THREE-DIMENSIONAL SILK FIBROIN SCAFFOLD CULTURE RETAINING FUNCTIONAL SALIVARY CELLS AND PROMOTING SALIVARY TISSUE-SPECIFIC ECM SYNTHESIS

Abstract

A cell culture system including a silk fibroid scaffold, culture media, and salivary gland cells. The salivary gland cells grown in the tissue culture system have physiological and morphological features like those of in vivo salivary gland cells. The cell culture system can be used to produce a salivary tissue-specific extracellular matrix capable of inducing differentiation of salivary gland cell precursors into salivary gland cells.

Claims

1. A cell culture system comprising a silk fibroid scaffold, culture media, and salivary gland cells.

2. The cell culture system of claim 1, wherein the silk fibroid scaffold is coated with fibronectin.

3. The cell culture system of claim 1 or 2, wherein the salivary gland cells comprise parotid gland cells.

4. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 3, wherein the salivary gland cells comprise submandibular gland cells.

5. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 4, wherein the salivary gland cells are primary salivary gland epithelial cells.

6. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 5, wherein the salivary gland cells are mammalian cells.

7. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 6, wherein the salivary gland cells are rat cells.

8. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 7, where in the salivary gland cells are arranged in three-dimensional cellular aggregates.

9. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 8, wherein the salivary gland cells do not form a monolayer.

10. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 9, wherein the salivary gland cells comprise granule structures.

11. The cell culture system of claim 10, wherein the granule structures have an average diameter of approximately 1 m.

12. The cell culture system of claim 10 or 11, wherein the granule structures occupy more than half of the cytosol of the salivary gland cells.

13. The cell culture system of any of claims 10 to 12, wherein the granule structures are salivary secretory granules.

14. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 13, wherein the salivary gland cells express -adrenergic receptor on their cell surface.

15. The cell culture system of any of claims 10 to 14, wherein the granule structures are capable of secreting amylase.

16. The cell culture system of any of claims 10 to 15, wherein the salivary gland cells are capable of secreting amylase.

17. The cell culture system of claim 16, wherein the salivary gland cells are capable of secreting amylase in response to exposure to a -adrenergic receptor agonist.

18. The cell culture system of claim 17, wherein the -adrenergic receptor agonist is isoproterenol.

19. The cell culture system of claim 18, wherein the salivary gland cells are capable of secreting amylase in response to exposure to isoproterenol at a concentration of 10.sup.5 M for 30 minutes in PBS solution.

20. The cell culture system of any of claims 17 to 19, wherein the salivary gland cells are capable of secreting an amount of amylase sufficient to increase the amylase activity in the culture medium by at least a factor of 2 after exposure to isoproterenol as compared to amylase activity in the culture medium before exposure to isoproterenol.

21. The cell culture system of claim 20, wherein the salivary gland cells are capable of secreting an amount of amylase sufficient to increase the amylase activity in the culture medium by at least a factor of 5 after exposure to isoproterenol as compared to amylase activity in the culture medium before exposure to isoproterenol.

22. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 21, wherein the culture medium comprises a -adrenergic receptor agonist.

23. The cell culture system of claim 22, wherein the -adrenergic receptor agonist is isoproterenol.

24. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 23, wherein the culture medium comprises amylase secreted from the salivary gland cells.

25. The cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 24, wherein the salivary gland cells are capable of constructing a three-dimensional extracellular matrix.

26. The cell culture system of claim 25, wherein the three-dimensional extracellular matrix is salivary gland-specific.

27. The cell culture system of claim 25 or 26, wherein the three-dimensional extracellular matrix measures at least 150 m, 200 m, or 250 m in each dimension.

28. The cell culture system of any of claims 25 to 27, wherein the three-dimensional extracellular matrix comprises collagen type IV.

29. The cell culture system of any of claims 25 to 28, further comprising a three-dimensional extracellular matrix.

30. The cell culture system of claim 29, wherein the three-dimensional extracellular matrix measures at least 150 m, 200 m, or 250 m in each dimension.

31. The cell culture system of claim 29 or 30, wherein the three-dimensional extracellular matrix comprises collagen type IV.

32. A method of forming a salivary tissue-specific extracellular matrix comprising exposing the cell culture system of any of claims 25 to 31 to ascorbic acid.

33. The method of claim 32, further comprising incubating the cell culture system for a time and under conditions sufficient for the salivary gland cells to achieve confluence.

34. The method of claim 33, wherein exposing the salivary gland cells to ascorbic acid is performed after the salivary glands achieve confluence.

35. The method of claim 34, wherein the salivary gland cells are exposed to ascorbic acid for eight days.

36. The method of any of claims 32 to 35, further comprising decellularizing the extracellular matrix.

37. The method of claim 36, wherein the extracellular matrix is decellularized by incubating the salivary gland cells with a composition comprising Triton X-100 and NH.sub.4OH.

38. The three-dimensional extracellular matrix produced by the method of any of claims 32 to 37.

39. A three-dimensional extracellular matrix produced by salivary gland cells cultured on silk fibroid scaffold.

40. The three-dimensional extracellular matrix of claim 39, wherein each dimension of the three-dimensional extracellular matrix measures at least 150 m, 200 m, or 250 m.

41. The three-dimensional extracellular matrix of claim 39 or 40, wherein the extracellular matrix is essentially free of salivary gland cells.

42. The three-dimensional extracellular matrix of any of claims 39 to 41, wherein the silk fibroid scaffold is coated with fibronectin.

43. A method of producing salivary gland cells, the method comprising incubating precursors of salivary gland cells with the three-dimensional extracellular matrix of any of claims 39 to 42.

44. The method of claim 43, wherein the precursors of salivary gland cells are pluripotent stem cells.

45. The method of claim 44, wherein the pluripotent stem cells are mesenchymal stem cells.

46. A method of treating a salivary gland condition in a subject comprising providing to the subject the salivary gland cells produced by the method of any of claims 43 to 45.

47. A method of differentiating cells comprising incubating cells with the three-dimensional extracellular matrix of any of claims 39 to 42.

48. A method of producing salivary gland tissue comprising: obtaining salivary gland cells or salivary gland precursor cells; and incubating the salivary gland cells or salivary gland precursor cells with the three-dimensional extracellular matrix of any of claims 38 to 42.

49. The method of claim 48, wherein the salivary gland precursor cells are pluripotent stem cells.

50. The method of claim 49, wherein the pluripotent stem cells are mesenchymal stem cells.

51. A method of treating a salivary gland condition in a subject comprising providing to the subject the salivary gland tissue produced by the method of any of claims 48 to 50.

52. A method of testing the biological activity of a substance comprising: obtaining the cell culture system of any of claims 1 to 31; adding the substance to the cell culture system; and measuring a parameter of the cell culture system to determine the effect of adding the substance to the cell culture system.

53. The method of claim 52, wherein the substance is a candidate therapeutic to treat a condition.

54. The method of claim 53, wherein the condition is an oral disease or a disorder of the salivary glands.

55. The method of claim 53 or 54, wherein the condition is Sjgren's syndrome, diabetes, a renal disease, or a side effect of a xerostomic medication or radiotherapy.

56. A method of testing the biological activity of a substance comprising: obtaining the extracellular matrix of any of claims 39 to 42; incubating salivary gland cells or salivary gland precursor cells with the extracellular matrix; contacting the salivary gland cells or salivary gland precursor cells with the substance; and measuring an activity or property of the salivary gland cells or salivary gland precursor cells to determine the effect of contacting the salivary gland cells or salivary gland precursor cells with the substance.

57. The method of claim 56, wherein the substance is a candidate therapeutic to treat a condition.

58. The method of claim 57, wherein the condition is an oral disease or a disorder of the salivary glands.

59. The method of claim 56, wherein the substance is a cellular growth factor or cellular differentiation factor.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0020] The following drawings form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the present invention. The invention may be better understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein.

[0021] FIG. 1Attachment and proliferation of primary salivary gland epithelial cells (pSGECs) on tissue culture plastic (TCP) and silk fibroin scaffolds (SFS) were assessed using AlamarBlue. Rat submandibular (SM, left panel) and parotid (PG, right panel) gland primary epithelial cells were cultured for up to 12 days on SFS or TCP. The change in cell number was assessed with AlamarBlue at the indicated times. The data shown in the graphs are from one representative experiment (meanSD fluorescence intensity; n=4 wells).

[0022] FIG. 2A-2IHistological staining of pSGECs grown on silk fibroin scaffolds (SFS). Rat submandibular (SM, A-C) and parotid (PG, D-F) gland epithelial cells cultured on SFS were sectioned and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E, A & D), periodic acidSchiff (PAS, B & E), or Alcian blue (C & F) as described in the Methods. The SFS without cells served as controls (G, H & I). Cell aggregates (solid black arrows in A and D) were observed in H&E stained sections from both SM and PG cultures. In addition, cells from both tissues were PAS positive (solid black arrows in B and E). Alcian blue staining, indicative of mucin production, was found in SM cultures (solid black arrows in C), but not in PG cultures (F). Solid arrow heads identify SFS in these micrographs.

[0023] FIG. 3A-3HScanning electron micrographs of primary salivary gland epithelial cells (pSGECs) grown on tissue culture plastic (TCP) or silk fibroin scaffolds (SFS). Submandibular (SM) gland epithelial cells were cultured on TCP (A, C, E) or SFS (B, D, F, G) for 5 weeks and then viewed in the scanning electron microscope (SEM) as described in the Methods. With increasing magnification, different morphological features of the cells growing on the 2 culture surfaces could be clearly discerned (TCP: A, C, E; SFS: B, D, F, G). SM gland epithelial cells grown on SFS displayed secretory granule-like structures that could be clearly seen at high magnification (black arrow in G), The micrograph in H shows that PG epithelial cells grown on SFS; at the same magnification as the SM cells (see F), have remarkably similar surface morphologies.

[0024] FIG. 4A-4DTransmission electron micrographs of primary salivary gland epithelial cells (pSGECs) grown on tissue culture plastic (TCP) or silk fibroin scaffolds (SFS). Cells were cultured on TCP (A, B) or SFS (C, D) for 5 weeks and then viewed in the transmission electron microscope (TEM) as described in the Methods. The micrographs (A, B) on the left show submandibular (SM) gland epithelial cells grown on TCP; no secretory granule-like structures are observed in these cells. In contrast, SM gland epithelial cells cultured on SFS display prominent secretory granules (C, D).

[0025] FIG. 5SEM images of hBMSCs culture on SFS.

[0026] FIG. 6A-6CAmylase and protein secretion by primary salivary gland epithelial cells (pSGECs) grown on tissue culture plastic (TCP) and silk fibroin scaffolds (SFS). Rat submandibular (SM) and parotid (PG) gland epithelial cells were cultured on TCP or SFS for 5 weeks in growth media as described in the Methods. Amylase activity (A and B), released by the cells, was measured as described in the Methods. Values shown in the graphs (A and B) represent the meanSD for amylase specific activity. Panel A shows enzyme activity released into the media. Panel B shows the enzyme activity released in response to treatment with isoproterenol (10-5 M, 30 min at 37 C.) (see Methods for details). Mouse saliva was used as a positive control for amylase activity. Representative data from one of two independent experiments are shown; each experiment was run in triplicate (n=3). The values in panel C represent total protein released by cells untreated or treated with isoproterenol (10-5 M, 30 min at 37 C.) from a typical experiment (see Methods for details). *p<0.05, TCP vs. SFS (Panel A) or Basal vs Iso treatment (Panel B).

[0027] FIG. 7A-7FScanning- and transmission electron micrographs of extracellular matrix (ECM) produced by primary submandibular (SM) gland epithelial cells grown on tissue culture plastic (TCP) and silk fibroin scaffolds (SFS). The cells were cultured on TCP or SFS for 5 weeks, decellularized, and then prepared for viewing in the SEM and TEM as described in the Methods. Differences in cell morphology were observed in the SEM with the two culture environments (TCP, A & B; SFS, C & D). Evidence of SFS remodeling could be observed when scaffolds before (E) and after culture with the cells (C) were compared. TEM revealed a fibrillar ECM was deposited by the cells onto the SFS (F). White arrows (C, D, & F) indicate the location of ECM produced by the SM cells.

[0028] FIG. 8A-8HLocalization of type IV collagen produced by primary submandibular (SM) gland epithelial cells cultured on tissue culture plastic (TCP) and silk fibroin scaffolds (SFS). SM gland epithelial cells were grown for 5 weeks as described in the Methods and then fixed for phase contrast microscopy and localization of type IV collagen by confocal microscopy. Images in panels A and C are phase contrast images of cells grown on TCP and SFS, respectively. Panel B is an immunofluorescent image of cells cultured on TCP and stained with antibody to type IV collagen; note the lack of staining under these culture conditions. Panels D through H are a confocal microscopy z-scan series (viewed in 3 m sections, bottom to top) of SM gland epithelial cell aggregates growing on and surrounding the SFS fiber (blue fluorescence in original). Most notably, these cells are producing high levels of type IV collagen (green fluorescence in original).

[0029] FIG. 9Development and characterization of a 3D salivary gland-derived ECM scaffold, which provides a unique microenvironment for directing multipoint bone marrow (BM) or human umbilical cord blood (UCB)-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) differentiation into a salivary gland epithelial cell lineage and enhancing these cells to form the functional salivary gland tissue. Tissue-specific ECM derived from cultured salivary gland epithelial cells (SG-ECM) on a silk fibroin scaffold (SFS) were developed. The primary salivary cells grown on SFS retain the important functional and structural features of salivary glands and produce an extracellular matrix network mimicking native salivary gland cell niches.

DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

[0030] The present inventors examined the behavior of and extracellular matrix produced by salivary gland epithelial cells grown on silk fibroin scaffold (SFS) versus regular tissue culture plastic (TCP). The inventors discovered that the SFS culture system closely resembles the in vivo situation for retaining the salivary acinar and promoting the synthesis of salivary tissue-specific ECM. The silk in the SFS is a natural product from Bombyx Mori cocoon that consists of two major protein classes, fibroins and sericins (Leal-Egana & Scheibel, 2010). Since sericins have been identified as allergens in human, the fibroin silk after removing sericins is usually used as scaffolds. The fibroin silk scaffold is a favorite material for tissue engineering as compared to the other materials due to its flexible elasticity, easy nutrition supply (adequate pore sizes), poor surface for microorganism adherence, low toxicity/immunogenicity, and biodegradability (Leal-Egana & Scheibel, 2010).

[0031] The inventors have discovered that the SFS culture system provides a physiological environment for faithfully retaining the features of salivary secretory cells and promoting the synthesis of salivary tissue-specific ECM. Compared with 2D culture system, it much better mimic in vivo for studying the behavior of salivary gland epithelial cells in response to the variety of treatments, including new drug testing or radio- and chemo-therapeutic testing. Importantly, the cellular and ECM organizations of the pSGECs on SFS was close to that observed in the native salivary gland secretory tissues (D'Avola, et al., 2006). This cell culture system will be useful in the establishment of tissue-specific microenvironment or niches for repairing or even reconstructing functional salivary gland tissues.

[0032] Through immunostaining confocal microscopy and phase contrast microscopy, the inventors have demonstrated that collagen IV, a major composition of basement membrane, is indeed present in the ECM of pSGECs grown on SFS with much more intense expression surrounding 3-D aggregates than in the 2-D TCP culture. The results showed SFS likely facilitates pSGECs to generate the basement membrane proteins in a 3D structure resembling acini in the native salivary gland (D'Avola, et al., 2006). The inventors have demonstrated that salivary pSGECs have the potential to synthesize salivary gland microenvironment for future tissue engineering using multipotent stem cell differentiation into functional salivary gland epithelial cells in vitro and/or in vivo.

[0033] SFS not only keeps pSGECs in differentiated stages in long term culture, but also allows pSGECs to form a 3-D ECM structure. Using the decellularization procedures with minimal disturbances to the structure of the ECM (Crapo, et al., 2011), the SEM and TEM revealed that pSGECs were able to produce extensive ECM on the surface of SFS. Strikingly, the morphological features of ECM network on TEM mimic the decellularized rat salivary gland tissue (D'Avola, et al., 2006), suggesting that pSGECs can produce a native salivary specific 3D-ECM in vitro. While the amount of ECM produced by cells are visually different between the 2D and 3D cultures, the composition of the ECM under the two culture conditions was, based on immunofluorescent staining, different as well (FIG. 8). The cell culture system disclosed herein may also be used to study the differences between the two ECMs.

[0034] The inventors have discovered that pSGECs from rat parotid or submandibular glands grown on SFS retained more differentiated features of salivary acinar cells as compared to culture of these cells on TCP. The pSGECs cultured on SFS formed clusters maintained differentiated status as in the native organ (salivary gland). Strikingly, pSGECs grown on SFS retained their secretory status by exhibiting secretory granule-like structures in cell surface and in cytosol. In contrast, the morphology of pSGECs grown on TCP was shown in round and flat without secretory function. The detection of mucins in SM gland epithelial cells, but not PG epithelial cells, further highlights the unique ability of SFS to promote maintenance of the differentiation state of pSGECs. At the resting condition, the pSGECs of parotid and submandibular glands on SFS consecutively secrete amylase into culture media. Furthermore, pSGECs of parotid gland on SFS maintained sensitivity to amylase secretion in response to isoproterenol treatment, suggesting functional -adrenergic receptors on these cells. Interestingly, the submandibular gland pSGECs do not have isoproterenol induced amylase release (FIG. 6). These results are well consistent with previous studies indicating that isoproterenol has differentiated effects on amylase secretion in rat parotid and submandibular gland cells, i.e., -adrenergic receptor stimulated amylase secretion only occurs in the rat parotid gland cells/tissues whereas amylase secretion by rat submandibular gland cells/tissue is constitutive with no response to -adrenergic receptor regulation (Busch, et al., 2002). These results demonstrate that SFS has potential as a scaffold for creating the salivary gland cell niche in vitro and may provide an approach for inducing multipotent stem cells to provide therapeutically meaningful numbers of salivary gland progenitor cells for regenerating these tissues in patients.

EXAMPLES

[0035] The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventor to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

Example 1

Materials and Methods

[0036] Preparation of the Silk Scaffolds:

[0037] The three dimensional (3-D) silk fibroin scaffolds (SFS) were prepared based on a previously described technique (Sofia, et al., 2001). Briefly, silk cocoons from Bombyx Mori (Paradise Fibers, Spokane, Wash.) were boiled in aqueous 0.02M Na.sub.2CO.sub.3 and 0.3% (w/v) ivory soap for 1 h to remove sericin from the silk fibroin. Cocoons were then rinsed thoroughly with deionized (DI) water to remove any trace of soap and impurity. The silk fibers were dissolved in 9.5M LiBr solution for 30 minutes at 50 C., yielding a 10% weight/volume solution. Next, the liquid silk/LiBr solution was dialyzed for 3 days (2 kDa molecular cut off dialysis membranes, Thermo Scientific Pierce, Rockford, Ill.) in running DI water. The resulting aqueous solution was lyophilized for 48 hrs (LabConco LC-CE-7753522, Kansas City, Mo.). Samples were then rehydrated in water yielding a 5% (w/v) solution which was sonicated for 2 min. 50 l of liquid silk were casted onto Teflon molds (5 mm diameter) creating a thin film. The entire mold setup was then placed in the freezer and lyophilized again. Silk structure was submerged in methanol for 10 min to allow for structural change from -helix to -sheet. This step made the films insoluble in cell culture media. The methanol was then removed and the films were washed repeatedly in distilled water. The silk films were sterilized using an Ethylene Oxide (AN74i Anprolene gas sterilizer, Andersen Sterilizers, Inc) treatment for 12 hrs. Prior studies have shown that ethylene oxide sterilization did not alter the physical properties of the SFS (Siritientong, et al., 2011; de Moraes, et al., 2014).

[0038] Preparation of Primary Cells from Parotid and Submandibular Glands.

[0039] Salivary primary epithelial cells (pSGECs) from parotid and submandiblar glands were prepared from 3-month old male Sprague-Dawley rats following the procedure described previously by us (Yeh, et al., 1991). Briefly, parotid and submandibular glands were dissected, finely minced and digested with collagenase (96 U/ml, Wathington Biochemical Corp, Lakewood, N.J.) and hyaluronidase (0.19 mg/ml, Sigma) in Hank's balance salt solution containing 33 mM HEPES, pH 7.4 (HBSS) at 37 C. for 60 min with vigorous agitation of 300 rpm. During the process, the digestive mixture was oxygenated every 10 min. At the end, the digestive mixture was passed through a 100 (for parotid) or 40 (for submandibular gland) m nylon cell strainer and the cells were collected and washed with HBSS by centrifugation at 100 g for 5 min. The freshly isolated salivary gland cells were cultured for four weeks in DMEM/F12 medium (1:1 ratio) containing 1.1 mM hydrocortisone, 15% selected fetal bovine serum (sFBS) and antibiotic-antimycotic until near confluent (about four weeks). Previous studies have indicated the primary cells prepared by this method were 90% secretory (acinar-like) cells (Fujita-Yoshigaki, et al., 2005). The cultured cells were harvested using trypsin/EDTA and then used for the experiments (see below).

[0040] Cultures of Salivary Gland Cells on 2-D TCP or 3-D SFS.

[0041] TCP and SFS were pre-coated with human fibronectin. One milliliter of 16.7 g/ml fibronectin (Millipore) in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) was added to each well of 6-well plate or onto SFS and incubated for 1 hour at 37 C. After rinsing with PBS, the pSGECs were seeded on the coated TCP disks or SFS and grown in a F12/DMEM (1:1 ratio) media containing 1.1 mM hydrocortisone, 15% sFBS and antibiotic-antimycotic at 37 C. in a humidified 5% CO.sub.2/95% air incubator for 4 or 5 weeks. The media was refreshed every three days. In the last week the media was supplemented with ascorbic acid (50 M) to promote extracellular matrix (ECM) formation. The last refreshment media were collected for amylase analysis.

[0042] After the culture period, the 2-D TCP and 3-D SFS cultures were subjected to further morphological, functional and biochemical studies. Some of the TCP and SFS cultures were decellularized according to our previous published method (Chen, et al., 2007). In brief, the cultures were extensively washing with PBS and cells were removed by incubation with 0.5% Triton X-100 containing 20 mM NH4OH in PBS for 5 min at room temperature. The salivary cell produced ECM on the SFS and TCP surface was evaluated with scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

[0043] Cell attachment and proliferation was determined with the AlamarBlue assay according to the manufacturer's instructions (Invitrogen, Grand Island, N.Y.) (Widhe, et al., 2010; Mauney, et al., 2007). Cell growth was assessed every other day by incubation of the cultures with the AlamarBlue reagent (1:10 dilution) for 4 h at 37 C. After incubation, 100 l of the culture media were transferred to a 96 well plate and fluorescence measured using a Spectromax M2 microplate reader (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, Calif.) with an excitation wavelength of 560 nm and an emission wavelength of 590 nm.

[0044] Histology and Electron Microscopy.

[0045] For histology, SFS, after being cultured with parotid or submandibular gland epithelial cells, were washed with PBS, fixed with 10% neutral buffered formalin (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.) overnight, and then embedded in paraffin for light microscopy. Scaffolds were sectioned and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) (detects polysaccharides and mucosubstances such as glycoproteins, glycolipids) or Alcian blue (detects mucins) (Sarosiek, et al., 1994) for viewing of the cells and their morphology and the SFS.

[0046] For electron microscopy, cultures on TCP and SFS were washed 3 times with PBS and fixed with 2% glutaraldehyde in 0.1M sodium cacodylate buffer (pH 7.2) for 1 h and then transferred to 0.1M cacodylate buffer solution. The specimens were dehydrated in ascending concentrations of ethanol (from 70% to 100%). After dehydration, the TCP and SFS specimens were attached to a stub and sputtered-coated with gold-palladium for scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The specimens were examined using an EVO-50EP SEM manufactured by Carl-Zeiss SMT.

[0047] For transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the cell cultures were fixed as above and embedded in epoxy resin. Ultrathin sections were stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate and examined using a Joel 1230 electron microscope (Loel Ltd., Tokyo, Japan).

[0048] Measurement of -Amylase Activity.

[0049] The -amylase activity in culture media was assessed as an indicator for the secretory functions of cultured salivary gland cells using the EnzChek Ultra Amylase Assay Kit (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instruction. The amylase activities were analyzed under both stimulated and non-stimulated conditions. To assess amylase secretion in non-stimulated cells, the media was collected after salivary gland cells were grown for four or five weeks. The protein concentrations were measured with Bio-rad using bovine serum albumin as standards. Amylase activities were monitored by the increase of fluorescence excited at 495 nm and emitted at 515 nm following digestion of the DQ starch substrate and relief of quenched fluorescence using a SpectraMax M2 microplate reader (Molecular Device).

[0050] To measure the amylase secretion in response to -adrenergic receptor stimulation, the cells cultures were washed with PBS containing MgCl.sub.2 (1 mM) and CaCl.sub.2 (1 mM) (PBS solution) at room temperature. The cells were then incubated in PBS solution at 37 C. for 30 min to assess the basal amylase secretion. Subsequently, these cells were exposed to 10 M isoproterenol at 37 C. for 5 or 30 min in the PBS solution. The amylase activities and protein concentrations in the solution were measured as described above.

[0051] Immunofluorescence of Collagen IV.

[0052] The expression of basement membrane collagen IV on TCP and SFS cultures was examined with immunofluorescence following the procedures previously described (Zhang, et al., 2008). Briefly, cells grown and attached on TCP and SFS were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde and permeabilized with 40 g/ml digitonin in PBS for 30 min at room temperature. The permeabilized cells were incubated with 10% fetal bovine serum in PBS for 60 min and subsequently hybridized with or without rabbit polyclonal IgG anti-type IV collagen (1:50 dilution in PBS containing 2% FBS, 0.01% Triton X-100; Santa Cruz Biotechnology) at 4 C. overnight. The cells were washed with PBS containing 0.1% Tween 20 and incubated with Alexa 488-labeled goat anti-rabbit IgG (1:1000 dilution; Invitrogen) for 1 h at room temperature. Some specimens were counter stained with DAPI as indicated. Labeled cells were washed, and images were acquired using an Olympus confocal laser scan imaging system with excitation/emission wavelengths of 405/450 nm for nuclei and 488/554 nm for type IV collagen.

[0053] Statistical Analysis.

[0054] All data are presented as the meanstandard deviation. Statistical analysis of the experimental data was performed using Student's t test with significance at p<0.05. Each experiment was repeated a minimum of three times with an n=4 for each treatment group.

Example 2

Results

[0055] Primary salivary gland epithelial cells (pSGECs) attached and proliferated on both TCP and SFS. Cell attachment and proliferation were assessed during culture by use of the AlamarBlue assay (Fujita-Yoshigaki, et al. 2005). The initial number of submandibular (SM) or parotid (PG) gland epithelial cells attached to SFS was the same as that for TCP (FIG. 1). Further, the proliferative pattern displayed by PG epithelial cells when grown on both TCP and SFS were very similar over 12 days in culture (FIG. 1). In contrast, the proliferation of SM gland epithelial cells cultured on TCP plateaued around day 6, indicating that the cells had reached confluence, while cells cultured on SFS continued to proliferate during the entire culture period, suggesting that cell confluence was delayed (FIG. 1).

[0056] Primary Salivary Gland Epithelial Cells on SFS, but not TCP, Maintained Secretory Features In Vitro.

[0057] pSGECs obtained from rat parotid (PG) or submandibular (SM) glands were cultured either TCP or SFS in growth media for 3 or 4 weeks, followed by incubating in ECM promoting media supplemented with ascorbic acid (50 M) for an additional 8 days. The cultures were then processed for examination by light microscopy, SEM, or TEM.

[0058] By use of bright field microscopy, pSGECs grown on SFS displayed features of salivary gland acinar cells (FIG. 2). Staining with H&E and PAS (indicative of polysaccharides and mucosubstances such as glycoproteins, glycolipids) revealed the presence of aggregated cells associated with the silk fibers. In the majority of the cells, the cytosol contained glycoprotein-rich secretory granules and nuclei located near the cell membrane. In sections stained with Alcian blue, mucin-like substances were found in SM gland epithelial cells but not PG epithelial cells.

[0059] SEM further revealed that SM gland epithelial cells grown on TCP were mainly round and flat (FIGS. 3 A & C), while those cultured on SFS formed 3-D cell aggregates/clusters (FIGS. 3 B & D). At a higher magnification, cells maintained on TCP displayed numerous projections from the cell surface (FIG. 3E), whereas secretory granule-like structures were only observed on the surface of cells cultured on SFS (FIGS. 3 F & G). The diameter of these granule-like structures was approximately 1 m, which is consistent with the size of salivary gland secretory granules of acinar cells in vivo (D'Avola, et al., 2006). Similar granule-like structures were also observed in PG epithelial cells grown on SFS (FIG. 3H).

[0060] Using TEM, the ultrastructure of these secretory granule-like structures was further revealed in cross section and it was found that they occupied the majority of the cytosol in cultures on SFS (FIGS. 4C & D). In contrast, cells cultured on TCP contained very few secretory granules and the ones that were present appeared moderately to severely atrophic (FIGS. 4A & B).

[0061] To demonstrate whether SFS provides a special environment to retain tissue-specific cellular organization, parallel experiments were performed with human bone marrow stromal cells (hBMSCs, passage 3) cultured on SFS. SEM revealed that hBMSCs, unlike salivary epithelial cells, were only lined on the surface of SFS forming a monolayer (FIG. 5). Moreover, hBMSCs cultured on SFS had many folds of plasma membrane that project from their surface as well as the cellular processes for cell-to-cell connections as compared to these cells grown on TCP (Chen, et al., 2007).

[0062] pSGECs Cultured on SFS, but not TCP, Maintained their Secretory Function In Vitro.

[0063] The secretory function of pSGECs cultured on TCP and SFS was first assessed by measuring amylase release into the culture media. There was a remarkable amount of enzyme produced by cultures of SM and PG epithelial cells grown on SFS, but not TCP (FIG. 6A). To further evaluate the secretory function of pSGECs grown on SFS, amylase release in response to -adrenergic receptor stimulation, the receptor responsible for a major amount of salivary protein secretion (Baum, et al., 1993), was examined. When PG epithelial cells cultured on SFS were treated with isoproterenol (10-5 M for 30 min in PBS solution), amylase activity increased sharply over basal levels (5.3 fold; FIG. 6B), indicating responsiveness to this agonist. In contrast, amylase production by SM gland epithelial cells did not respond to isoproterenol stimulation, in agreement with a previous study (Busch, et al., 2002). Notably, these differences in measurable activity and response to agonist treatment were not due to differences in total protein production (FIG. 6C).

[0064] SFS Facilitated pSGECs to Produce a Tissue-Specific ECM.

[0065] To determine whether pSGECs cultured on SFS produced a tissue-specific ECM, SM gland epithelial cells were treated with ascorbic acid during the last eight days of culture (i.e.: 8 days postconfluence). At harvest, the ECM was prepared for viewing by SEM and TEM after removal of the cells. When SM gland cells were cultured on TCP, they produced a thin layer of ECM (FIGS. 7 A & B). In contrast, when the same cells were cultured on SFS, they were able to produce an abundant 3-D ECM that covered the SFS (FIGS. 7 C & D). The fibrous nature of these proteins was clearly visible in the TEM (FIG. 7F). In addition, salivary cells remodel the SFS during culture. This can be seen by comparing the structure of the SFS after culture (FIG. 7C) with the original SFS not subjected to culture with the cells (FIG. 7E) (Kundu, et al., 2014; Marmary, et al., 1987).

[0066] By use of phase contrast and immunofluorescence microscopies, the presence of type IV collagen, a key basement membrane protein, was identified in cultures on SFS, but not TCP (FIG. 8). These results suggest that SFS promotes the formation of a 3-D ECM by SM gland epithelial cells, resulting in an environment that maintains many of the differentiated features of pSGECs.

[0067] All of the methods disclosed and claimed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

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