Ionization detector and detection method

Abstract

In an embodiment an ionization detector includes a gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure (GIS-EE) configured to emit low-energy electrons, a sample chamber configured for at least one gas to be detected, the sample chamber being adjacent to the GIS-EE and a measuring unit configured to detect and/or select charged particles, wherein the charged particles are due to the emitted electrons and/or comprise the emitted electrons.

Claims

1. An ionization detector comprising: a gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure (GIS-EE) configured to emit low-energy electrons; a sample chamber configured for at least one gas to be detected, the sample chamber being adjacent to the GIS-EE; and a measuring unit configured to detect and/or select charged particles, wherein the charged particles are due to the emitted electrons and/or comprise the emitted electrons, wherein the GIS-EE comprises: an electrically conductive substrate, a transfer layer of a material with a band gap of at least 4 eV located on the substrate, a gate electrode of a further electrically conductive material located directly on the transfer layer, a first electrical connection structure located on the substrate, and a second electrical connection structure located on the gate electrode.

2. The ionization detector according to claim 1, wherein the GIS-EE is configured to emit the electrons with a kinetic energy up to 50 eV directly into the at least one gas to be detected.

3. The ionization detector according to claim 1, wherein the GIS-EE is configured to emit hot electrons as the low-energy electrons after a field emission process into a conduction band of the transfer layer and a minimization of scattering.

4. The ionization detector according to claim 1, wherein the gate electrode comprises carbon and has a thickness of at most 20 nm.

5. The ionization detector according to claim 1, wherein the substrate is of silicon, the transfer layer is of hBN, and the gate electrode is of graphene.

6. The ionization detector according to claim 1, wherein the GIS-EE comprises a plurality of lamellae, each lamellae configured to emit the electrons.

7. The ionization detector according to claim 6, wherein each of the lamellae comprises a sub-area of a gate electrode, and wherein the sub-areas are aligned parallel to each other and are each adjacent to the sample chamber.

8. The ionization detector according to claim 1, wherein the GIS-EE is traversed by a plurality of holes and the sample chamber comprises the holes.

9. The ionization detector according to claim 1, wherein the sample chamber is radially surrounded by the GIS-EE.

10. The ionization detector according to claim 1, further comprising: an electron capture detector, wherein the measuring unit comprises an electron detector facing an emission side of the GIS-EE, wherein the measuring unit is configured to generate an electric field between the emission side and the electron detector, and wherein the sample chamber is configured to allow the at least one gas to be detected to flow between the emission side and the electron detector.

11. The ionization detector according to claim 1, further comprising: an ion mobility spectrometer, wherein the measuring unit comprises at least one accelerating electrode configured to accelerate the charged particles.

12. The ionization detector according to claim 1, wherein the measurement unit further comprises a mass spectrometer comprising the GIS-EE.

13. A method for operating the ionization detector according to claim 1, the method comprising: emitting, by the GIS-EE, the low-energy electrons; guiding the at least one gas to be detected into the sample chamber; and detecting and/or selecting, by the measuring unit, the charged particles.

14. An ionization detector comprising: a gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure (GIS-EE) configured to emit low-energy electrons; a sample chamber configured for at least one gas to be detected, the sample chamber being adjacent to the GIS-EE; and a measuring unit configured to detect and/or select charged particles, wherein the charged particles are due to the emitted electrons and/or comprise the emitted electrons, wherein the GIS-EE comprises: an electrically conductive substrate, a transfer layer of a material with a band gap of at least 4 eV located on the substrate, a gate electrode of a further electrically conductive material located directly on the transfer layer, a first electrical connection structure arranged on the substrate, and a second electrical connection structure arranged on the gate electrode, and wherein at least one of the GIS-EE comprises a plurality of lamellae, each configured to emit the electrons, or wherein the GIS-EE is traversed by a plurality of holes and the sample chamber comprises the holes.

15. An ionization detector comprising: a gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure (GIS-EE) configured to emit low-energy electrons; a sample chamber configured for at least one gas to be detected, the sample chamber being adjacent to the GIS-EE; a measuring unit configured to detect and/or select charged particles, wherein the charged particles are due to the emitted electrons and/or comprise the emitted electrons; and an electron ionization detector, wherein the GIS-EE is configured to vary an energy of the emitted electrons.

16. The ionization detector according to claim 15, wherein the measuring unit is configured to detect a number and/or a type of generated electrically charged particles depending on the energy of the emitted electrons.

17. The ionization detector according to claim 16, wherein the ionization detector is configured to determine an ionization energy of the at least one gas and/or an ionization rate of the at least one gas.

18. An ionization detector comprising: a gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure (GIS-EE) configured to emit low-energy electrons; a sample chamber configured for at least one gas to be detected, the sample chamber being adjacent to the GIS-EE; and a measuring unit configured to detect and/or select charged particles, wherein the charged particles are due to the emitted electrons and/or comprise the emitted electrons, and wherein the GIS-EE further comprises a further gate-insulator layer sequence to adjust an energy of the emitted electrons by an additional potential.

19. The ionization detector according to claim 18, wherein the GIS-EE comprises the following layers in the order indicated and in direct sequence: a substrate, a transfer layer, a gate electrode, a further insulator, or an energy control electrode.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) In the following, an ionization detector described herein and a detection method described herein are explained in more detail with reference to the drawing on the basis of exemplary embodiments. Identical reference signs indicate the same elements in the individual figures. However, no references to scale are shown, rather individual elements may be shown exaggeratedly large for better understanding.

(2) FIG. 1 shows a schematic sectional according to an embodiment of an ionization detector;

(3) FIGS. 2 and 3 show schematic illustrations of emission characteristics of gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structures according to embodiments of ionization detectors;

(4) FIGS. 4 through 10 show schematic cross-sectional views of detection methods according to embodiments of ionization detectors;

(5) FIGS. 11 and 12 show schematic top views according to embodiments of ionization detectors;

(6) FIGS. 13 to 15 show schematic sectional views of detection methods according to embodiments of ionization detectors; and

(7) FIGS. 16 to 18 show schematic cross-sectional views according to embodiments of ionization detectors.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

(8) FIG. 1 shows an example of an ionization detector 1. The ionization detector 1 includes a gate-insulator-substrate electron-emission structure 2, or GIS-EE for short. The GIS-EE 2 includes an electrically conductive substrate 21, which may be replaced by a combination of a substrate and an electrically conductive layer, not drawn. Further, the GIS-EE 2 includes a transfer layer on the substrate 21, such as an insulator layer 22 made of a dielectric material, and a gate electrode 23 on the insulator layer 22. For electrical contacting, first and second electrical connection structures 25, 26 are optionally provided. Instead of the dielectric material, the transfer layer can also be of a material with a large band gap, such as SiC, GaN, AlN, Ga.sub.2O.sub.3 or diamond, as also possible in all other examples.

(9) It is possible that the second electrical connection structure 26 is applied to the gate electrode 23 as a grid or structured in strips to provide a more uniform voltage across the gate electrode 23.

(10) Further, it is possible that a protective layer 24 is present covering the gate electrode 23. Optionally, portions of the second electrical connection structure 26 extending over the gate electrode 23 are located between the gate electrode 23 and the protective layer 24.

(11) The ionization detector 1 further comprises a measuring unit 5, which is shown in FIG. 1 only in a highly simplified manner, in particular without any associated electronics. For example, the measuring unit 5 comprises an electron capture device, such as an electron detector 51, which may be configured as an anode plate and which may face an emission side 20 of the GIS-EE 2. Between the measuring unit 5 and the GIS-EE 2 there is a sample chamber 3, which is configured to be flowed through by at least one gas 4 to be detected, not drawn in FIG. 1. The term gas to be detected also includes gas mixtures and can also include liquid mixtures as an alternative or in addition to a gas mixture.

(12) The application of ion mobility spectrometers as well as electron capture detectors is hampered by the associated radiation protection requirements due to the usually necessary use of radioactive ion sources. In addition, ion mobility spectrometers in particular can detect very low concentrations of substances, but often do not achieve sufficiently low cross-sensitivities.

(13) Therefore, one idea of the present application is to realize detectors based on a GIS-EE. For this purpose, the electron gas in a conductor-insulator-conductor structure, such as the GIS-EE, is heated to a few eV by a very high local electric field in order to be able to perform the work function in the gate electrode and thus obtain free electrons. Thermalization of the electrons by scattering can thus be avoided or at least reduced by small thicknesses of the layers 22, 23.

(14) Field emission allows electrons to tunnel into the conduction band of the insulator layer 22. If there is a sufficient voltage drop and low scattering probability, these hot electrons can be emitted through the gate electrode 23 into the sample chamber 3. The energy that can be achieved is limited by the dielectric strength and/or by the lifetime of the insulator layer 22. As the voltage increases, for a given thickness of the insulator layer 22, the tunneling current increases and consequently the stress increases and thus the lifetime decreases. To a certain extent, the thickness of the insulator layer 22 can be increased to reduce the tunnel current at a given voltage, but in doing so, stray effects increase, decreasing efficiency. Similarly, the maximum charge transported by the tunneling process before a breakdown can decrease with increasing thickness.

(15) An energy range for the emitted electrons of, for example, up to 50 eV is possible. In this type of electron emitter, the actual tunnel barrier is the interface between the insulator layer 22 and the substrate 21, which is thus not exposed to the influence of the environment. This principle thus works not only in vacuum but also at atmospheric pressure as well as in liquids, making an evacuated package superfluous. Since the electron energy can be adjusted in a certain range, see equation A), via the voltage as well as, see equation B), for a constant field via the thickness of the insulator layer 22, an electron source with variable electron energy can thus be realized, if necessary also by a plurality of GIS-EEs 2 with different thicknesses of the insulator layer 22, for example, on the common substrate 21. Alternatively, another gate insulator stack could be used to vary, according to equation C), the energy of the emitted electrons independently of the emission current.

(16) In order to achieve the lowest possible scattering in the gate electrode 23 and at the interface to the insulator layer 22, the gate electrode 23 should be made as thin as possible on the one hand. For example, a thickness of the gate electrode 23 is in the range of the wavelength of the electrons, that is, at most 20 nm. In addition, the gate electrode 23 should have a small energy difference of the conduction band edge to the conduction band edge of the insulator layer 22 in order to minimize quantum mechanical reflection.

(17) Due to the requirement of the small layer thickness, the conductivity of a material of the gate electrode 23 is also preferably selected to be as high as possible in order to realize a low voltage drop across the gate electrode 23 and thus the possibility of the largest possible active areas.

(18) One possibility is carbon-based gate electrodes 23. Here, on the one hand, a diamond or diamond-like, that is, sp.sup.3 hybridized dominated, as well as a graphite-like, that is, sp.sup.2 hybridized dominated, design of the gate electrode 23 can be considered. Carbon materials in both forms exhibit very high, possibly direction-dependent electrical conductivities, as well as very high electron transmission. This is particularly true for graphene.

(19) A semiconductor-based gate electrode 23 can also provide a small energy jump to the insulator conduction band. For example, with a silicon oxide as the insulator layer 22, silicon can also be considered as the material for the gate electrode 23.

(20) Metals, in particularly thin layers, can also be considered for the gate electrode 23. In particular, metal layers produced by atomic layer deposition, ALD for short, can be homogeneous and very thin.

(21) Examples of sp.sup.2 hybridized dominated carbon based materials for the gate electrode 23 include: graphene, multilayer graphene, two-layer graphene, three-layer graphene, exfoliated graphene. Materials of the graphene family can be grown and then transferred in particular catalytically, for example, using copper. The growth can be done, for example, on SiO.sub.2, SiC, metals such as copper, hexagonal boron nitride or sapphire. Likewise, graphene can be grown directly on the insulator layer 22 without subsequent transfer, for example, on hexagonal boron nitride. Furthermore, solid phase graphene growth, such as HOPG (Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite) with subsequent transfer can be relied upon. Furthermore, the use of nanocrystalline graphene, pyrolytic graphene, pyrolytic carbon, graphitic carbon or graphenic carbon is possible. Possible production methods are chemical vapor deposition, CVD for short, such as APCVD (Atmospheric Pressure CVD), LPCVD (Low Pressure CVD), PECVD (Plasma-enhanced CVD) or ECVD (Electro CVD); furthermore, physical vapor deposition, PVD for short, as well as transfer methods. So-called glassy carbon or pyrolized polymer films can be produced by pyrolysis.

(22) Examples of sp.sup.3 hybridized dominated carbon based materials for the gate electrode 23 are: diamond, diamond like carbon, abbreviated DLC, ultra-nanocrystalline diamond, abbreviated UNCD, which can be doped and can be produced, for example, by CVD, such as PECVD.

(23) Other two dimensional, 2D, materials are also conceivable, such as borophene, phosphors, or even transition metal dichalcogenides.

(24) Examples of semiconductor materials for the gate electrode 23 include: crystalline Si, poly-Si, amorphous Si, Ge, which can be produced by CVD, such as LPCVD.

(25) Examples of metals for the gate electrode 23 are: Al, Au, Ag, Pt, Ni, Co, which are, for example, producible by ALD.

(26) For example, the gate electrode 23 has a specific conductance of 10.sup.1 S/m to 109 S/m. For example, a thickness of the gate electrode 23 is at least one monolayer and at most 20 nm or at most 10 nm.

(27) Above all, the insulator 22 should be selected to be as robust as possible against the tunnel currents used, in order to enable the highest possible current density and service life of the GIS-EE 2. A manufacturing process in which the thickness of the insulator layer 22 can be precisely controlled is preferable in order to achieve very thin homogeneous layers 22 and a high homogeneity of emission.

(28) For example, the insulator 22 is made of silicon dioxide, since the achievable high oxide quality as well as the relatively precisely adjustable thickness allow a high current density and thus service life. Especially in combination with a silicon substrate 21, established manufacturing processes are also available. In addition, the insulator 22 can be hexagonal boron nitride, or hBN for short, which allows, among other things, direct epitaxial growth of graphene on its surface. Since the thickness can also be very well controlled by various fabrication methods, hBN is an interesting option for the insulator 22. Especially in combination with hBN as insulator layer 22 and graphene as gate electrode 23, very low-scattering tunneling processes and thus a sharp energy distribution of the emitted electrons can be realized here. The high-k dielectrics used in CMOS technology can also be considered for the insulator 22. Especially fabrication methods like ALD are able to achieve very homogeneous layers with a relatively high quality.

(29) Silicon dioxide for the insulator 22 can be generated, for example, thermally, in particular wet, dry, at room temperature or in an oxidation furnace, or by CVD or by vapor deposition. hBN or BN can be generated, for example, by PECVD and annealing, LPCVD, catalytic growth and transfer. High-k dielectrics such as Al.sub.2O.sub.3 or HfO can be produced by evaporation, sputtering or ALD.

(30) For example, the insulator layer 22 has a dielectric strength of 0.1 V/nm to 500 V/nm.

(31) With silicon as the material for the substrate 21, also referred to as the substrate electrode, common methods from the CMOS industry are available and scalable, reproducible manufacturing is achievable. By varying the doping, the electrical properties can be influenced and even a voltage drop at the gate electrode can be compensated for by a suitable doping profile. Silicon also offers the possibility of integrating further functionality on a chip.

(32) Furthermore, for the substrate 21 Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite, or HOPG for short, is possible as a highly conductive, flexible material and can provide a very good substitute for common radioactive foils, such as Ni-63, as an electron source or as an ionization source.

(33) Sapphire, hBN, silicon carbide or even a metal or metal film are also possible for the substrate 21. In the case of a non-conductive substrate layer, conductivity can be realized by an additional layer. For example, graphene can be grown directly on its surface.

(34) The substrate electrode 21 can thus be silicon, with a possible doping of either p or n and a doping level of to ++, with P, As, Sb, B, Al, Ga and/or In as possible dopants. Furthermore, HOPG and graphite foils as well as sapphire wafers, possibly with a carbon layer, and SiC, possibly with a carbon layer, can also be used, as well as metal films.

(35) For example, a thickness of the substrate 21 is at least one monolayer and/or at most 5 mm. The substrate 21 may be mechanically rigid or flexible. For example, a specific electrical conductivity of the substrate 21 is between 10.sup.1 S/m and 109 S/m, inclusive.

(36) Since the detector 1 may be used in air with oxygen or under aggressive environment, the protective layer 24 for the gate electrode 23 may also be necessary. Here, the chemical resistance of the protective layer 23 as well as the controlled, homogeneous deposition of even very small thicknesses is particularly important. Here again, gate dielectric manufacturing processes as well as ALD are of particular interest.

(37) For example, the protective layer 24 can be made of silicon dioxide, as is possible for the insulator 22. In addition, the protective layer 24 can be made of hBN or BN, which allows very thin layers and is a suitable material especially in combination with graphite or graphene layers for the gate electrode 23 due to the epitaxial process. Here, in particular, the same lattice structure as for graphitic carbon would also be advantageous. Furthermore, the protective layer 24 can be glassy carbon, and especially through ALD processes, high-k dielectrics are again possible. Silicon as well as silicon carbide or silicon nitride are also possible materials for the protective layer 24, as well as Al.sub.2O.sub.3, for example, produced by high frequency sputtering processes or reactive sputtering processes or ALD.

(38) The protective layer 24 is preferably chemically insensitive to, for example, oxygen ions and oxygen radicals. A thickness of the protective layer 24 is, for example, at least one monolayer and/or at most 10 nm.

(39) For example, a current density of the GIS-EE 2 is at most 100 A/cm.sup.2, an emission electrode voltage may be between 0.5 V and 50 V, inclusive, and an efficiency may be up to 99% or 95% or 90%.

(40) A functionality of the GIS-EE 2 for ionization can be independent of pressure and type of gas or liquid in which the GIS-EE 2 is operated.

(41) The ionization detector 1 described here is thus based on the GIS-EE 2 as an electron source, with emission based on hot electrons. Possible detector principles are, as explained in more detail below, in each case pulsed or in continuous wave operation: electron capture detector, ECD for short, electron photoionization detector, ePID for short, ion mobility spectrometer, IMS for short, differential ion mobility spectrometer, DMS for short, high kinetic energy ion mobility spectrometer, HIKE-IMS for short, field asymmetric ion mobility spectrometer, FAIMS for short, or aspiration ion mobility spectrometer, A-IMS for short, diffusion detector, combination detectors, such as ePID and drift tube or such as ePID and diffusion detector.

(42) The ionization detector 1 can be constructed like a plate capacitor or like a cylinder capacitor, whereby openings or grid arrangements of the GIS-EE 2 and/or the measuring unit 5 are also possible and gas flows from all sides are conceivable.

(43) FIG. 2 shows a current-voltage, IU, characteristic of a GIS-EE 2 with a graphene-silica-silicon structure. Here, the substrate 21 is a silicon substrate with an active area of 300 m300 m. The insulator layer 22 is a 22 nm thick layer of silicon dioxide, onto which a monolayer of graphene has been transferred.

(44) The current I_23 is drawn, which was measured in the graphene electrode 23. This current corresponds to the portion of the total current not emitted as free electrons. The anode current I_51 was measured through an anode 30 m away with a voltage of 40 V relative to the gate electrode 23, applied through a mica foil as insulator. The residual gas pressure was i0-3 mbar. The efficiency E shown is the quotient of the anode current I_51 by the total current, which is given by the sum of the anode current I_51 and the graphene current I_23. An emission current of about 1 nA is achieved with an efficiency E of about 20%.

(45) FIG. 3 shows an energy spectrum of a graphene-oxide-silicon structure operated with a variable voltage and thus a variable energy E, normalized to a relative intensity R of 1. By varying the voltage U_23 between the substrate and the gate electrode 23, the energy of the electrons can be tuned.

(46) If a structure consisting of graphene 23, hexagonal boron nitride, hBN, as insulator 22 and silicon substrate 21 is used for the GIS-EE 2, scattering of the electrons in the insulator 22 can be minimized by the hBN, resulting in narrow emission spectra and lower energy loss compared to a structure with silicon oxide as insulator 22. In this case, the energy distribution of the emitted electrons at half height of a maximum, FWHM, has a width of, for example, at most 0.3 eV or at most 3 eV or at most 5 eV or at most 10 eV. Thus, with a suitable choice of electron energy, nitrogen can be selectively ionized, for example, but not argon, or oxygen can be selectively ionized, for example, but not CO.sub.2.

(47) FIGS. 4 to 7 show ionization detectors 1 designed as electron capture detectors, also referred to as ECD for short. In ECD, the molecule-specific probability of electron capture of low-energy electrons is measured. In a common setup, this is done by exploiting the fact that light electrons e in an electric field F, unlike massive ions, follow the electric field F rather than a gas flow, allowing them to be read out. When electrons are captured by a gaseous analyte A in the gas 4 under investigation, they are absent in the volume, which reduces a measured electron flow I (t) in the course of time t, starting with the presence of the analyte A, and is used as a measurement effect.

(48) FIGS. 4 and 5 show a possible setup of a plane-parallel ECD with an ionization source 2, which is realized as a GIS-EE layer stack. Thus, the emission side 20 and the electron detector 5, 51 are oriented parallel to each other, similar to a plate capacitor. The emitted electrons e are guided by the electric field F through the gas flow 4 towards the electron capture device 5, 51.

(49) The probability of electron capture determines the sensitivity of the measurement and is increased by a field-free space. However, the low-energy electrons emitted by the GIS-EE 2, which have a kinetic energy in the range of, for example, up to 50 eV, penetrate, for example, only a few 10 nm to about 10 m into air at normal pressure. Therefore, preferably, the electrons e are first transported away from the emission side 20, which can be achieved by pulsed operation: During electron capture, no voltage is applied between the emission side 20 and the electron detector 5, 51 to favor electron capture. In this case, the ions formed are carried away by the gas flow. During a voltage pulse, the emitted electrons e can be distributed in the sample chamber 3 on the one hand and the number of electrons e still present can be measured at the same time. In the presence of an analyte A, the current difference would then be a measure of the concentration, see in particular FIG. 5, right-hand side. Pulses refer to periodic signals with optionally variable amplitude, frequency, signal shape and/or pulse width.

(50) Alternatively, additional gas flows can be used to guide the gas flow to be analyzed closer to the GIS-EE surface through a suitable flow via the ratio of the flows.

(51) It is possible to operate the ionization detector 1, designed as an ECD, in pulsed mode and to control it to a constant average current by varying the pulse frequency. In this way, the pulse frequency becomes a direct measure of the concentration of the analyte A and is still linear over several orders of magnitude. The gas flow can be either perpendicular to the readout voltage or parallel through one or more holes in the anode 51 or also in the GIS-EE 2, see also FIG. 6. Thus the gas inlet 56 is combined with the electron detector 51. For example, in extension of the emission side 20, the gas outlet 55 is located. Optionally, there may be a heater 54 extending, for example, transversely to the emission side 20, which can limit the sample chamber 3 in the direction perpendicular to the emission side 20. The heater can prevent condensation of the analyzed fluid.

(52) Alternatively, two perpendicular electric fields F with different strengths can be used in serial pulsed operation. In a first voltage pulse, the electrons are distributed into the sample chamber 3, and with a second voltage pulse the electrons e remaining in sample chamber 3 are measured.

(53) FIG. 7 shows a possible radial structure of the ionization detector 1. Here, the GIS-EE 2 can be designed as a foil, for example, with a flexible graphite substrate 21. This means that the GIS-EE 2 radially surrounds the sample chamber 3 and the central, pin-shaped electron detector 51 and is shaped like a cylinder jacket. The gas 4 can be fed axially through the sample chamber 3 by means of the openings 56, 55. Optionally, a further inlet for an additional purge gas 44 is provided, for example, to reduce the residence time of an analyte A in the sample chamber 3 and thus to reduce back-mixing of the sample. Furthermore, electrical connection lines 6, 25, 26 can be supplied from the outside so that the ionization detector 1 can be efficiently electrically contacted with a plug, for example.

(54) The operation of the ionization detector 1 can be realized pulsed, as in the plate condenser concept. In addition, it is possible to design the GIS-EE 2 with holes or as a grid and to guide the gas flow radially through the GIS-EE 2 and/or to have the gas outlet on the axis of rotation.

(55) The radial structure as shown in FIG. 7 can be applied analogously to all other embodiments, which are drawn as plate capacitors, for example.

(56) In all other respects, the comments on FIGS. 1 to 3 apply in the same way to FIGS. 4 to 7, and vice versa.

(57) By using the GIS-EE 2, the ionization detector 1 can be implemented as a mass spectrometer, MS for short, see FIGS. 8 and 9. Thus, an MS can be implemented by the GIS-EE 2 as a MEMS device, where MEMS stands for micro-electromechanical system. A low airflow can be realized by the gas inlet 56 having dimensions in the m range. For example, the at least one gas inlet 56 has an average diameter of at least 0.1 m or of at least 0.2 m and/or of at most 1 cm or of at most 1 mm or of at most 0.1 mm or of at most 10 m.

(58) By ionization with a GIS-EE 2 directly in the channel of the sample chamber 3, or preferably with a plurality of such channels, an ionized air flow can be achieved. Preferably, the length and volume of the sample chamber 3 are such that very high ionization rates are achieved. By means of a zone with a strong electric field, the ions i could be trapped at specific locations, for example, implanted in a target metal.

(59) Deviating from the illustration in FIGS. 8 and 9, several stages of such ionization zones and implantation zones can also be connected in series. Ions i could be extracted from them in a pulsed manner by a high electric field and spectrometrically sorted and/or measured according to their mass by a time-of-flight measurement. To achieve high sensitivity, a multichannel plate with electron amplification can also be used for readout. An additional unit can also be used for evacuation. This could also be carried out by a micro-ion getter pump, for example, as described in document PL 228 498 B1. The disclosure content of this document with respect to the pump is incorporated by reference.

(60) For example, the channels shown extending from the gas inlet 56 in the ionization detector 1 have an edge length or diameter of an entrance opening of 100 nm to 100 m and/or a length of 100 m to 10 cm. The channels may extend into the ionization detector 1 with a constant cross-section or with a varying cross-section. These channels can also be meander-shaped in order to realize a sufficiently low flow rate with compact dimensions. These channels can also be designed as an array with multiple openings. For example, an evacuation stage has a side length of 100 m to 10 cm. A column length of the time-of-flight mass spectrometer, in the direction away from the gas inlet 56, is, for example, at least 1 mm and/or at most 3 m or at most 50 cm.

(61) Optionally, a gas outlet 55 is provided, which may be located in the area of the time-of-flight mass spectrometer or elsewhere, see FIG. 9, and may be used for a MEMS ion getter pump, for example.

(62) In all other respects, the comments on FIGS. 1 to 7 apply in the same way to FIGS. 8 and 9, and vice versa.

(63) In FIGS. 10, 11, 12 and 13, it is shown that the GIS-EE 2 is lattice-shaped so that a plurality of holes 42 pass through the substrate 21, the insulator layer 22 and the gate electrode 23, and the optional protective layer 24 may also be present, not drawn. In this regard, the insulator layer 22 and the gate electrode 23, as well as the optional protective layer 24, may be located either only on side surfaces of the holes 42, or only on sides of the substrate 2 facing the measuring unit 5, or both. It is possible that the measuring unit 5 is also designed as a grid and is or comprises, for example, an accelerating electrode 52. A control electronics 7 is drawn only schematically in a highly simplified manner.

(64) According to FIG. 11, the holes 42 are placed in a regular rectangular grid. The holes 42 can be not only square, but also rectangular, round or otherwise shaped. Alternatively, other grid types are possible, for example, hexagonal grid arrangements of the holes can be realized, see FIG. 12. Furthermore, it is possible that configurations with a stepped structure are chosen, see FIG. 13, so that, for example, an accelerating electrode 52 can be combined with a mass spectrometer unit 53. The arrangement of the electrodes can match the GIS-EE structure with respect to period length and alignment or be de-aligned to it and/or have different period lengths. In particular, the period length denotes a lateral distance between the grating apertures, also referred to as pitch, plus a diameter of the grating apertures.

(65) The ionization detectors 1 of FIGS. 10 to 13 can also be operated in pulsed mode to realize a field-free mode, as well as a withdrawal of the electrons from the emission side 20 together with a current measurement. It is also possible that the emitted electrons with the energy of >0 eV to 50 eV are transported with the gas flow without external electric field. Thus, a response in the field-free region along the flow direction is possible. The possibly pulsed readout structure can also be connected downstream in this case. It is also possible to use a stack of several such structures to increase the sensitivity of the measurement.

(66) In all other respects, the comments on FIGS. 1 to 9 apply in the same way to FIGS. 10 to 13, and vice versa.

(67) FIGS. 14 and 15 show ionization detectors 1 in which the GIS-EE 2 is in the form of lamellae 41. The lamellae 41 are arranged in a common plane, for example, and main sides of the lamellae 41 may be oriented perpendicular to this common plane.

(68) In this case, the GIS-Es 2 can each be applied to one or both sides of the lamellae 41. Due to the transport of the electrons with the gas flow, the readout structure can be connected downstream again or, as described above, can be carried out directly in the lamellae, whereby pulsed or DC operation is possible. Again, a stack of several such sensing zones is possible. In pulsed operation, a field-free area can also be temporarily realized between the lamellae 41 and the ions formed by electron capture can be removed. An ECD can thus be realized by a downstream readout.

(69) One side of the lamellae 41 can also be insulating. In this case, ions can first accumulate there and build up an opposing electrical field so that the ionized analytes are not discharged at a rear-side lamella wall. Also, a conductive connection to ground potential as well as to positive or negative voltages is then possible. Thus, also, by an equal potential of the backside electrode and the gate electrode as well as a negative voltage of the substrate electrode, a constant field-free area or nearly field-free area between the lamellae 41 can be achieved. The same is possible in all other examples.

(70) A distance between adjacent lamellae 41 is, for example, at least 0.1 m or at least 1 m and/or at most 1 cm or at most 0.1 mm or at most 10 m or at most 1 m or at most 0.1 m; in particular, the distance is at most ten times or four times or twice as great as a mean penetration depth of the electrodes into the fluid mixture. The same preferably applies to a distance between the emission side 20 and the electron detector 51, see, for example, FIGS. 4 to 7.

(71) In all other respects, the comments on FIGS. 1 to 13 apply in the same way to FIGS. 14 and 15, and vice versa.

(72) In the examples of FIGS. 16 to 18, further layers are applied to the GIS-EE structure, as shown, for example, in FIG. 1, so that a stacked arrangement is realized. The layers 21, 22, 23 of the GIS-EE 2 are thereby constructed, for example, as explained in connection with FIG. 1.

(73) Thus, a further insulator layer 27 is provided directly on the gate electrode 23. The further insulator layer 27 has, for example, a thickness of at least 2 nm and/or of at most 50 nm. The further insulator layer 27 is, for example, made of an oxide, such as SiO.sub.2, or of a nitride, such as hBN. The further insulator layer 27 may cover part or all of the gate electrode 23.

(74) An energy control electrode 28 is applied directly to the further insulator layer 27, for example, over its entire surface. The energy control electrode 28 can partially cover the further insulator layer 27 or cover the entire surface. For example, the energy control electrode 28 is made of graphene.

(75) By means of the energy control electrode 28, an energy of the electrons emitted from the GIS-EE 2 can be adjusted and varied.

(76) In FIGS. 16 and 17, it is shown that further the optional protective layer 24 is provided. According to FIG. 16, a third electrical connection structure 29, with which the energy control electrode 28 is electrically controlled, is thereby provided between the protective layer 24 and the energy control electrode 28. Like the second electrical connection structure 26, the third electrical connection structure 29 may be implemented by a plurality of contact paths, such as an electrical contact grid.

(77) The second and third electrical connection structures 26, 29 can be applied congruently one above the other. For example, the second electrical connection structure 26 is applied directly between the gate electrode 23 and the further insulator layer 27. The second electrical connection structure 26 and thus also the further insulator layer 27 can rise above the gate electrode 23. The same applies to the energy control electrode 28 and the third electrical connection structure 29.

(78) In all other respects, the comments on FIGS. 1 to 16 apply in the same way to FIGS. 16 to 18, and vice versa.

(79) In the above examples, the ionization detector 1 is configured as an ECD and/or as an MS. Likewise, it is possible in each case for the ionization detector 1 to comprise an electron photoionization detector, also referred to as an ePID, or to be an ePID.

(80) In a conventional photoionization detector, PID, the aim is to achieve direct ionization of the analyte, particularly a gaseous analyte, by excitation with UV radiation with a photon energy of at most 15 eV, without ionizing the carrier gas, which is usually nitrogen or air. In addition, the ionization energy can be used to increase selectivity by means of a tunable electron source, such as the GIS-EE 2 used here.

(81) One possibility is a design as a simple plate capacitor, analogous to FIGS. 4 to 6, or also a design as a cylindrical capacitor, analogous to FIG. 7, composed of the GIS-EE 2 and an anode of the measuring unit 5. If the electron energy is varied through, for example, by varying the control voltage at the GIS-EE 2, or if there is also a switchover to different GIS-EEs 2 with different insulator thicknesses and thus different emission energies, the current in the capacitor depends on the number of ions formed and can thus enable a concentration measurement based on the ionization energy.

(82) For this purpose, the energy dependence of the electron penetration depth and the influence on the current must preferably be calibrated without the presence of analytes. Alternatively, differential measurements are performed with two ePIDs, one with sample gas and one with reference gas. Again, a GIS-EE 2 with openings is conceivable, possibly designed as a grid, see FIGS. 10 to 15. The configurations of FIGS. 10 to 15 can thus also be used as an ePID, where ionization is performed in the GIS grid part with different electron energies and the current can be measured either to the anode or in another electrode pair. Such a setup can compensate for the low penetration depth of the electrons especially with small openings in the grid, that is, with a large aspect ratio, and still provide for a high degree of ionization.

(83) Such a setup is especially possible as a stack of several cells to increase the sensitivity of the measurement, as also possible in all other examples. It is also possible to use different energies of the emitted electrons in this case to measure different ionization energies in parallel. In the lamellar structure of FIGS. 14 and 15 as an ePID, it is also possible to use individual lamellae 41 for different electron energies.

(84) Further, the ionization detectors 1 described herein may comprise or be an ion mobility spectrometer, or IMS. In an IMS, ionization is typically performed in an ionization chamber using a radioactive .sup.63Ni foil. If air is present in the ionization chamber, nitrogen ions are mainly formed. Substances in the air are then ionized by chemical gas phase reactions to form so-called reactant ions, which can be positive or negative. By pulsed extraction of the ions and propagation in a drift tube, a signal can be generated depending on the ion mobility.

(85) With the ionization detector 1 described here, the otherwise necessary radioactive .sup.63Ni foil can be replaced by the GIS-EE 2. Here again, a plate capacitor design, analogous to FIGS. 4 to 6, or a cylindrical design, analogous to FIG. 7, is possible. The low penetration depth of the electrons in air can be compensated by external electric fields for a withdrawal of the electrons or also ions, whereby again a dynamic or pulsed operation is possible. Here again a GIS-EE 2 with holes 42 or a lamellar structure is possible. A grid-like structure as well as the lamellar structure from FIGS. 10 to 15 or also multiple stacks of both variants can thus also be used as an ion source for the IMS.

(86) Such grid-like structures or lamellar structures can be aligned perpendicular to a drift tube, for example, the electrons and/or ions can be drawn off into the drift tube in a pulsed manner. A gas flow in the direction of the drift tube, with a lateral exit directly in front of the drift tube, can also be realized. In this case, electrically pulsed packets can be drawn into the drift tube from the ions present.

(87) Furthermore, with a GIS-EE 2 it is possible to generate very localized ions and thus easily solve the problem of ion focusing in FAIMS, field asymmetric waveform ion mobility spectrometry, and A-IMS, aspiration ion mobility spectrometers, without using fluidic focusing structures. Furthermore, local modulation of the electrons and/or ions is also possible by individually drivable GIS-EE units, as well as temporal modulation.

(88) Finally, the ionization detectors 1 described here can be designed as combination detectors. For example, several properties can be measured simultaneously to realize a very compact detector with high selectivity.

(89) In particular, one of the ePIDs described further above can be used and a drift tube can be added downstream to determine ion mobility in addition to ionization energy.

(90) It is also possible, for example, to apply a constant high electric field in a plate capacitor geometry, vary the electron energy and then measure the current. In this case, the current depends on the concentration of substances with a sufficiently small ionization energy and, since the ionization takes place in a very small region around the GIS-EE 2, on a diffusion constant, that is, the ion mobility, during ionization with varied electron energy. This also allows a distinction to be made between diffusion constant and ionization energy. By a pulsed operation with varied pulse frequency it may be possible to distinguish the concentration and diffusion constant for a given ionization energy.

(91) In such a detector, a distinction could first be made between electrons and generated ions. This can be realized, for example, by polarity, a temporal separation due to the different mobility as well as by a gas flow, which transports ions away.

(92) With a negatively poled anode, the electrons as well as negative ions generated by electron capture can be discharged through the gate electrode. If the energy is sufficient and positive ions are generated by impact ionization, these can be measured at the anode and thus the proportion of positive ions can be determined. Conversely, electrons are measurable at a positively charged anode, as are negative ions generated by electron capture or chemical gas phase ionization. Likewise, additional electrons generated by electron impact ionization would contribute to this current and thus lead to an increase in the anode current. Positive ions can therefore also be measured indirectly in the latter case.

(93) The separation of reaction products due to electron collisions over time can be implemented, for example, by a pulse operation. Here, the electrons would be measurable directly at the anode due to the much greater mobility and the ions only after a time delay. This means that with a time-resolved current measurement a distinction is possible. Due to the small penetration depth and the diffusion process, a differentiation of different ions is also possible. Furthermore, the excitation could also be sinusoidal and the anode current could be measured in magnitude and phase. Still another degree of freedom is possible by excitation with a sinusoidal sweep, where the frequency would be swept. The current signal would then depend on electron drift and ion drift as well as the lifetime of the ions.

(94) Alternatively, the ions could be transported away with the gas flow. In this case, the measurable current decreases because fewer electrons are present, similar to the ECD. In this case, the pulse frequency could also be controlled to a constant current and the ionic fraction could be determined. In this case, however, positive and negative ions would be measured together. By an additional readout structure, such as a plate capacitor with a constant potential difference and analysis of the currents at one of the plates in the outlet, a distinction could nevertheless be realized. Furthermore, a structure could be realized which makes a local resolution of the current components measurable and thus also makes a differentiation of the ions possible due to the different mobility which causes different trajectories of the ions.

(95) Both effects can also be combined, either in one structure or also in cells connected in series.

(96) The possibility of varying the temporal emission as well as the gas flow and the ionization energy thus makes a compact detector possible. If the electron energy is varied, an increase in the ionic fraction would be observed by exceeding the ionization energy of a component of the gas mixture, which is proportional to the amount of molecules or atoms in the gas mixture affected by ionization.

(97) Another possibility is to adjust the gas flow and thus influence the diffusion. Here, either the gas flow could be switched off for the measurement or different gas flows could be compared with each other.

(98) Such a detector can be calibrated with known mixtures of substances and then used for detection of unknown substances and mixtures of substances to determine properties such as electron affinity, drift constant and/or ion mobility.

(99) At electron energies above about 15.6 eV, gas phase ionization is also possible, similar to the IMS, which is again based on other properties and thus provides a further means of distinguishing between constituents of the gas mixture.

(100) In particular, such a type of detector is made possible by an electron source that provides precise electron energy tuning with a sufficiently narrow band energy spectrum as well as temporal control over the emission. Such a type of detector is thus made possible in particular by the use of the GIS-EE described here.

(101) All of the examples described herein can also be more easily implemented by the GIS-EE 2 as an integrated MEMS device, similar to the MEMS MS shown in FIGS. 8 and 9. Furthermore, in all of the examples, a metal grid is also possible for the GIS-EE 2 to minimize the voltage drop across the gate electrode 21 for larger areas, see in particular the second electrical connection structure 26 in FIG. 1. In each case, an array of multiple GIS-EE 2 is also possible to implement a larger overall area.

(102) The dimensions of the listed setups for the ionization detectors 1, which can be designed as ECD, ePID, IMS or as combination detectors, are, for example, as follows, individually or in combination: plane-parallel or cylindrical capacitor-like setup: side length 100 m to 10 cm; grid setups: openings of the holes 100 nm to 1 cm, side length of a total grid surface seen in plan view 100 m to 10 cm, thickness of the grid 1 m to 1 mm, spacing of the grids and the electrodes from each other 10 m to 10 cm; lamellar structures: lamella spacing 100 nm to 1 cm, area of lamellae in total 100 m100 m to 10 cm10 cm, spacing of electrodes and lamellae from each other 10 m to 10 cm.

(103) Thus, the ionization detectors 1 can be designed as portable handheld devices. This means, for example, a size similar to a cordless screwdriver.

(104) The invention described herein is not limited by the description based on the embodiments. Rather, the invention encompasses any new feature as well as any combination of features, which in particular includes any combination of features in the patent claims, even if this feature or combination itself is not explicitly stated in the patent claims or embodiments.

(105) The contents of this application have been created at KETEK GmbH, Munich, Germany, at the University of the Federal Armed Forces Munich and at Leibniz University Hannover.