SMALL LOAD-FOLLOWING NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION SYSTEM USING HEAT DEFORMATION OF REFLECTOR CAUSED BY THERMAL EXPANSION PHENOMENON

Abstract

The present invention provides a small nuclear power generation system being safe and easily controlled by load following, and allowing reductions in manufacturing costs and maintenance and management costs. The small nuclear power generation system has a small nuclear reactor employing a load following control method. The reactor includes: a fuel assembly reactor core 4 having metallic fuel containing one or both of uranium (235, 238) and plutonium-239; a reactor vessel 1 containing the fuel assembly reactor core 4; metallic sodium loaded into the reactor vessel 1 and heated by the fuel assembly reactor core 4; and a neutron reflector 2 for achieving criticality in the reactor core with effective multiplication factor of neutrons emitted from the fuel assembly reactor core 4 being maintained at or above about 1. The load following control method of the reactor allows a neutron effective multiplication factor to be controlled by coupling the neutron reflector to spring or spiral metallic members and utilizing heat deformation in the metallic members due to the temperature in coolant metallic sodium to control the fast neutron reflection efficiency of the neutron reflector

Claims

1. A small nuclear power generation system comprising: a small nuclear reactor, a heat exchanging system for exchanging heat between a primary coolant for cooling the small nuclear reactor and a secondary coolant comprised of carbon dioxide or light water, and a turbine power generation system for generating power using heat of the secondary coolant; the small nuclear reactor comprising: a reactor core having fuel assemblies of a plurality of fuel rods being cladding tubes containing metallic fuel including one or both of uranium (U)-235, 238 and plutonium (Pu)-239; a reactor vessel containing the reactor core; the primary coolant being one of metallic sodium, lead (Pb), and lead-bismuth (Bi) loaded into the reactor vessel and heated by the reactor core; and at least one neutron reflector provided around the reactor core, wherein the neutron reflector has neutron reflection efficiency for achieving criticality in the reactor core with an effective multiplication factor of neutrons emitted from the reactor core being maintained at or above about 1, and wherein the neutron reflector is coupled to metallic members having a coefficient of thermal expansion higher than a coefficient of thermal expansion of the reflector, and changes the neutron reflection efficiency utilizing displacement due to thermal expansion of the metallic members in accordance with temperature in the reactor vessel, thereby achieving load following control.

2. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein the neutron reflector provided around the reactor core has a height lower than a height of the reactor core, and is movable upward or downward along the reactor core with a movement mechanism.

3. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein the neutron reflector provided around the fuel assemblies has a length comparable with a full length of the fuel assemblies.

4. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein a neutron reflector having the metallic members being spring-like or spiral and allowing control of the neutron reflection efficiency utilizing thermal expansion are provided around and above the fuel assemblies.

5. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one neutron reflector is a plurality of neutron reflectors provided on a concentric circle about a center of the reactor core and divided into two or more sections on the concentric circle, the reflectors having two radiuses, wherein the plurality of neutron reflectors are classified into a first group having one radius and a second group having another radius, wherein the neutron reflectors of the first group are coupled to a first spiral metallic member provided on a concentric circle of the reactor core, wherein due to thermal expansion of the first spiral metallic member, slits are formed between the neutron reflectors of the first group and the neutron reflectors of the second group, and wherein gaps between the slits are adjusted based on temperature in the reactor vessel.

6. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 5, wherein the neutron reflector is further radially divided into two or more sections.

7. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 5, wherein the reflectors of the second group are similarly coupled to a second spiral metallic member provided on a concentric circle of the reactor core, and the first spiral metallic member and the second spiral metallic member spiral in opposite directions.

8. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein a material of the neutron reflector is selected from beryllium (Be), beryllium oxide (BeO), graphite, carbon, and stainless steel.

9. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein carbon is provided as a lubricant between the neutron reflectors of the first group and the neutron reflectors of the second group.

10. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 5, wherein the neutron reflectors of the first and second groups have circumferential overlaps, and widths of the overlaps are adjusted to achieve a temperature at which criticality reaches 1.

11. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein a fixation cylinder for fixing adjustment springs being the metallic members is provided outside the neutron reflectors divided into two or more sections on a concentric circle, and a plurality of reflector moving jigs corresponding to each divided neutron reflector, each including an adjustment spring support plate, a reflector adjusting rod, and one of the adjustment springs, are provided outside the fixation cylinder, wherein each of the reflector adjusting rods is coupled to the corresponding neutron reflector, and wherein thermal expansion of the adjustment spring is transferred via the reflector adjusting rod fixed to the adjustment spring support plate, such that the neutron reflector moves away from the fuel assemblies, whereby load following control for output from the nuclear reactor is enabled.

12. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein multi-layer ring neutron reflectors divided into two or more sections are placed on a concentric circle and along the fuel rods, wherein the spring-like metallic members are provided outside and around the multi-layer ring neutron reflectors, wherein different divisions of the multi-layer ring neutron reflectors are coupled to different sections of the spring metallic members, wherein thermal expansion of the spring metallic members is transferred to the divided ring neutron reflectors, and wherein a probability of neutron leakage is adjusted by changing gaps between the divided neutron reflectors, whereby load following control for output from the nuclear reactor is enabled.

13. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein each of the neutron reflectors divided into two or more sections on a concentric circle has a supporting rod along the fuel rod and at one end of the neutron reflector, and each neutron reflector is rotatable outward about the supporting rod, thereby allowing the neutron reflectors to open, and wherein due to thermal expansion of the spiral metallic members coupled to the supporting rods each being a center of rotation of the corresponding neutron reflector, a probability of neutron leakage is adjusted by varying a degree of opening between the neutron reflectors, whereby load following control for output from the nuclear reactor is enabled.

14. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein the spring or spiral metallic members are made of a material of stainless steel, a nickel based superalloy, or a nickel-cobalt based superalloy, or made of a bimetal.

15.-17. (canceled)

18. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein a neutron absorber is provided outside the neutron reflector.

19. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 18, wherein the neutron absorber is a material suitable for disposal of radioactive waste such as actinoids.

20. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein the reactor core has a plurality of fuel rods being cladding tubes made of ferritic stainless steel or chromium-molybdenum steel, the cladding tubes containing metallic fuel of an alloy of zirconium (Zr), uranium (235, 238), and plutonium-239 or an alloy of zirconium and one of uranium (235, 238) and plutonium-239.

21. (canceled)

22. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein the heat exchanging system comprises a main heat exchanger supplied with the primary coolant heated by the nuclear reactor through a conduit, the main heat exchanger including a circulating secondary coolant heated by heat exchange with the primary coolant.

23. (canceled)

24. The small nuclear power generation system according to claim 1, wherein the heat exchanging system is constituted such that the nuclear reactor is loaded with the primary coolant being lead (Pb) or lead-bismuth (Bi) and the secondary coolant being light water is heated by heat exchange with the primary coolant in the reactor vessel.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0067] [FIG. 1] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an embodiment of a small nuclear reactor in a small nuclear power generation system according to the present invention.

[0068] [FIG. 2] FIG. 2 is a side view illustrating the details of a fuel assembly in the small nuclear reactor according to the present invention illustrated in FIG. 1.

[0069] [FTG. 3A] FIG. 3A is a perspective view illustrating an embodiment of a reflector for the small nuclear reactor according to the present invention.

[0070] [FIG. 3B] FIG. 3B is a perspective view illustrating the embodiment of the reflector for the small nuclear reactor according to the present invention.

[0071] [FIG. 4] FIG. 4 is a perspective view illustrating another embodiment of the reflector for the small nuclear reactor according to the present invention.

[0072] [FIG. 5] FIG. 5 is a graph showing the relationship between the number of turns of springs and linear thermal expansion of the reflector illustrated in FIG. 4.

[0073] [FIG. 6] FIG. 6 is a graph showing the temperature dependence of the neutron effective multiplication factor K.sub.eff and the reflector slit width varying in response to the thermal expansion in a spring.

[0074] [FIG. 7] FIG. 7 is a perspective view illustrating still another embodiment of the reflector for the small nuclear reactor according to the present invention, the reflector having overlaps.

[0075] [FIG. 8] FIG. 8 is a graph showing the temperature dependence of K.sub.eff and slit widths varying in response to the thermal expansion when reflectors have overlaps.

[0076] [FIG. 9] FIG. 9 is a perspective view illustrating yet another embodiment of the reflector for the small nuclear reactor according to the present invention.

[0077] [FIG. 10] FIG. 10 is a graph showing the relationship between K.sub.eff and movements of the reflectors in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 9.

[0078] [FIG. 11] FIG. 11 is a perspective view illustrating reflectors in a closest position in yet another embodiment of the reflector according to the present invention.

[0079] [FIG. 12] FIG. 12 is a side view illustrating the reflectors in an opened position in the embodiment of the reflectors illustrated in FIG. 11.

[0080] [FIG. 13] FIG. 13 is a perspective view illustrating still another embodiment of the reflector according to the present invention.

[0081] [FIG. 14] FIG. 14 is a perspective view illustrating an embodiment of a reflector for leaking fast neutrons according to the present invention.

[0082] [FIG. 15] FIG. 15 is a perspeetive view illustrating the detail of the reflector in FIG. 14.

[0083] [FIG. 16] FIG. 16 is a schematic cross-sectional view illustrating an embodiment of a small power generation system including a reactor core employing load following control according to the present invention.

[0084] [FIG. 17] FIG. 17 is a schematic cross-sectional view illustrating another embodiment of the small power generation system including the reactor core employing load following control according to the present invention.

[0085] [FIG. 18] FIG. 18 is a schematic cross-sectional view illustrating still another embodiment of the small power generation system including the reactor core employing load following control according to the present invention.

DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

[0086] Embodiments of the present invention are based on the results obtained using the comprehensive neutronics calculation code SRAC (Standard Reactor Analysis Code). The SRAC is a neutronics calculation code system applicable to reactor core analysis of various types of nuclear reactors. This system includes six data libraries (ENDF/B-IV, -V, -VI, JENDLE-2, -3.1, -3.2), integrated five modular codes, a collision probability calculation module (PIJ) applicable to 16 types of lattice models, Sn transport calculation modules, ANIS and TWOTRAN, diffusion calculation modules (TUD (1D) and CITATION (multi-D)), and two optional codes (ASMBURN, improved COREBURN) for fuel assembly and reactor core burn-up calculations. In the present invention, the collision probability calculation module (PIJ) and the Sn transport calculation modules, ANIS and TWOTRAN, were used to calculate criticality. The embodiments based on the results will now he described with reference to the drawings.

[0087] First, a nuclear reaction was confirmed based on the following basic specifications of the core of a small nuclear reactor.

[Basic Specifications]

[0088] Reactor core diameter: 85 cm [0089] Reactor core height: 200 cm [0090] Number of fuel assemblies: 60 [0091] Fuel pin diameter: 1 cm

[0092] FIG. 1 is a schematic cross-sectional view illustrating the structure of the small nuclear reactor used for the calculation of criticality in a small nuclear reactor according to the present invention. A reactor vessel 1 made of low-alloy steel and the like is loaded with fuel assemblies 4, around which a neutron reflector 2 made of graphite is provided. The reflector can move upward or downward. To move the reflector, a reflector support mechanism 5 is mounted. This support mechanism is connected to a drive mechanism (not shown) provided above the nuclear reactor upper. However, the reactor is not limited to this structure. A reflector having a length comparable with the full length of the fuel assemblies may be provided around the fuel assemblies.

[0093] The bottom of the reactor vessel 1 has a coolant inlet pipe 6 through which liquid metal sodium that is a primary coolant is charged. The reactor vessel also has a coolant outlet pipe 7 through which a nuclearly heated coolant is discharged.

[0094] FIG. 2 illustrates the details of the fuel assemblies 4. Fuel rods 41 were each prepared by inserting a fuel pin made of PuUZr alloy steel and having a diameter of 10 mm and a length of 200 mm into a cladding tube of ferritic stainless steel (HT-9 steel (Fe-12CH Mo-V, W), which is a reference steel of ferritic steel materials), and 24 fuel rods 41 were grouped into a fuel assembly 4 with a spacer 42. The reactor vessel was loaded with 60 fuel assemblies 4.

First Embodiment

[0095] The reflector, which is a key feature for load following control in the present invention, will now be described with reference to FIGS. 3A, 3B, and 4. As illustrated in FIG. 3A, the reflector has a double wall structure in which both walls made of graphite have a thickness of 10 cm. The reflector is circumferentially divided into eight sections of two types: reflectors A 21 and reflectors B 22. The two types of reflectors alternate and have different radiuses. This double wall structure is capable of accommodating one wall of adjacent reflectors each other when the reflectors are circumferentially shifted. As illustrated in FIG. 3B, the double wall structure having the reflectors A 21 and the reflectors B 22 is fixed by reflector support plates 20. The reflectors B 22 have an inner diameter of 52 cm and a height of 50 cm. These two types of reflectors in the double wall structure are shifted to each other to form gaps (slits) between the reflectors A 21 and the reflectors B 22, which reduces the reflection efficiency. Carbon (e.g., graphite carbon particles) may be provided as a lubricant between the reflectors A 21 and the reflectors B 22. Although the reflectors in this embodiment have the double wall structure, the reflectors may have a single wall structure or a triple or greater wall structure, of course. Additionally, a neutron absorber suitable for disposal of radioactive waste and the like such as actinoids may be provided outside the reflectors in order to effectively use leaking neutrons.

[0096] As illustrated in FIG. 4, the top and bottom of the reflector 2 are further coupled to heat resistance spiral metallic members made of austenitic stainless steel. The reflectors A 21 are coupled to a spiral metallic member 31, whereas the reflectors B 22 are coupled to a spiral metallic member 32. These members spiral in opposite directions. The opposite directions of the upper and lower spirals allow reflector slits caused by thermal expansion to be wider.

[0097] FIG. 5 shows the relationship between the number of turns of the spirals and linear thermal expansion. With the innermost and outermost diameters of the spirals being fixed, the number of turns is changed by increasing the thickness of the spirals from 10 mm to 30 mm.

[0098] The relationship between the thermal expansion and the neutronics of the reflectors in this structure was calculated using the calculation code CITAION. FIG. 6 shows the temperature dependence of the neutron effective multiplication factor K.sub.eff and the reflector slit width associated with the thermal expansion in a spring. As is apparent from the drawing, K.sub.eff decreases to 1 or less with increasing temperature, resulting in a subcritical state. As temperature rises, the neutron economy deteriorates and thus the nuclear reaction efficiency decreases. Conversely, as temperature drops, the reflector efficiency is improved and thus the nuclear reaction efficiency is improved. This enables a nuclear fission reaction to be automatically controlled in accordance with the output from the nuclear reactor.

Second Embodiment

[0099] A way of increasing the temperature of the critical point, at which K.sub.eff reaches 1, will now be described. As illustrated in FIG. 7, the four reflectors A 21 and the four reflectors B 22 into which a reflector is divided are provided, and these reflectors have overlaps 23. The slit widths associated with the thermal expansion in the reflectors are adjusted using the overlaps. FIG. 8 shows the calculations of K.sub.eff and the slit widths associated with the thermal expansion when the reflectors have overlaps. As is apparent from the drawing, the temperature at which K.sub.eff reaches 1 increased to about 500 C. In this manner, adjusting the lengths of the overlaps in the division reflectors allows the temperature at which K.sub.eff reaches 1 to be adjusted.

Third Embodiment

[0100] FIG. 9 illustrates still another embodiment of the reflector structure according to the present invention. The first and second embodiments shift the division reflectors circumferentially to create each slit between reflectors, thereby controlling K.sub.eff. The present embodiment moves reflectors radially to control K.sub.eff. The mechanism will be described with reference to FIG. 9. In order that double-wall reflectors 21, 22, which are eight divisions, can move away from the fuel assemblies with rising temperature, the thermal expansion of adjustment springs 26 is used. First, a fixation cylinder 24 for fixing the adjustment springs 26 is provided outside the eight divisional double-wall reflectors 21, 22. Next, eight spring drive reflector moving jigs for as many division reflectors are mounted outside the fixation cylinder, and each jig has a combination of an adjustment spring support plate 27, a reflector adjusting rod 28, and an adjustment spring 26. The support plate 27 receives the thermal expansion of the adjustment spring 26, and converts the thermal expansion into movement toward outside of the reflector adjusting rod 28 fixed to the support plate 27; as a result, the reflectors 21, 22 fixed to the reflector adjusting rods 28 move outward.

[0101] FIG. 10 shows the relationship between K.sub.eff and movements of the reflector adjusting rods 28 (or movements of the reflectors 21, 22) in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 9. As the distance between the reactor core and the reflectors increases, the reactivity decreases. In this example, when the rods move about 7 cm, K.sub.eff reaches 1. Load following control is allowed in this manner.

Fourth Embodiment

[0102] FIG. 11 illustrates still another embodiment of the reflector structure according to the present invention. This embodiment employs a structure in which reflectors are opened and closed utilizing thermal expansion. The thermal expansion in upper spiral metallic members 291 and lower spiral metallic members 292 is used to rotate 12 double-wall reflectors 21, 22, into which a reflector is divided, each outward about the corresponding supporting rod 25 made of a spiral metallic member, as the central axis. FIG. 12 illustrates the reflectors opened in response to a temperature rise. The spiral metallic member is suitably made of stainless steel, a nickel based superalloy, or a nickel-cobalt (Co) based superalloy. Furthermore, using spiral metallic members made of bimetal as the upper spiral metallic members 291 and the lower spiral metallic members 292 may allow the reflectors to be rotated more efficiently. The components of the bimetal may be the combination of a nickel (Ni)-iron (Fe) alloy as a low expansion material and one of copper (Cu), nickel, copper-zinc (Zn), nickel-copper, nickel-manganese (Mn)-iron, nickel-chromium (Cr)-iron, and nickel-molybdenum (Mo)-iron as a high expansion material. Because the nuclear reactor is under conditions of high temperatures, the combination of a nickel-iron alloy as a low expansion material and nickel-chromium-iron or nickel-manganese-iron as a high expansion material is suitable. When the neutron reflectors including such metal spirals of bimetal open, more and more neutrons leak from the reflectors. As a result, K.sub.eff decreases and the rate of nuclear fission reaction also decreases. Load following control is allowed in this manner.

Fifth Embodiment

[0103] FIG. 13 illustrates still another embodiment of the reflector structure according to the present invention. This embodiment employs a structure in which multi-layer ring reflectors 211 are surrounded by a spiral metallic member 311. The multi-layer ring reflectors 211 and the metallic member 311 are couple to each other with supports 281. Deformation due to thermal expansion of the spring metallic member 311 results in slits between the multilayer reflectors. The slits lower the fast neutron reflection efficiency. Thus, as temperature rises, the nuclear fission efficiency decreases. Conversely, when temperature drops, the reflection efficiency is recovered and thus the nuclear fission efficiency increases. Load following control is allowed in this manner. The spring metallic member is suitably made of stainless steel, a nickel based superalloy, or a nickel-cobalt superalloy.

Sixth Embodiment

[0104] As described above, the leakage rate of leaking fast neutrons may need to be reduced for the neutron multiplication factor K.sub.eff of the small nuclear reactor to become 1 or more. In this case, a reflector is desirably provided at a position other than the circumference of the fuel assemblies. FIG. 14 illustrates such an embodiment. The reactor vessel 1 includes an additional multi-layer reflector 91 above the fuel assemblies 4. To widen slits in this multi-layer reflector at high temperatures, a multi-layer reflector spring 92 is further provided. FIG. 15 illustrates the details of the multi-layer reflector. The multi-layer reflector 91 has a cylindrical space at the center. The fuel assemblies and the moving reflector 2 can pass through the space. The upper multi-layer reflector 91 and the upper spring 92 are coupled to multi-layer reflector support plates 93. This structure allows the leakage rate of leaking fast neutrons to decrease and also enables the leakage rate to be adjusted.

Seventh Embodiment

[0105] FIG. 16 illustrates an embodiment of a power generation system including a reactor core employing load following control according to the present invention. First, the reactor vessel 1 includes the fuel assemblies 4 and the neutron reflector 2 around the fuel assemblies. In this embodiment, the primary coolant is metallic sodium. For safety purposes, the secondary coolant is carbon dioxide gas. To enhance the power generation efficiency, a supercritical carbon dioxide gas turbine 521 is desirably used. In a main heat exchanger 50, heat is exchanged between the metallic sodium and the supercritical carbon dioxide. The metallic sodium is supplied via an inlet 51 of the reactor vessel 1 and delivered from an outlet 52 to the main heat exchanger 50 with a circulating pump 555.

[0106] The main heat exchanger 50 supplies carbon dioxide gas into the supercritical carbon dioxide gas turbine 521. Supercritical carbon dioxide gas passes through a regenerative heat exchanger 524 and a cooler 523 and reaches a compressor 522. The supercritical carbon dioxide gas compressed by the compressor is heated by the regenerative heat exchanger 524 and supplied into the main heat exchanger 50 with a supercritical carbon gas circulating feed pump 550.

Eighth Embodiment

[0107] FIG. 17 illustrates another embodiment of the power generation system including the reactor core employing load following control method according to the present invention. In this embodiment, the primary coolant is lead-bismuth. As described above, the secondary coolant in this embodiment is water (light water), and a steam turbine is used for power generation. As illustrated in FIG. 17, the reactor vessel 1 is loaded with the fuel assemblies 4 and the neutron reflector 2 around the fuel assemblies. The reactor vessel 1 is loaded with lead-bismuth as the primary coolant. The primary coolant is received via the inlet 51 and supplied into the main heat exchanger 50 via the outlet 52 with the circulating pump 555. In the main heat exchanger 50, heat is transferred from lead-bismuth to water and steam is generated. This steam drives a steam turbine 501 and a condenser 502 to generate electricity. The condenser 502 turns the steam into water, which is then heated by a first heater 503 and a second heater 504. The heated water is supplied into the main heat exchanger 50 with the circulating feed pump 550.

Ninth Embodiment

[0108] If the primary coolant is lead or lead-bismuth, heat exchange may also be performed within the reactor vessel 1 because this primary coolant does not react with water. FIG. 18 illustrates such an embodiment. The reactor vessel 1 includes the fuel assemblies 4 and the reflector 2 and is loaded with lead-bismuth as the primary coolant. The secondary coolant is water. The water is supplied into the reactor vessel 1 from the bottom or a side with the circulating pump 555. Steam generated in the reactor vessel 1 drives a steam turbine 580 and a condenser 581 to generate electricity. The water is heated by a first heater 582 and a second heater 583. The heated water is supplied into the reactor vessel 1 again with the circulating pump 555.

[0109] Although the embodiments have been described above, the present invention is not limited to them. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the embodiments may be altered or modified variously without departing from the spirit of the invention and the scope of the appended claims.

REFERENCE SIGNS LIST

[0110] 1 reactor vessel [0111] 2 neutron reflector [0112] 4 fuel assembly [0113] 5 reflector support [0114] 6 primary coolant inlet pipe [0115] 7 primary coolant outlet pipe [0116] 20 reflector support plate [0117] 21 reflector A [0118] 22 reflector B [0119] 23 reflector overlap [0120] 24 adjustment spring fixation cylinder [0121] 25 supporting rod [0122] 26 adjustment spring [0123] 27 adjustment spring support plate [0124] 28 reflector adjusting rod [0125] 31 upper spiral metallic member [0126] 32 lower spiral metallic member [0127] 41 fuel rod [0128] 42 fuel assembly support plate [0129] 51 reactor vessel inlet [0130] 52 reactor vessel outlet [0131] 60 main beat exchanger [0132] 91 upper multi-layer reflector [0133] 92 upper multi-layer reflector spring [0134] 93 upper multi-layer reflector support plate [0135] 211 ring multilayer reflector [0136] 311 spring metallic member [0137] 281 multilayer reflector support plate [0138] 291 upper angle adjusting spiral metallic member [0139] 292 lower angle adjusting spiral metallic member [0140] 501, 580 steam turbines [0141] 502, 581 condensers [0142] 503, 582 first heaters [0143] 504, 583 second heaters [0144] 521 supercritical carbon dioxide gas turbine [0145] 522 supercritical carbon dioxide gas compressor [0146] 523 cooler [0147] 524 regenerative heat exchanger [0148] 525 carbonic acid gas circulating pump [0149] 550 circulating feed pump [0150] 555 circulating pump [0151] 560 isolation valve [0152] 1001 lead-bismuth surface