observed and grow to a sufficient size, the crystals are cryoprotected by flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen after soaking in the mother liquor supplemented with 20% (v/v) glycerol. Single crystal is preferably used in the flash-frozen. X-ray data are collected using one of the obtained crystals, and the structure of the crystallized protein composition is determined based on the collected x-ray data.

(42) In certain embodiments, the target protein 110 includes the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 3 or portions thereof, the modulator 130 includes the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 4 or portions thereof, and the protein composition 100 is crystallized to obtain crystals of space group P2.sub.12.sub.12.sub.1 with approximate a=75.5 , b=88.1 , and c=105.4 such that the three dimensional structure of the crystallized protein composition can be determined to a resolution of about 1.4 or better (TorsinA.sub.EQ51-332 E303 mutant structure).

(43) In certain embodiments, the protein composition 100 is crystallized to obtain crystals by the following steps: preparing the protein composition 100 at about 4-4.5 mg/ml; adding about 2 mM ATP to the prepared protein composition to form a protein stock; preparing a mother liquor comprising about 19% (w/v) polyethylene glycol (PEG) 3350, about 0.2 M AMSO.sub.4, and about 0.1 M Bis-Tris-HCl pH6.5; and mixing 1 l of the protein stock with 1 l of the mother liquor to form a second mixture, and inducing crystallization of the protein composition in the mixture by hanging drop/vapor diffusion under about 18 C., such that the crystals are obtained in about 3-5 days.

(44) In certain embodiments, the obtained crystals are cryoprotected by flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen after soaking in the mother liquor supplemented with 20% (v/v) glycerol, x-ray data are collected using one of the obtained crystals, and the structure of the crystallized protein composition is determined based on the collected x-ray data.

(45) In another aspect, the present invention related to a method of determining the three dimensional structure of a crystallized protein composition 100 to a resolution of about 1.4 or better. In certain embodiments, the protein composition 100 includes a target protein 110 having the amino acid sequence set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NO: 1-3 or portions thereof, an modulator 130 of the target protein 110 having the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 4 or portions thereof, and a nanobody 150 specifically binds to at least one of the target protein 110 and the modulator 130 and having the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 5 or portions thereof.

(46) As shown in FIG. 5, the method includes the following steps. At steps 501, preparing a first nucleotide sequence having the nucleic acid sequence set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NO: 6-8 (encoding the proteins of SEQ ID NO: 1-3, respectively), a second nucleic acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 9 (encoding the protein SEQ ID NO: 4) is prepared, and a third nucleotide sequence having the nucleic acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 10 (encoding the protein SEQ ID NO: 5) is prepared. The preparation may be performed by direct synthesis or from PCR. Then the first nucleotide sequence and the second nucleotide sequence is cloent to a first vector, and the third nucleotide sequence is cloned to a second vector. At step 503, bacteria are transformed using the first vector and the second vector. At step 505, the bacteria are grown to express the target protein, the modulator and the nanobody. At step 507, the target protein, the modulator and the nanobody are purified together to obtain a protein composition. At step 509, the protein composition is crystallized to obtain crystals. At step 511, x-ray data is collected using one of the obtained crystals. At step 513, the three dimensional structure from the collected x-ray data is determined.

(47) In certain embodiments, the target protein 110 comprises the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 2, and the protein composition 100 is crystallized to obtain crystals of space group P2.sub.12.sub.12.sub.1 with approximate a=75.7 , b=90.7 , and c=105.1 such that the three dimensional structure of the crystallized protein composition 100 can be determined to a resolution of about 1.4 or better (TorsinA.sub.EQ 51-332 structure).

(48) In certain embodiments, the target protein 110 comprises the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 3, and the protein composition 100 is crystallized to obtain crystals of space group P2.sub.12.sub.12.sub.1 with approximate a=75.5 , b=88.1 , and c=105.4 such that the three dimensional structure of the crystallized protein composition can be determined to a resolution of about 1.4 or better (TorsinA.sub.EQ 51-332 E303 mutant structure).

(49) In a further aspect, the present invention relates to a method for screening compounds that bind to TorsinA. In certain embodiments, the method includes providing a protein composition as described above comprising TorsinA, and a library of test compounds, treating the protein composition with a test compound, determining whether the compound binds to TorsinA, where a compound that binds TorsinA is indicative of a compound that is a candidate TorsinA agonist or antagonist, and optionally determining a three dimensional crystal structure of TorsinA with and/or without the bound compound to a resolution of about 1.4 or better.

(50) The TorsinA structure may include TorsinA.sub.EQ structure, TorsinA.sub.EQE303 structure, as well as their complex structures with modulators such as LULL1 or LAP1, and/or ATP. After analyzing one or more of the three dimensional structures of TorsinA, a targeting binding area of TorsinA or a targeting binding interface between TorsinA and its modulator, is chosen for designing a lead as drug candidate. The lead may be rationally designed, virtually screened, or directly screened by activity. The lead is then crystallized, for example using the method as shown in FIG. 5, with TorsinA. Then the TorsinA/lead complex structure is determined, and the structure information can be used for further optimization of the lead. A drug may be obtained fro iterary optimization of the lead.

(51) In certain embodiments, the crystals of TorsinA are grown using a protein composition 100 including: TorsinA having the amino acid sequence set forth in at least one of SEQ ID NO: 1-3 or portions thereof, a modulator of TorsinA having the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 4 or portions thereof, and a nanobody specifically binds to at least one of TorsinA and the modulator and having the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 5 or portions thereof.

(52) In certain embodiments, TorsinA includes TorsinA.sub.EQ E303 having the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 3, and the protein composition is crystallized to obtain crystals of space group P2.sub.12.sub.12.sub.1 with approximate a=75.5 , b=88.1 , and c=105.4 such that the three dimensional structure of the crystallized protein composition having the TorsinA.sub.EQ E303, the crystallized protein composition having TorsinA E303 can be determined to a resolution of about 1.4 or better (TorsinA.sub.EQ 51-332 E303 mutant structure).

(53) In certain embodiments, the TorsinA comprises TorsinA E171Q having the amino acid sequence set forth in the SEQ ID NO: 2, and the protein composition is crystallized to obtain crystals of space group P2.sub.12.sub.12.sub.1 with approximate a=75.7 , b=90.7 , and c=105.1 such that the three dimensional structure of the crystallized protein composition having TorsinA E171Q can be determined to a resolution of about 1.4 or better (TorsinA 51-332/E171Q).

(54) In certain embodiments, a binding location of the modulator is determined by comparing the three dimensional structure of the crystallized protein composition having TorsinA E303 and the three dimensional structure of the crystallized protein composition having TorsinA E171Q.

(55) In certain embodiments, the modulator is virtually screened against the binding location of the three dimensional structure of the TorsinA.sub.EQ E303.

(56) In certain embodiments, the modulator is co-crystallized with the TorsinA.sub.EQ E303 and at least one of the modulator and the nanobody to obtain a three dimensional structure having the TorsinA.sub.EQ E303 and the modulator, such that modification of the modulator is conducted based on the three dimensional structure having the TorsinA E303.

(57) Certain embodiments of the present application, among other things, crystallized TorsinA which is a difficult to crystalize. Using this method, variety of TorsinA mutants and their complex structures can be determined. This is not achieved by any others before this invention.

(58) Further, by comparing the TorsinA.sub.EQ structure and TorsinA.sub.EQ E303 structure, a novel funcartional mechanism and novel binding site is determined, which can be used as the basis for structural based rational drug design. This information provides a structural platform to develop drug that can rescue TorsinA E303 or other type of mutants so that the TorsinA E303 become funcational. The drug is then useful for cure primary dystonia.

(59) These and other aspects of the present invention are more specifically described below. Without intent to limit the scope of the invention, exemplary methods and their related results according to the embodiments of the present invention are given below. Note that titles or subtitles may be used in the examples for convenience of a reader, which in no way should limit the scope of the invention. Moreover, certain theories are proposed and disclosed herein; however, in no way they, whether they are right or wrong, should limit the scope of the invention so long as the invention is practiced according to the invention without regard for any particular theory or scheme of action.

EXAMPLES

Example 1: Generation and Selection of Nanobodies

(60) To investigate the molecular basis for primary dystonia as a result of the glutamate 302/303 deletion in TorsinA, a structural approach is taken. TorsinA is a catalytically inactive AAA+ ATPase [11-13], notoriously ill-behaved in vitro, primarily due to its limited solubility and stability. These problems were partially overcome by stabilizing an ATP-trapped E171Q mutant of human TorsinA (residues 51-332; SEQ ID NO: 2) by co-expressing it with the luminal activation domain of human LULL1 (residues 233-470; SEQ ID NO: 4). This resulted in a better behaved heterodimeric complex (FIGS. 2A and 2B), but was still recalcitrant to initial crystallization efforts. To facilitate crystallization, isolated a nanobody (VHH-BS2; SEQ ID NO: 5) was isolated from an alpaca immunized with the TorsinA.sub.EQ-LULL1 complex. A stable, heterotrimeric complex of TorsinA.sub.EQ(ATP)-LULL1-VHH-BS2 was readily crystallized in the presence of ATP.

(61) Specifically, for obtaining the VHH-BS2 nanobody, purified human TorsinA.sub.EQ-LULL1 complex was injected into a male alpaca (Lama pacos) for immunization. Generation and screening of nanobodies was carried out as previously described [14]. Each of the selected nanobodies was subcloned into a pET-30b(+) vector with a C-terminal His.sub.6-tag. Each nanobody was bacterially expressed and Ni.sup.2+-affinity purified essentially as described (see below). Different from the TorsinA-containing preparations, MgCl.sub.2 and ATP were eliminated from all buffer solutions. The Ni.sup.2+-eluate was purified via size exclusion chromatography on a Superdex S75 column (GE Healthcare) in running buffer (10 mM HEPES/NaOH pH 8.0, 150 mM NaCl). Nanobody binding was validated by size exclusion chromatography on a 10/300 Superdex S200 column in 10 mM HEPES/NaOH pH 8.0, 150 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl.sub.2 and 0.5 mM ATP.

(62) Equimolar amounts of TorsinA.sub.EQ-LULL1 and TorsinA.sub.EQ-LULL1-VHH were loaded and nanobody binding was monitored by a shift in the elution profile and via SDS-PAGE analysis. After validating VHH-BS2 interaction with TorsinA.sub.EQ-LULL1, the C-terminal His.sub.6-tag of VHH-BS2 was removed from the pET-30b(+) vector for co-purification experiments.

Example 2: Constructs, Protein Expression and Purification

(63) DNA sequences encoding human TorsinA (residues 51-332) and the luminal domain of human LULL1 (residues 233-470) were cloned into a modified ampicillin resistant pETDuet-1 vector (EMD Millipore). TorsinA, N-terminally fused with a human rhinovirus 3C protease cleavable 10xHis-7xArg tag, was inserted into the first multiple cloning site (MCS), whereas the untagged LULL1 was inserted into the second MCS. Mutations on TorsinA and LULL1 were introduced by site-directed mutagenesis. The untagged VHH-BS2 nanobody was cloned into a separate, modified kanamycin resistant pET-30b(+) vector (EMD Biosciences).

(64) To co-express TorsinA (EQ or EQ/AE), LULL1 and VHH-BS2 for crystallization, the E. coli strain LOBSTR(DE3) RIL (Kerafast) [32] was co-transformed with the two constructs described above. Cells were grown at 37 C. in lysogeny broth (LB) medium supplemented with 100 g ml.sup.1 ampicillin, 25 g ml.sup.1 kanamaycin and 34 g ml.sup.1 hloramphenicol until an optical density (OD.sub.600) of 0.6-0.8 was reached, shifted to 18 C. for 20 min, and induced overnight at 18 C. with 0.2 mM isopropyl -D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG). The bacterial cultures were harvested by centrifugation, suspended in lysis buffer (50 mM HEPES/NaOH pH 8.0, 400 mM NaCl, 40 mM imidazole, 10 mM MgCl.sub.2, and 1 mM ATP) and lysed with a cell disruptor (Constant Systems). The lysate was immediately mixed with 0.1 M phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) (50 l per 10 ml lysate) and 250 units of TurboNuclease (Eton Bioscience), and cleared by centrifugation. The soluble fraction was gently mixed with Ni-Sepharose 6 Fast Flow (GE Healthcare) resin for 30 min at 4 C. After washing with the lysis buffer, bound protein was eluted in elution buffer (10 mM HEPES/NaOH pH 8.0, 150 mM NaCl, 300 mM imidazole, 10 mM MgCl.sub.2, and 1 mM ATP). The eluted protein complex was immediately purified by size exclusion chromatography on a Superdex S200 column (GE Healthcare) equilibrated in running buffer (10 mM HEPES/NaOH pH 8.0, 150 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl.sub.2, and 0.5 mM ATP). Following the tag removal by 10xHis-7xArg-3C protease, the fusion tags and the protease were separated from the complex by cation-exchange chromatography on a HiTrapS column (GE Healthcare) using a linear NaCl gradient. The flow-through from the cation-exchange chromatography, containing the protein complex, was purified again by size exclusion chromatography on a Superdex S200 column as at the previous step.

(65) For the non-structural analysis of TorsinA and LULL1 variants, the pETDuet-1-based expression plasmid was transformed into LOBSTR(DE3) RIL cells without co-expressing nanobody VHH-BS2. Ni.sup.2+-affinity purification was performed as described above and bound protein was eluted. Aliquots from the Ni.sup.2+-eluate and the total lysate were collected and analyzed by SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis.

Example 3: Crystallization

(66) Purified TorsinA.sub.EQ-LULL1-VHH-BS2 and TorsinA.sub.EQE-LULL1-VHH-BS2 complexes were concentrated up to 4-4.5 mg/ml and supplemented with 2 mM ATP prior to crystallization. The TorsinA.sub.EQ containing complex crystallized in 13% (w/v) polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000, 5% (v/v) 2-Methyl-2,4-pentanediol, and 0.1 M MES pH 6.5. The TorsinA.sub.EQE containing complex crystallized in 19% (w/v) PEG 3350, 0.2 M AmSO4, and 0.1 M Bis-Tris-HCl pH 6.5. Crystals of both complexes grew at 18 C. in hanging drops containing 1 l of protein and 1 l of mother liquor. Clusters of diffraction quality, rod-shaped crystals formed within 3-5 days. Single crystals were briefly soaked in mother liquor supplemented with 20% (v/v) glycerol for cryoprotection and flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen.

Example 4: Data Collection and Structure Determination

(67) X-ray data were collected at NE-CAT beamline 24-ID-C at Argonne National Laboratory. Data reduction was performed with the HKL2000 package [33], and all subsequent data-processing steps were carried out using programs provided through SBGrid [34]. The structure of the TorsinA.sub.EQ-LULL1-VHH-BS2 complex was solved by molecular replacement (MR) using the Phaser-MR tool from the PHENIX suite [35]. A three-part MR solution was easily obtained using a sequential search for models of LULL1, VHH-BS2, and TorsinA. The LULL1 model was generated based on the published human LAP1 structure (PDB 4TVS, chain A), using the Sculptor utility of the PHENIX suite (LULL.sub.1241-470 and LAP.sub.1356-583 share 64% sequence identity). The VHH-BS2 model was based on VHH-BS1 (PDB 4TVS, chain a) after removing the complementarity determining regions (CDRs). The poly-Ala model of TorsinA was generated based on E. coli ClpA (PDB 1R6B) using the MODELLER tool of the HHpred server [36]. The asymmetric unit contains one TorsinA.sub.EQ-LULL1-VHH-BS2 complex. Iterative model building and refinement steps gradually improved the electron density maps and the model statistics. The stereochemical quality of the final model was validated by Molprobity [37]. TorsinA.sub.EQE-LULL1-VHH-BS2 crystallized in the same unit cell. Model building was carried starting from a truncated TorsinA.sub.EQ-LULL1-VHH-BS2 structure. All manual model building steps were carried out with Coot [38], and phenix.refine was used for iterative refinement. Two alternate conformations of a loop in LULL1 (residues 428-438) were detected in the Fo-Fc difference electron density maps of both structures, and they were partially built. For comparison, the cysteine residues of TorsinA at the catalytic site (residues 280 and 319 in the TorsinA.sub.EQ structure) were built in the reduced and the oxidized states, respectively. Building them as oxidized, disulfide-bridged residues consistently produced substantial residual Fo-Fc difference density, which disappeared assuming a reduced state. Statistical parameters of data collection and refinement are all given in Table 1 in FIG. 17. Structure figures were created in PyMOL (Schrdinger LLC).

Example 5: Bioinformatic Analysis

(68) Torsin and LAP1/LULL1 sequences were obtained via PSI-BLAST [39] and Backphyre searches [40]. Transmembrane domains were predicted using the HMMTOP tool [41]. LAP1/LULL1 proteins were distinguished based on the calculated isoelectric point (pI) of their extra-luminal portions. The intranuclear domain of LAP1 has a characteristically high pI of 8.5-10 due to a clustering of basic residues, while the cytoplasmic domain of LULL1 is distinctively more acidic. Multiple sequence alignments were performed using MUSCLE [42], and visualized by Jalview [43]. To illustrate evolutionary conservation on TorsinA and LULL1 surfaces, conservation scores for each residue were calculated using the ConSurf server with default parameters [44].

Example 6: Structure Analysis

(69) A stable, heterotrimeric complex of TorsinA.sub.EQ(ATP)-LULL1-VHH-BS2 was readily crystallized in the presence of ATP. A 1.4 dataset was collected and the structure was solved by molecular replacement, using the LULL1-homolog LAP1 and a VHH template as search models [14] (Example 4, and Table 1 in FIG. 17). TorsinA.sub.EQ adopts a typical AAA+ ATPase fold (FIG. 6 and FIG. 12). The N-terminal nucleotide-binding or large domain (residues 55-271) is composed of a central five-stranded, parallel -sheet surrounded by 8 -helices. A small three-helix bundle at its C-terminus (residues 272-332), forms critical contacts with LULL1. The ATP molecule is bound in the manner characteristic of P-loop NTPases [15]. The Walker A and B motifs are positioned to mediate the requisite nucleotide interactions, with sensor 1 and sensor 2 regions sensing the -phosphate and thus the nucleotide-binding state (FIG. 7). The luminal LULL1 activation domain (residues 236-470) adopts an AAA+-like conformation, very similar to its paralog LAP1 (rmsd 1.05 over 213 C positions, FIG. 12). The AAA+-like domain comprises a central -sheet embedded within six -helices (FIG. 6). A C-terminal small domain is not found. Characteristically, LULL1 lacks nucleotide binding due to the absence of Walker A and B motifs [14]. LULL1 forms a composite nucleotide-binding site with TorsinA by providing arginine residue 449 (arginine finger) at the base of helix 5 (FIG. 7). The arginine finger activates ATP hydrolysis by TorsinA [14,16]. The small domain of TorsinA, including helix 7 featuring glutamates 302 and 303, is intimately involved in LULL1 binding. Nanobody VHH-BS2 binds both TorsinA and LULL1 at a shallow groove (FIG. 6 and FIG. 15). Nanobodies contain three complementarity determining regions (CDRs), with CDR3 most often making critical contacts with the antigen [17]. Indeed, the long CDR3 of VHH-BS2 (residues 101-109) is the main binding element in the complex.

(70) AAA+ ATPases are organized into a number of structurally defined clades [12, 18], distinguished by shared structural elements. Comparison with other AAA+ ATPase structures shows that TorsinA fits best into a clade that also contains the bacterial proteins Hs1U, ClpA/B, ClpX, and Lon, all of which are involved in protein degradation or remodeling [13]. These AAA+ family members share a -hairpin insertion that precedes the sensor-I region (FIG. 12). TorsinA also contains this structural element, but it adopts a distinctly different orientation compared to other members of the clade. However, the pre-sensor I region may be affected by crystal packing in our structure. Two other distinct regions are present. The protein degrading or remodeling AAA+ ATPases all form hexameric rings with a central pore [11,13], and pore loops in each subunit, conserved elements positioned between strand 2 and helix 2, are critical for threading the protein substrates through the ring [19]. In Torsins, this pore loop is not conserved (FIG. 13). TorsinA has two cysteines (Cys280, and Cys 319 in close proximity in the sensor-II motif), positioned near the adenine base of the ATP molecule (FIG. 8). These cysteines do not form a disulfide bridge in our structure. However, the conservation of Cys280 and the Gly-Cys-Lys sensor-II motif at position 318-320 (FIG. 13) indicates an important functional role. A redox activity as part of the ATPase cycle therefore seems highly likely, as has been previously speculated [8, 20].

(71) The interaction of TorsinA with its ATPase activators LULL1 and LAP1 is of particularly importance, as a prominent mutation causing primary dystoniathe deletion of glutamate 302 or 303weakens these interaction [7-9]. But why and how? The TorsinA-LULL1 interface extends over an area of 1527 .sup.2. The main structural elements involved in this interaction are the nucleotide-binding region as well as the small domain of TorsinA, and helices 0, 2, 4 and 5 of LULL1 (FIGS. 6-9, 13 and 14). The exact position of the small domain of TorsinA relative to the large domain is likely dictated by the sensor II motif, preceding 8, which directly contacts the -phosphate of ATP through Lys 320, thus serving as an anchor point. A switch to ADP presumably weakens this connection, such that the small domain would become more loosely attached to the large domain. This could explain the observed ATP-dependency of LAP1/LULL1 binding [7-9, 21]. Within the small domain, helix 7, the following loop, and the terminal helix 8 contain all the critical residues. Glutamate 302 and 303 are positioned at the very end of helix 7, and both are involved in TorsinA contacts. Specifically, Glu 303 forms a prominent charge interaction with Arg 276 of LULL1. TorsinA Lys113-LULL1 Glu385, TorsinA Asp316-LULL1 Arg419, TorsinA Lys317-LULL1 Glu415 are additional charge interactions.

(72) To investigate the atomic details of the weakened binding of TorsinAAE to LAP1/LULL1, and thus the molecular basis of primary dystonia, we made use of the observation that VHH-BS2 also stabilizes the TorsinA.sub.EQAE(ATP)-LULL1 interaction. We were able to crystallize TorsinA.sub.EQAE(ATP)-LULL1-VHH-BS2 and determine its structure at a resolution of 1.4 . Not surprisingly, the overall structure is almost identical to the wild type protein (0.34 rmsd over 274 C atoms for TorsinA, 0.26 rmsd over 229 C atoms for LULL1), except for critical differences in the TorsinA-LULL1 interface (FIG. 9). The principal difference is that helix 7 is shortened due to the missing Glu 303, with a slightbut significantrestructuring of the loop that follows to establish the connection with helix 8. For future reference, we suggest renaming the E mutation E303, rather than E302/303, since the position of Glu 302 is effectively unchanged. In the dystonia mutant, the TorsinA Glu 303-LULL1 Arg 276 charge interaction is lost, and the hydrogen-bonding network involving TorsinA Glu 302, Phe 306 and Arg312, as well as LULL1 Arg412 and Glu416 is disrupted (FIG. 9). To determine the importance of different TorsinA residues for LULL1 binding, we performed a co-purification assay (FIGS. 10A and 10B). His-tagged, ATP-trapped TorsinAEQ (residues 51-332) and mutants thereof were recombinantly co-expressed with LULL1 (residues 233-470), but without VHH-BS2, in bacteria. Binding was tested in a co-purification assay using Ni-affinity. The Torsin.sub.EQE303 mutation abolishes binding in this assay, as expected (FIG. 10A). Since unbound TorsinA.sub.EQ is largely insoluble, absence of binding is not registered as an appearance of TorsinA.sub.EQ alone, but rather as a lack of eluted protein complex altogether Eliminating the salt bridge between TorsinA Glu303 and LULL1 Arg276 does not disrupt the TorsinA-LULL1 interaction (FIG. 10A). However, Met304 and Thr305 both phenocopy E303 in abolishing LULL1 binding (FIG. 10B). This is in full agreement with published in vivo data using similar mutants [22]. The intricate network of interactions of the 7-8 loop of TorsinA is crucial for LULL1 binding. Since the E mutation results in a local change only of the surface of Torsin's small domain rather than protein misfolding, it may be possible to rescue binding by developing a small molecule that resurrect the weakened TorsinAE-LAP1/LULL1 interaction.

(73) Although TorsinAE303 is the most prevalent mutation that causes primary dystonia, it is not the only one [5, 6]. We examined the structural consequence of all known mutations (FIG. 18 Table 2, and FIG. 16). Most mutations appear to cause protein misfolding or weaken or abolish LAP1/LULL1 binding. Conversely, the two dystonia-mutations found in LAP1 likely affect Torsin interaction. Improper Torsin activation is therefore the likely cause of the disease [23].

(74) The biological function of TorsinA remains enigmatic [24-28]. Because TorsinA belongs to the AAA+ ATPase superfamily, with specific homology to the bacterial proteins Hs1U, ClpX, ClpA/B and Lon, it is generally assumed that TorsinA is involved in protein remodeling or protein degradation [5, 6]. However, a substrate of TorsinA has yet to be identified.

(75) The TorsinA structure enables a more thorough comparison to other AAA+ ATPases. After the discovery that LAP1/LULL1 are Arg-finger containing TorsinA activators, it seemed reasonable to suggest that TorsinA and LAP1/LULL1 likely form heterohexameric rings ((TorsinA-ATP-LAP1/LULL1).sub.3) in order to function [14, 16]. However, the predominant oligomeric form of the TorsinA-ATP-LAP1/LULL1 complex in solution is largely heterodimeric, with the heterohexameric form present as only a small fraction [14, 16, 29-31]. Our structure now raises doubts about the physiological relevance of a heterohexameric ring (FIGS. 11A and 11B). First, we note that the small domain of TorsinA is essential for LAP1/LULL1 binding. Neither LAP1 nor LULL1 harbor a small domain, arguing against formation of a stable heteromeric ring, or, alternatively, suggesting a ring of substantially different architecture. Second, ring formation is important for AAA+ ATPases that thread their protein substrate through a central pore for refolding or for degradation. This central pore is lined with conserved pore loops that are essential for function. Neither TorsinA and its homologs, nor LAP1/LULL1 have pore loop equivalents (FIG. 14). TorsinA is therefore unlikely to actually employ a peptide threading mechanism that involves a central pore. Third, the surface conservation of LAP1/LULL1 also argues against a heteromeric ring assembly. Although the catalytic, ATP-containing interface with TorsinA is well-conserved, the presumptive non-catalytic, nucleotide-free interface is not (FIG. 3B). The same analysis for TorsinA shows that its backside is conserved. TorsinA may therefore interact in homotypic fashion with TorsinA, with other Torsin homologs, or even with a third player. The physiologically relevant oligomeric state of TorsinA thus remains a matter of speculation. Given the unique properties of TorsinA, keeping an open-mind about TorsinA assembly into its functional state is called for, as it may well differ more than anticipated from well-studied AAA+ ATPase systems.

(76) The foregoing description of the exemplary embodiments of the invention has been presented only for the purposes of illustration and description and is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching.

(77) The embodiments were chosen and described in order to explain the principles of the invention and their practical application so as to enable others skilled in the art to utilize the invention and various embodiments and with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. Alternative embodiments will become apparent to those skilled in the art to which the present invention pertains without departing from its spirit and scope. Accordingly, the scope of the present invention is defined by the appended claims rather than the foregoing description and the exemplary embodiments described therein.

REFERENCE LIST

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