Ultrasound and acoustophoresis for collection and processing of oleaginous microorganisms

Abstract

Microorganisms such as microalgae are collected and separated from a host medium such as water. Cellular walls and membranes of the microorganisms are then ruptured to release their lipids using a lipid extraction unit. Thereafter, the lipids from the host medium are collected and separated using a lipid collection and separation unit. Related apparatus, systems, techniques and articles are also described.

Claims

1. An apparatus comprising: a microorganism collection and separation unit comprising a first flow chamber, the first flow chamber comprising: a first inlet, a first outlet, and a initial water outlet, wherein an initial mixture of a host fluid and microorganisms enters through the first inlet; at least one first ultrasonic transducer; and a reflector surface opposite the at least one first ultrasonic transducer; wherein the at least one first ultrasonic transducer operates to form a standing acoustic wave substantially perpendicular to the flow of the initial mixture to selectively separate the microorganisms from the host fluid, such that a majority of the host fluid exits the first flow chamber via the initial water outlet and the microorganisms and residual host fluid exit the first flow chamber via the first outlet; operatively connected to the first outlet of the first flow chamber, an extraction unit comprising a second flow chamber, the second flow chamber comprising: a second inlet through which is flowed the mixture of microorganisms and residual host fluid from the first outlet of the first flow chamber; a second outlet; and at least one second ultrasonic transducer forming a standing acoustic wave to selectively rupture cellular walls and membranes of the microorganisms and form cellular debris, the residual host fluid and cellular debris exiting the second flow chamber via the second outlet; and operatively connected to the second flow chamber, a debris collection and separation unit comprising a third flow chamber, the third flow chamber comprising: a third inlet through which is flowed the mixture of residual host fluid and cellular debris; a third outlet and a final water outlet; and at least one third ultrasonic transducer forming a standing acoustic wave substantially perpendicular to the flow of the mixture in the third flow chamber to selectively separate the cellular debris from the residual host fluid so that the cellular debris flows through the third outlet and the residual host fluid exits the third flow chamber via the final water outlet.

2. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein the microorganisms are selected from the group consisting of: microalgae, yeast, fungi, bacteria, and spores.

3. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein the at least one first ultrasonic transducer, the at least one second ultrasonic transducer, or the at least one third ultrasonic transducer operate at a frequency in a range of 1 MHz to 10 MHz.

4. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein the at least one first ultrasonic transducer, the at least one second ultrasonic transducer, or the at least one third ultrasonic transducer are embedded in a wall of the corresponding flow chamber.

5. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein the at least one first ultrasonic transducer, the at least one second ultrasonic transducer, or the at least one third ultrasonic transducer are driven at a constant frequency of excitation.

6. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein the at least one first ultrasonic transducer, the at least one second ultrasonic transducer, or the at least one third ultrasonic transducer are driven by a frequency sweep pattern.

7. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein the at least one first ultrasonic transducer is driven by a pulsed waveform that does not result in cavitation of the microorganisms.

8. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein the at least one second ultrasonic transducer is driven by a waveform that results in cavitation of the microorganisms.

9. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein the extraction unit further comprises a recirculation unit comprising a tank, an inlet, an outlet, at least one recirculation arm, and a transducer in either the tank or the at least one recirculation arm.

10. An apparatus as in claim 9, wherein the transducer is in the tank and is a plate transducer.

11. An apparatus as in claim 9, wherein the transducer is in the tank and is an array transducer.

12. An apparatus as in claim 9, wherein the transducer is in the at least one recirculation arm and is a flat transducer.

13. An apparatus as in claim 9, wherein the transducer is in the at least one recirculation arm and is a ring transducer.

14. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein there are a plurality of transducers and each transducer is optimized for a specific range of particles selected from the group consisting of microalgae, yeast, fungi, bacteria, and spores.

15. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein the at least one first ultrasonic transducer, the at least one second ultrasonic transducer, and the at least one third ultrasonic transducer operate at different frequencies from each other.

16. An apparatus as in claim 1, wherein the residual host fluid exiting the third flow chamber contains proteins and nucleic acids.

Description

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating calculated acoustic force operating on micron-size particles as a function of the particle (or droplet) radius at a frequency of 1 MHz and acoustic pressure amplitude of 0.5 MPa.

(2) FIG. 2 is a photomicrograph of acoustophoretic trapping of the algae Dunaliella salina in flowing water in which the transducer is at the top, just out of the image; the column of trapped algae is about 2.5 cm high1 cm wide, and where the ultrasonic pressure nodes are seen as the horizontal planes in which the algal cells are captured; the water flow is from left to right.

(3) FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating a system including three sub-systems, namely a microorganism concentration and separation unit 310, a lipid extraction unit 320, and a lipid collection and separation unit 330.

(4) FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating an apparatus having flow channels, acoustic transducer, reflective surface, and collection pocket, for the harvesting of microalgae through acoustophoretic trapping; the transducer is a 2 MHz PZT-4 transducers; the direction of the fluid flow is horizontal and the direction of the acoustic field is vertical.

(5) FIG. 5 is a photograph (at 10 magnification) of a typical collection of microalgae obtained using an apparatus such as illustrated in FIG. 4; the fluid flow direction is horizontal and the acoustic standing wave is in the vertical direction.

(6) FIG. 6 is a series of three photos (at 10 magnification) of gravitational settling of the microalgae after the fluid flow has been stopped and the acoustic field has been turned off with the arrows indicate progression of time over 1 second intervals.

(7) FIG. 7 is a photograph (at 10 magnification) showing cavitation occurring; the process is used to rupture the cell walls and the cellular membranes of the microalgae; cavitation is evidenced by the bubbles that form in the dispersion and have risen to the surface.

(8) FIG. 8 is a photograph (at 400 magnification) of an oil/water emulsion obtained as a result of the cavitation process applied to a suspension of microalgae; typical oil droplet diameter is on the order of 3 m.

(9) FIG. 9 is a photograph (at 400 magnification) of a stable emulsion made from 400 ml water, 10 ml baby oil, and four tablets of Ceteareth-20.

(10) FIG. 10 is a photograph of an apparatus for oil concentration and separation; the stable emulsion flows through the region of the acoustic field in a downward vertical direction; the acoustic field is in the horizontal direction.

(11) FIG. 11 is a series of four photos (at 10 magnification) showing the formation of oil droplet aggregates as a result of the trapping of the oil droplets in the acoustic field; the top-most photograph is the first in the time series; the bigger chain of oil droplets, formed as result of coalescence and agglomeration, has just started to rises as a result of buoyancy, and can be seen completely separated from the smaller line of oil droplets in the final, bottom-most photograph.

(12) FIG. 12 is a photograph (10 magnification) of the collected oil layer at the top of the flow chamber as a result of the coalescence, aggregation, and concentration of the oil droplets.

(13) FIG. 13 is a diagram illustrating an apparatus for trapping, concentration, and collection of microorganisms and their separation from the host medium.

(14) FIG. 14 is a diagram illustrating a frequency sweep pattern that can be used to translate trapped particles along the direction of the acoustic field.

(15) FIG. 15 is a diagram illustrating an apparatus for trapping, concentration, and collection of microorganisms and their separation from the host medium, containing multiple transducers in line.

(16) FIG. 16 is a diagram illustrating an apparatus for trapping, concentration, and separation of lipids/biooils from an oil/water emulsion.

(17) FIG. 17 is a diagram illustrating a pulsed waveform that can be used in the rupturing process of the cellular walls and membranes of the microorganisms.

(18) FIG. 18 is a diagram illustrating an arbitrary waveform that can be used in the rupturing process of the cell wall of the microorganisms.

(19) FIGS. 19A-D are diagrams illustrating variations of an apparatus for the processing of microorganisms.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(20) The current subject matter utilizes acoustophoresis, a low-power, no-pressure-drop, no-clog solid-state approach to particle removal from fluid dispersions: i.e., it is used to achieve separations that are more typically performed with porous filters and centrifuges, but it has none of the disadvantages of these systems. For example, the diagram 100 of FIG. 1 shows the forces for an applied acoustic frequency of 1 MHz (typical for an ultrasonic transducer) and an acoustic pressure of 0.5 MPa maximum at the antinodes (readily achieved in water). Achievement of higher applied acoustic frequencies and higher acoustic pressures will require better impedance matching. Examples of acoustic filters utilizing acoustophoresis can be found in commonly owned U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 12/947,757, 61/261,686, 13/085,299 and 61/342,307, the contents of all of these applications are hereby fully incorporated by reference.

(21) The acoustic radiation force (F.sub.ac) acts on the secondary-phase particles (or fluid droplets), pushing them to the nodes (or antinodes) of the acoustic standing wave. The magnitude of the force depends on the particle density and compressibility relative to the fluid medium, and increases with the particle volume. The diagram 100 of FIG. 1 illustrates the acoustic force that operates on four different secondary phases in water as a function of the particle (or droplet) radius. The four secondary phases are hexanes (a mixture of hydrocarbons, a model for oils), red blood cells (a model for biological cells), bacterial spores (a model for large protein clusters and polystyrene beads such as are used for flow cytometry), and paramagnetic polystyrene beads (used for various biological capture and separation protocols). Parameters used in the calculation of the acoustic force are given below are in Table 1 (which are of particular interest regarding the algae parameters).

(22) The current subject matter is advantageous in that it uses acoustophoresis for separations in extremely high volumes and in flowing systems with very high flow rates. Separations have been done for micron-size particles, for which the acoustophoretic force is quite small. For example, B. Lipkens, J. Dionne, A. Trask, B. Szczur, A. Stevens, E. Rietman, Separation of micron-sized particles in macro-scale cavities by ultrasonic standing waves, Presented at the International Congress on Ultrasonics, Santiago, Jan. 11-17, 2009; and B. Lipkens, J. Dionne, M. Costolo, A. Stevens, and E. Rietman, Separation of bacterial spores from flowing water in macro-scale cavities by ultrasonic standing waves, (Arxiv) June 2010, the contents of both papers are hereby fully incorporated by reference) show that Bacillus cereus bacterial spores (a model for anthrax) have been trapped at 15% efficiency in an acoustophoretic cavity embedded in a flow system that can process drinking water at rates up to 120 mL/minute (1 cm/second linear flow). The concentration ratio has been as high as 1000 in a single-pass, small-scale prototype acoustocollector. However, the techniques described in this paper do not always scale up to higher flow rates.

(23) An acoustophoretic separator can be created by using a piezoelectric acoustic transducer and an opposing reflection surface (or a second transducer) to set up a resonant standing wave in the fluid of interest. The ultrasonic standing waves create localized regions of high and low pressure, corresponding to high and low density of the fluid. Secondary phase contaminants are pushed to the standing wave nodes or antinodes depending on their compressibility and density relative to the surrounding fluid. Particles of higher density and compressibility (e.g., bacterial spores) move to the nodes in the standing waves; secondary phases of lower density (such as oils) move to the antinodes. The force exerted on the particles also depends on their size, with larger particles experiencing larger forces.

(24) Diagram 200 of FIG. 2 shows the acoustophoretic collection of algae in a flowing water stream. A flat, circular transducer can, for example, be used in an acoustocollector to generate the collected matter in FIG. 1. The pressure field of such a transducer is a Bessel function that has a radial component in addition to the linear standing wave. The radial component acts to hold the captured algae in the column against the fluid flow. The trapped algae are then further concentrated in region by gravitational settling or by being driven to a collector pocket through a slow frequency sweeping method similar to that given in (i) B. Lipkens, M. Costolo, and E. Rietman, The effect of frequency sweeping and fluid flow on particle trajectories in ultrasonic standing waves, IEEE Sensors Journal, Vol. 8, No. 6, pp. 667-677, 2008; (ii) Lipkens, J. Dionne, M. Costolo, and E. Rietman, Frequency sweeping and fluid flow effects on particle trajectories in ultrasonic standing waves, Acoustics 08, Paris, Jun. 29-Jul. 4, 2008; and (iii) B. Lipkens, J. Dionne, A. Trask, B. Szczur, and E. Rietman, Prediction and measurement of particle velocities in ultrasonic standing waves, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 124, No. 4, pp. 2492 (A). The contents of each of the aforementioned papers are hereby fully incorporated by reference.

(25) Physics of acoustophoresis. Acoustophoresis is the separation of a second phase (or phases) from a host fluid using sound pressure to create the driving force. An ultrasonic transducer operating at a fixed frequency f (Hz) is used to set up an acoustic standing wave in a fluid-filled cavity. The standing wave is characterized by a local pressure p that is a function of position (x) and time (t),
p(x,t)=P cos(kx)sin(t)(1)

(26) where P is the amplitude of the acoustic pressure; k is the wavenumber (=2/, where is the wavelength), and =2f, where is the angular frequency. The pressure of the acoustic wave produces an acoustic radiation force F.sub.ac on secondary-phase elements according to

(27) $\begin{array}{cc}{F}_{\mathrm{ac}}=X{R}_p^{3}k\frac{P^2}{{}_f{c}_f^2}\sin \left(2\mathrm{kx}\right),& \left(2\right)\end{array}$

(28) where R.sub.p is the particle radius, .sub.f is the density of the fluid medium, c.sub.f is the speed of sound in the fluid, and X is the acoustic contrast factor, defined by

(29) $\begin{array}{cc}X=\frac{1}{3}\left[\frac{5-2}{1+2}-\frac{1}{{}^2}\right],& \left(3\right)\end{array}$

(30) where is the ratio of the particle density to fluid density and is the ratio of the speed of sound in the particle to the sound speed in the fluid. The acoustic radiation force acts in the direction of the acoustic field. The acoustic radiation force is proportional to the product of acoustic pressure and acoustic pressure gradient. An inspection of the acoustic radiation force shows that it is proportional to the particle volume, frequency (or wavenumber), the acoustic energy density (or the square of the acoustic pressure amplitude), and the acoustic contrast factor. Note also that the spatial dependency has twice the periodicity of the acoustic field. The acoustic radiation force is thus a function of two mechanical properties, namely density and compressibility.

(31) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Properties of water and 4 selected secondary phases. c X (density) (speed of sound) (dimen- (dimen- Material (kg/m.sup.3) (m/s) sionless) sionless) Water 1000 1509 Hexanes 720 1303 0.72 0.402 Blood Cells 1125 1900 1.125 0.185 Bacterial Spores 1100 1900 1.1 0.173 Magnetic beads 2000 1971 2.0 0.436

(32) For three dimensional acoustic fields, a more general approach for calculating the acoustic radiation force is needed. Gor'kov's (1962) formulation can be used for this (see L. P. Gor'kov, On the forces acting on a small particle in an acoustical field in an ideal fluid, Sov. Phys. Dokl., vol. 6, pp. 773-775, 1962). Gor'kov developed an expression for the acoustic radiation force F.sub.ac applicable to any sound field. The primary acoustic radiation force is defined as a function of a field potential U, given by
F.sub.ac=(U),(4)

(33) where the field potential U is defined as

(34) $\begin{array}{cc}U=V_0\left[\frac{.Math.p^2\left(x,y,t\right).Math.}{2{}_f{c}_f^2}{f}_1-\frac{3{}_f.Math.v^2\left(x,y,t\right).Math.}{4}{f}_2\right],& \left(5\right)\end{array}$

(35) and f.sub.1 and f.sub.2 are the monopole and dipole contributions defined by

(36) $\begin{array}{cc}{f}_1=1-\frac{1}{{}^2},f_2=\frac{2\left(-1\right)}{2+1},& \left(6\right)\end{array}$

(37) where p(x,y,z,t) is the acoustic pressure and v(x,y,z,t) is the fluid particle velocity. V.sub.o is the volume of the particle.

(38) The diagram 100 of FIG. 1 shows the force required to separate small particles of various material properties. Each material has its own X parameter given in Equation [3]. In diagram 100, material properties (e.g. speed of sound, density) are used for the indicated material. The graph for bacteria spore is also valid for other materials of similar bulk modulus. Meaning smaller bacteria spore, very large protein clusters, and polystyrene microspheres would all be in this category. The blood cell curve is for any cells of similar bulk modulus. Finally the hexane curve would be valid for any tiny drops of oil-like material with the radius indicated on the curve. These curves are for, as an example, 1 MHz applied acoustic frequency and an acoustic pressure of 0.5 MPa. These are easily achieved control variables. Higher frequency and higher pressure require better impedance matching and will afford better separation of smaller particlesdown to 10 s of nm.

(39) FIG. 3 illustrates an overall system 300 to collect and process oleaginous microalgae for the production of biofuels that comprises three sub-systems. A microorganism concentration and separation unit 310 acoustophoretically concentrates and separates microorganisms from a host medium such as water. A lipid extraction unit 320 applies high intensity ultrasound to rupture the cell walls and cellular membranes of the microorganisms so that the lipid (i.e., biooil, etc.) content of the microorganisms is released into the water and an oil/water emulsion is formed. A lipid collection and separation unit 330 acoustophoretically concentrates and separates the water from the lipids, which were released by the microorganisms into water. The resulting oil layer can then be harvested for use as a feedstock for the production of biofuels or for other uses (e.g., carotenes as food supplements). While the current subject matter is mainly directed to microalgae, it is applicable to other types of microorganisms.

(40) With regard to the microorganism concentration and separation unit 310, algae of the halophilic Dunaliella Salina were grown in a bottle filled with salt water and placed under a grow light. The algae were removed from the bottle through tubes that passed them into a flow channel and past an acoustic transducer. A sample apparatus is illustrated in diagram 400 of FIG. 4. With this arrangement, the flow chamber is horizontal with the transducer on top facing downward. Therefore, the resulting acoustic standing wave was in the vertical direction. The transducer was a PZT-4 2 MHZ transducer. A peristaltic pump was used to generate fluid flow rates that are most typically about 50 ml/min.

(41) The acoustic transducer was connected to an amplifier which received its signal from a function generator and operated at about 15 Vrms. Once the fluid flow and the acoustic transducer were turned on, trapping and concentration of microalgae took place instantaneously. The microalgae were trapped in the acoustic field against the fluid drag force by means of the action of the acoustic radiation force. The collection of microalgae continued over time and eventually, typically after several minutes, large, beam-like collections of microalgae were seen in the region between the transducer face and the opposition reflective wall. A typical result of the acoustic trapping of microalgae for about 15 to 20 minutes in the system of FIG. 4 is shown in diagram 500 of FIG. 5.

(42) Two methods for the further separation and collection of the microalgae have been used, one is gravitational settling once the fluid flow has been stopped and the acoustic field has been turned off, as shown in diagram 600 of FIG. 6, and the second is the use of a frequency sweep method (see, for example, B. Lipkens, M. Costolo, and E. Rietman, The effect of frequency sweeping and fluid flow on particle trajectories in ultrasonic standing waves, IEEE Sensors Journal, Vol. 8, No. 6, pp. 667-677, 2008) to translate and collect the microalgae in a collector pocket. For the first method the acoustic field has to be oriented along the vertical direction, for the second method there is no orientation constraint.

(43) In one implementation of the microorganism concentration and separation unit 310, a flow channel within a flow chamber can be used to flow the fluid dispersion, typically water and a secondary-phase component that is dispersed in the water. See, for example, the diagram 1300 of FIG. 13 which illustrates a flow chamber 1302 having an inlet 1301 and an outlet 1304, at least one transducer 1303, and at least one corresponding reflector 1305. The secondary-phase component in this case is the microorganism of interest, e.g., microalgae. At least one ultrasonic transducer can be located in the wall of the flow channel. Piezoelectric transducers are often used. The transducer can be driven by an oscillating voltage that has an oscillation at an ultrasonic frequency. The ultrasonic frequency is typically in the range of several Megahertz and the voltage amplitude is on the order of tens of volts. The transducer, in combination with an acoustic reflection surface located at the wall of the flow tube opposite to the transducer, serves to generate an acoustic standing wave across the flow channel. Typical pressure amplitudes in the region of the acoustic standing wave or field are on the order of 0.5 MPa, amplitudes readily available with conventional piezoelectric transducers. The pressure amplitudes are below the cavitation threshold values so that a high intensity standing wave field is created without generation of cavitation effect or significant acoustic streaming. Acoustic streaming refers to a time-averaged flow of the water produced by the sound field. Typically, when acoustic streaming is generated it results in circulatory motion that may cause stirring in the water. Cavitation typically occurs when there are gas bodies, such as air micro-bubbles, present in the water. The effect of the sound pressure is to create micro-bubble oscillations which lead to micro-streaming and radiation forces. Micro-streaming around bubbles lead to shearing flow in the surround liquid. This flow contains significant velocity gradients. If a microorganism is located in this shearing flow, the uneven distribution of forces on the cell walls can lead to significant shear stresses exerted on the cell walls that may lead to cell wall disruption and rupture. At higher sound intensity levels, the micro-bubble oscillations become more intense, and the bubble can collapse leading to shock wave generation and free radical production. This is termed inertial cavitation.

(44) The acoustophoretic force created by the acoustic standing wave on the secondary phase component, i.e., the microorganism, is sufficient to overcome the fluid drag force. In other words, the acoustophoretic force acts as mechanism that traps the microorganisms in the acoustic field. The acoustophoretic force drives the microorganisms to the stable locations of minimum acoustophoretic force amplitudes. Over time the collection of microorganisms grows steadily. Within minutes, depending on the concentration of the secondary phase component, the collection of microorganisms takes on the shapes of a beam-like collection of microorganisms consisting of disk-shaped collections of microorganisms, each disk spaced by a half wavelength of the acoustic field. The beam of disk-shaped collections of microorganisms is stacked between the transducer and the opposing, acoustically-reflective flow-tube wall. Therefore, acoustophoretic forces are able to trap and concentrate microorganisms in the region of the acoustic field while the host medium continues to flow past the concentrated microorganisms. The collection of microorganisms can continue until very large volumes of the host medium have been flowed through the trapping region and the capture of the containing microalgae has been attained. Further separation of the concentrated microorganisms from the host medium is achieved by two means. For a horizontal flow of the host medium, gravitational settling may be used to drive the concentrated microorganisms into collector pockets (see, for example, a collection pocket as illustrated in diagram 1500 of FIG. 15). For vertical or horizontal flow of the host medium, a slow frequency sweeping method may be used to translate the microorganisms into collector pockets (see, for example, diagram 1400 of FIG. 14). In this method, the frequency of the acoustic standing wave is slowly swept over a small frequency range, which spans at least a range of two frequencies corresponding to the one lower than the and one higher than the resonance of the standing wave mode of the cavity. The sweep period is typically on the order of seconds. This frequency sweeping method will slowly translate the collected microorganisms in the direction of the acoustic field towards one of the walls of the flow chamber where the microorganism may be collected for further processing. It will be appreciated that an array or differing types of transducers can be used (which in turn may operate at different or varying resonance frequencies).

(45) With regard to the lipid extraction unit 320, two approaches can be used to extract the oil content from the microalgae. The first method is ultrasonic cavitation. The second method is the use of ultrasound of high intensity but not of cavitating amplitude to break the cell wall and cellular membranes of the microalgae (using, for example, an arbitrary waveform such as that illustrated in diagram 1800 of FIG. 18). A proof-of-concept demonstration was conducted in which a suspension of concentrated microalgae was put into a glass tube, six inches long and oriented vertically. A PZT-4 2.3 MHz transducer was mounted to the bottom. This system was used to cavitate the suspension of the microalgae in water, as shown in diagram 700 of FIG. 7. During the cavitation process, the cell wall and cellular membranes were ruptures and broken and the lipids were released from the cells. Typically, the acoustic field that results in cavitation was applied for about five minutes. Within a few minutes most of the microalgae debristhe cell wall and cellular debris which is darker green and light brown in colorfalls to the bottom of the tube. The remaining dispersion was a clear, light green mixture. The lipids (oil) and the water are now in an emulsion, as seen in diagram 800 of FIG. 8. Typical oil droplet size was on the order of 3 m in diameter.

(46) The lipid extraction unit 320 comprises a vessel that is configured to rupture of the cell walls and cellular membranes of the microorganisms to release their lipid content. See, for example, diagram 1600 of FIG. 16 which provides a system including a flow chamber 1603 having at least one inlet 1601, a water outlet 1602, and a primary outlet 1605, at least one transducer 1604, and at least one corresponding reflector (not shown) that is on the wall opposing the transducer. In the wall of the vessel holding the microorganisms is at least ultrasonic transducer. The transducer can be driven by an oscillating voltage signal at ultrasonic frequencies typically in the kilohertz to Megahertz range. In one implementation, the transducer can be driven at voltages that generate acoustic standing waves of sufficient amplitude such that cavitation is generated. The result of cavitation occurring on the cell walls and membranes of the microorganisms is the generation of large shear forces of sufficient amplitude to rupture the cell wall and cellular membranes of the microorganisms. Once the cell wall is ruptured, the lipid content, i.e, the biooil, is released into the host medium, i.e., the water. This process results in an oil/water emulsion that also contains the cellular debris.

(47) In another implementation of the lipid extraction unit 320, the transducer can be driven by a pulsed voltage signal consisting of short-duration, large, positive-amplitude voltage spikes, followed by a longer duration of no applied voltage signal (see, for example, diagram 1700 of FIG. 17). This pulsed pattern can then repeated according to a pre-defined repetition rate or period. The effect of this excitation is to generate very large amplitude compressive pressure pulses in water that are sufficient to rupture the cell walls and cellular membranes of the microorganisms.

(48) In another variation of the lipid extraction unit 320, the transducer can be driven by a pulsed voltage signal consisting of short-duration, large, negative-amplitude voltage spikes, followed by a longer duration of no applied voltage signal. This pulsed pattern can then be repeated according to a pre-defined repetition rate or period. The effect of this excitation is to generate very large amplitude expansion-type pressure pulses in water that are sufficient to rupture the cell walls and cellular membranes of the microorganisms.

(49) The lipid extraction unit 320 can optionally include one or more variety of tanks such as those as shown in diagrams 1900-1930 of FIGS. 19A-19D. In the top two arrangements 1900, 1910, a recirculation system 1903 is employed in which a transducer 1901 (a flat transducer) or 1902 (a ring transducer) is within a tubular member extending from and back into a tank 1906. Within the tank 1906, host fluid enters via an inlet 1905 and exits via an outlet 1907 (such arrangement can be reversed depending on the desired configuration). In addition, within the tank 1906 there can be a plate transducer 1909 and/or an array transducer 1908 to further expose the host fluid to high intensity ultrasound.

(50) With regard to the lipid collection and separation unit 330, a third proof-of-concept demonstration was conducted that demonstrated the coalescence, aggregation, concentration and separation of oil droplets from a stable oil/water emulsion. An emulsion was created to simulate an emulsion of microalgae lipids in water. A stable emulsion was created using water, baby oil, and Ceteareth-20. A fluid-flow apparatus was then used to separate the components of the emulsion, resulting in an oil layer and a water layer that are separate from one another.

(51) A stable emulsion was created from a mixture of four tablets of Ceteareth-20 (a common emulsifier), 400 mL of hot (180 F.) water, and 10 ml of baby oil. A photo, taken at 400 magnification, of the stable emulsion is shown in diagram 900 of FIG. 9. The oil droplets in the stable emulsion ranged in diameters from about three to six m.

(52) Next, a flow-through apparatus was used to concentrate and separate the oil phase from the emulsion. A photograph of the apparatus is shown in diagram 1000 of FIG. 10. The emulsion is flowing in a downward vertical direction. The acoustic field is perpendicular to the flow field, and acoustophoresis is used to trap the oil particles.

(53) The transducer was a 2 MHz PZT-4 transducers, operating at 2 MHz and an applied voltage about 15 Vrms. The flow rate of the emulsion through the flow apparatus was on the order of 200 ml/min. After a typical trapping time of five minutes the fluid flow was stopped and the height of the oil layer that had been collected at the top of the chamber was measured.

(54) Diagram 1100 of FIG. 11 shows the formation of oil droplets trapped in the acoustic field. Once the oil droplets are trapped, they coalesce to form bigger droplets, and agglomerate to form aggregates of the droplets. Once the aggregates have grown to a sufficient size, their buoyancy force drives the oil droplet aggregates to the surface of the chamber. Continuous formation of oil droplet aggregates is observed, followed by the rapid translation of the aggregates as a result of buoyancy. A second observation indicating rapid separation of the oil droplets from the water is from the visual observation of a cloudy solution above the transducer, (i.e., where the unprocessed emulsion has not yet passed through the acoustic field, but of a very clear solution below the transducer, where the oil has been removed by the acoustic field). These regions above and below the acoustic trapping region are separated by a sharp line between the cloudy solution and clear solution. After about 5 minutes of application of an acoustic trapping field while flowing the emulsion through the system, a layer of collected oil droplets is observed at the top of the chamber, as shown in diagram 1200 of FIG. 12.

(55) The lipid collection and separation unit 330 can also include a flow channel is used to flow the oil/water emulsion. The flow direction of the emulsion is typically in the downward vertical direction. At least one ultrasonic transducer (e.g., a piezoelectric transducer, etc.) can be located in the wall of the flow channel and e driven by an oscillating voltage operating at an ultrasonic frequency, typically in the range of several Megahertz, and with voltage amplitude on the order of tens of volts. The transducer, in combination with an acoustic reflector located at the opposing wall of the flow tube, generates an acoustic standing wave across the flow channel. Typical pressure amplitudes are on the order of 0.5 MPa, amplitudes that are readily available with conventional piezoelectric transducers. The pressure amplitudes are below the cavitation threshold values so that a high-intensity standing-wave acoustic field is created without generation of cavitation effect or significant acoustic streaming. The acoustophoretic force created by the acoustic standing wave on the secondary phase component, i.e., the oil droplets, is sufficient to overcome the fluid drag force. In other words, the acoustophoretic force acts as mechanism that traps the oil droplets in the acoustic field. The acoustophoretic force drives the oil droplets to the stable locations of minimum acoustophoretic force amplitudes. Within seconds, depending on the concentration, the oil droplets form beam-like striations consisting of disk-shaped aggregates of oil droplets, each disk spaced by a half wavelength of the acoustic field; the disks are stacked between the transducer and the acoustic reflector. As soon as the oil aggregates reach a critical volume, the buoyancy force that the aggregate experiences is sufficient to drive the aggregates to the top of the fluid layer. Therefore, the acoustophoretic force acts as a concentrator of the oil droplets, causing coalescence and agglomeration of the droplets, and turning them into large aggregates of oil droplets, at which points buoyancy forces the oil aggregates to rise. Over time, a steadily increasing layer of separated oil, i.e., lipids, is collected at the top of the flow chamber. Various techniques can be employed to remove the oil layer.

(56) While this specification contains many specifics, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of what is claimed or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features specific to particular variations. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate variations can also be implemented in combination in a single variation. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single variation can also be implemented in multiple variations separately or in any suitable sub-combination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a sub-combination or a variation of a sub-combination. Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirable results. Only a few examples and implementations are disclosed. Variations, modifications and enhancements to the described examples and implementations and other implementations may be made based on what is disclosed.