Lead acid cell with active materials held in a lattice

Abstract

An electrode for a lead-acid voltaic cell comprises a high surface area, high porosity 3-dimensional lattice structure wherein the core elements forming the lattice are substantially contiguous. The core elements are coated with one or more corrosion resistant and conductive materials, and solid active materials are coated on the core elements and retained within the matrix. The lattice structure acts as the current collector.

Claims

1. A lead acid electrochemical cell comprising two electrodes and a sulfuric acid electrolyte characterized by: at least one of said two electrodes comprising a high surface area, porous, open-pore foam construct forming a three-dimensional lattice structure of a uniform material, having contiguous elements comprising a core of the lattice and a matrix of interstitial cells extending in three dimensions, the interstitial cells being defined between intersections of the elements; substantially the entirety of said elements being coated with doped diamond-like carbon; said coated elements being substantially contiguous and electrically conducting; a solid active material retained in said lattice by said coated elements; said sulfuric acid electrolyte in contact with substantially all of the exposed surfaces of said solid active material; and, wherein said lattice acts as a current collector of said electrochemical cell.

2. The electrochemical cell according to claim 1 wherein said elements comprise strands and said lattice structure comprises a scaffold of interconnected strands in an open-pore sponge or honeycomb pattern.

3. The electrochemical cell according to claim 1 wherein said sulfuric acid electrolyte contains compressible inert elements so as to compensate for pressure fluctuations within said electrochemical cell during charge and discharge cycles and said compressible inert elements are selected from among the group comprising elastomeric materials and polymer materials.

4. The electrochemical cell according to claim 1 wherein each of said electrodes comprises a high surface area, porous, open-pore foam construct forming a three-dimensional lattice structure of a uniform material, having contiguous elements comprising a core of the lattice and a matrix of interstitial cells extending in three dimensions, the interstitial cells being defined between intersections of the elements, substantially the entirety of said elements being coated with doped diamond-like carbon, said coated elements being substantially contiguous and electrically conducting, a solid active material comprising lead, lead dioxide or lead sulfate retained in said lattice by said coated elements and said sulfuric acid electrolyte in contact with substantially all of the exposed surfaces of said solid active material, and wherein the molar amounts of solid active materials in each of said two electrodes are substantially the same.

5. The electrochemical cell according to claim 1 wherein said elements are comprised of glass, an organic polymer, a carbon-based material, a metal or a hybrid combination thereof.

6. The electrochemical cell according to claim 1 wherein said lattice structure has a porosity between 50% and 99%.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) The preferred and other embodiments of the invention will be described by reference to the drawings thereof, in which:

(2) FIG. 1 shows a high surface area, high porosity 3-dimensional lattice structure having interconnected or contiguous core elements defining an open-pore sponge or honeycomb format according to the preferred embodiment;

(3) FIG. 2 portrays an enlarged longitudinal-section view of a single coated lattice core element, namely a fiber strand;

(4) FIG. 3 illustrates a high surface area, high porosity 3-dimensional lattice structure having core elements, namely fiber strands, layered in a non-woven mat format;

(5) FIG. 4 is a sketch of an assembly of closely-packed porous spheres acting as core elements, which spheres form a 3-dimensional lattice structure having a plurality of connected open-channels between the spheres and nano-sized pores within each of said spheres, according to an alternative embodiment;

(6) FIG. 5 is a process diagram showing alternative methods of fabricating electrodes or cells in the case of core elements of glass or polymer; and,

(7) FIG. 6 is a process diagram showing alternative methods of fabricating electrodes or cells in the case of core elements of carbon or metal.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED AND OTHER EMBODIMENTS

(8) In one aspect, the invention comprises an electrochemical cell (sometimes referred to herein as an electrode) having as its foundation a high surface area, high porosity 3-dimensional lattice structure. In this specification and in the claims, the term lattice is meant to refer to a 3-dimensional structure having contiguous elements comprising the core of the lattice and a matrix of gaps and/or interstitial cells extending in three dimensions, the gaps and/or cells being defined between intersections of the core elements.

(9) For example, a lattice according to the invention may comprise for example: (a) a scaffold of interconnected core elements or strands such as an open-pore sponge or honeycomb pattern (cf. FIG. 1); (b) overlapping individual core elements or strands, the strands being chopped or continuous, that are layered or entangled into a woven-mat pattern, a non-woven-mat pattern, or a pile of strands (cf. FIG. 3); (c) a three-dimensional assembly of closely-packed spheres substantially touching one another, that are contiguous so as to provide electrical continuity between them, and form a plurality of connected cells or channels between them (cf. FIG. 4).

(10) The core elements forming the lattice are coated with corrosion-resistant conductive materials and a solid active material is coated on the core elements and/or retained within the lattice matrix. A sulfuric acid electrolyte is infused into the lattice.

(11) In the preferred embodiment of the electrode depicted in FIG. 1, the lattice 10 has an open-pore sponge or honeycomb format of at least 2 m.sup.2/g, preferably 50-100 m.sup.2/g and ideally greater than 100 m.sup.2/g. FIG. 2 is a longitudinal section of a single coated core element or strand 12 according to the preferred embodiment.

(12) Referring to FIG. 2, the core 14 of the lattice is preferably made of glass, one or more organic polymers, carbon-based materials, metals or hybrid combinations thereof. The average diameter of the core strands is selected such that a relatively lightweight lattice structure with a wide range of porosities (50-99%) can be achieved. Depending on the core material, fiber size ranges from 1 to 200 microns in diameter, preferably about 10-50 microns. The core strands 12 may be round or irregular in cross-section.

(13) The core elements of the lattice are protected from corrosion and the bulk of the lattice is made conductive (if the core elements are not intrinsically conductive) by applying at least one coating 16. Coating 16 may in fact consist of several layers of successive coatings as may be desired. The materials used in coating 16 depend on the material used for the core 14. However, the coating can typically be of one or more of tantalum, silicon, doped-silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon coating (DLC) and/or an intrinsically conductive polymer, preferably polyaniline, and preferably polyaniline nanofibers.

(14) Diamond-like coatings (DLC) are a class of sp.sup.3 bonded carbon atoms formed as a hexagonal lattice. Although such coatings are highly corrosion resistant they are not generally electrically conductive. However, such coatings can be made electrically conductive by, for example, doping with sp.sup.2 carbon bonded carbon material (i.e. graphite), hydrogen or metals, or by exploiting the quantum mechanical tunneling property of DLC. DLC coatings can be applied by various vacuum deposition methods or ion beam deposition, preferably by coating the lattice core strands with a solution of poly(hydridocarbyne) (PHC), preferably containing dopants to enhance electrical conduction, in an inert atmosphere and heating the coated structure at over 100 C. to decompose the PHC to form a DLC coating over said core strands. Such DLC coatings are about 0.1-5 microns thick, preferably about 0.5-2 microns thick.

(15) Where the core element 14 is glass and is quartz or borosilicate glass, the coating 16 may be of nickel, tantalum, silicon, doped-silicon carbide (SIC), DLC, an intrinsically conducting polymer, or a combination thereof. Doped-silicon carbide is silicon carbon doped with one or more materials that increase the electrical conductivity of silicon carbide, preferably by doping with one or more of boron, aluminum or nitrogen.

(16) A polymer-based core 14 that is not intrinsically conductive can be made of, for example, polyurethane, polyethylene, polypropylene, fluorocarbons, polyimides, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polyester, etc. A coating 16 for such a core may consist of doped-silicon carbide, nickel, DLC or an intrinsically conducting polymer.

(17) A carbon-based core can comprise amorphous carbon, doped-silicon carbide, graphite or graphene. A carbon-based core format can include an open-pore foam monolithic structure, a fibrous mat, or porous carbon spheres. The coating 16 for such a core can be tantalum, silicon, doped-silicon carbide, an intrinsically conducting polymer, DLC or a combination thereof. If a silicon coating is formed over the carbon core, such a coating can also be heated to cause the silicon to chemically react with the carbon to form a silicon carbide coating, or even form a silicon carbide core.

(18) A metal core 14 can be made of aluminum, copper or nickel, preferably electroless nickel. For a metal core, the coating 16 can be tantalum, silicon, doped-silicon carbide, an intrinsically conducting polymer, DLC or a combination thereof.

(19) Once coated with coating 16, the interstitial cell size within the matrix of the lattice is between 0.1 and 100 microns, but preferably the coated lattice is designed to have cell sizes between 0.5 and 20 microns.

(20) In FIGS. 1 and 2, the surface of the lattice strands 12 is depicted as having an irregular surface so as to represent a coating 18 of the solid active material attached thereto, for example lead sulfate. Some coated material 18 can also bridge across adjacent coated core elements as indicated by the numeral 19 in FIG. 3 in relation to a non-woven core but which may apply equally to the embodiment of FIG. 1. In addition unbound particles or chunks of active materials 20 (FIG. 3) may find themselves physically contained within the lattice matrix. Whether coated, bridging or loose but physically contained by contact within the lattice, the solid active material is said herein to be retained within the matrix or lattice.

(21) The active materials in the electrochemical process of the cell include water, sulfuric acid (H.sub.2SO.sub.4), lead (Pb), lead dioxide (PbO.sub.2) and lead sulfate (PbSO.sub.4). The solid active materials include lead, lead dioxide and lead sulfate.

(22) The solid active material 18 is preferably coated or deposited over the lattice core coating 16. In the preferred embodiment, coating 18 consists of solid reactive material, preferably lead sulfate, which is added during the initial fabrication of the electrode. The sulfuric acid electrolyte 22 is in intimate contact with all coated surfaces 18. The pore openings, gaps, cells or interstitial areas 24 are substantially filled with the sulfuric acid electrolyte 22.

(23) FIG. 3 is similar to FIG. 1, except that the high surface area, high porosity 3-dimensional lattice structure shown in FIG. 3 has a non-woven mat format. Although FIG. 3 shows an embodiment of a lattice structure for a non-woven mat format, the lattice core strands 12 can also be layered or entangled, in any woven or non-woven pattern, or a pile pattern, and can be chopped or continuous.

(24) An alternative assembly of closely-packed (preferably porous) carbon spheres 26 is illustrated in FIG. 4. Together, spheres 26 form a core of closely-packed spheres that touch one another and form a plurality of connected open channels, cells or pores 28.

(25) Although sub-micron diameter non-porous carbon spheres (or irregular-shaped particles) with large surface areas per gram (i.e. 2,000 m.sup.2/g) are commercially available, the closest packing arrangement of such spheres is only about 24% porosity. The efficient infusion of fluids/solids of active materials throughout such sub-micron diameter closely-packed spheres (or particles) is greatly limited (and thus impractical) due to the restricted size of the connected open-channels. Accordingly, the use of micron-sized spheres that are also porous so as to increase the effective surface area is advantageous. The net effect is that a thin layer of solid active material can be spread over a large surface area, where a large volume of active material remains electrically continuous with the underlying (coated) carbon structure at all times, thus providing for minimal sulfation and fast charge and discharge cycling.

(26) In one embodiment, the spheres 26 have a diameter of about 0.5 to 50 microns, with pore diameters within the sphere in the range of 1 to about 3,000 nanometers. Preferably, the porous spheres have a diameter of about 1-3 microns, and a pore diameter within the sphere of about 50-200 nanometers.

(27) The process for handling loose micron-sized spheres is challenging. Thus, it is advantageous to fuse an assembly of such spheres together for efficient handling. In one embodiment of the invention a silicon coating 30 applied onto the sphere surfaces provides not only a conductive and corrosion resistant coating, but silicon coating 30 also acts to fuse the spheres together into a solid monolithic form, assisting in the handling of the now-fused spheres.

(28) The solid active material, preferably lead sulfate, preferably dissolved in an aqueous or non-aqueous solvent, preferably an acid (preferably hot hydrochloric acid), can then be introduced or entrained into the fused-sphere monolithic structure, with the lead sulfate precipitated from solution upon cooling. The entrained solvent can then be removed by vacuum and or heating. The resulting precipitated lead sulfate 32 coats the carbon surfaces, bridges across some pores, with some unsecured particles of lead sulfate held within the pores 28.

(29) The packed sphere open-channels or cells 28 are then substantially filled with dilute sulfuric acid 22.

(30) FIG. 5 is a process diagram of some of the key methods and steps for fabricating a high surface area, high porosity 3-dimensional lattice according to the preferred and alternative embodiments for use as a positive or negative electrode in a lead-acid electrochemical cell. In summary, according to the preferred embodiment, the elements making up the core of the lattice core are comprised of glass, polymers, carbon materials or metals or combinations thereof. The core elements are coated with one or more of tantalum, nickel, silicon, doped-silicon carbide, DLC, and/or an intrinsically conductive polymer, preferably polyaniline, preferably polyaniline nanofibers. An active material is coated onto or otherwise retained in the coated lattice core.

(31) Methods for entrainment of the solid active material can be accomplished, for example, by pouring solutions of colloidal suspensions of the solid active particles through the lattice which acts as a filter, or vibrating or vacuuming fluid suspensions thereof into the porous lattice. Additionally, the lattice can be dipped, spin-coated, or soaked by aqueous or non-aqueous solutions containing dissolved solid active materials which precipitate from solution in-situ within the lattice structure, for example lead sulfate, or solutions with reactants that subsequently precipitate the reactive materials, which process would act to coat the core fibers within the lattice, bridge across some of the closely spaced pores or fibers within the lattice, and have some particles of active material mechanically held within the lattice.

(32) Where the selected lattice core is electrically conductive, it can also be coated with lead, where such lead is electrodeposited using a fluoroborate bath solution.

(33) The removal of any non-active material can be accomplished by washing and drying the coated lattice fibers.

(34) A sulfuric acid electrolyte is provided within the pores or cells of the lattice. In one embodiment, compressible inert materials are added to the sulfuric acid electrolyte to compensate for volumetric changes within the battery due to the expansion of lead and lead dioxide to lead sulfate during the discharge cycle, and the contraction of lead sulfate back to lead and lead dioxide during the charge cycle. Such expansion modifiers are beneficial, especially for VRLA batteries that are sealed, to prevent and compensate for excessive pressure buildup, or pressure fluctuations. In one embodiment, such modifiers consist of closed-cell polymer balls or other shapes, comprised of, for example, from closed-cell polyurethane, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, etc. In another embodiment, an acid resistant compressible elastomeric material, of any shape, can be used. Upon re-charging the battery, the lead sulfate crystals from both electrodes will shrink upon conversion to lead and lead dioxide, thereby providing a pathway for the oxygen recombination cycle to function (for VRLA type designs). The inventive design is suitable for the flooded, or VLRA (i.e. AGM and fumed silica-gel) lead-acid battery configurations.

(35) Incomplete chemical and corrosive reactions at the negative and positive electrode (over successive charge/discharge cycles) will tend to be cumulative. For example, over time larger sulfate crystals may aggregate and not easily convert back to lead or lead dioxide. Or, lead sulfate may not convert back to 100% lead due to secondary reactions from contaminants or oxygen and hydrogen evolution, and reactions arising therefrom, especially near the end of the charge cycle, or during overcharge. It is thus advantageous to minimize deleterious or parasitic chemical reactions from non-active material constituents or contaminants by using highly pure chemicals (for example, sulfuric acid from Seastar Chemicals Inc., Sidney, B.C. Canada, and lead sulfate from MV Laboratories, Inc., Frenchtown, N.J., USA).

(36) The disclosed electrode acts as a current collector for the electrochemical cell, thus obviating the need for a separate plate or substrate to act as the current collector.

(37) (a) Fabrication of Glass Core Lattice (50)

(38) A 3-dimensional lattice structure having an open pore sponge or honeycomb structure is shown in FIG. 1. The lattice core can be made from glass, preferably quartz, which is strong and corrosion resistant in sulfuric acid, but not intrinsically conductive.

(39) Fabrication begins with an open-pore polymer foam construct made from polyurethane, polystyrene, polyester, polyether, polyethylene, polypropylene, etc. preferably polyurethane. The foam structure is used as a mandrel (51).

(40) The quartz lattice structure is made using a silica sol-gel process (52), where a sol containing a colloidal dispersion of silica (quartz) is coated onto the organic polymer foam, heated to about 200 C. to drive-off the water, and heated (54) at high temperature (>1,000 C.) to densify the quartz coating and drive-off the polymer foam.

(41) Although non-conductive glass fibers can be doped with small particles of conducting materials such as silver, carbon, etc., such doped fibers are not by themselves intrinsically conducting, and thus do not have a surface that is conducting.

(42) Accordingly, the glass lattice needs to be coated (56) with a conductive coating that is also corrosion resistant in sulfuric acid, and in the highly oxidative environment of the lead-acid battery, especially at the positive electrode.

(43) In one embodiment, the glass lattice is coated with an intrinsically conductive polymer, such as polyparaphenylene or polyaniline, preferably polyanaline, preferably polyaniline nanofibers.

(44) In a further embodiment, the glass lattice is first coated with nickel, preferably electroless nickel, followed by a coating of an intrinsically conductive polymer, preferably polyaniline, preferably polyaniline nanofibers.

(45) In yet another embodiment, the glass lattice is first coated with silicon using CVD or electrochemical means. Silicon is resistant to sulfuric acid and is a semi-conductor.

(46) In a further embodiment, the glass lattice can be coated with one or more coatings of nickel, tantalum (for high temperature glasses only, i.e. quartz), silicon, doped-silicon carbide, DLC or polyaniline. Tantalum is one of few metals resistant to sulfuric acid, and is electrically conductive. Other resistant metals such as platinum or iridium are too expensive for use in volume.

(47) The coated quartz foam structure is then coated (57) with solid active material, for example, by electroplating lead onto the coated lattice strands, or by coating with lead sulfate, preferably by precipitating the lead sulfate in-situ within the quartz foam lattice.

(48) One benefit of using a silica sol-gel process to create a quartz lattice is that the optical clarity of quartz allows for photo-flash welding of the polyaniline nanofibers to create a denser mat of conductive nanofibers on the surface of the quartz glass.

(49) In a further embodiment, the use of a 3-dimensional lattice structure is made directly from chopped or continuous glass fibers, such as borosilicate glass, in a mat format (see for example FIG. 3). However, such a structure is generally too soft to support the relatively dense solid active materials to be contained therein.

(50) In another embodiment, such a soft glass fiber lattice structure can be made more rigid by fusing together the chopped or continuous fibers, or the matted fibers, by for example, heating the fiber construct to near melting.

(51) Thereafter, the woven or non-woven mat glass structure is coated with one or more coatings of nickel, preferably electroless nickel, tantalum, silicon, doped-silicon carbide, DLC, an intrinsically conductive polymer, such as polyaniline, preferably polyaniline nanofibers, followed by a coating of electroplated lead, or by, preferably, lead sulfate.

(52) (b) Fabrication of Lattice Made from Organic Polymers (58)

(53) In one embodiment, the lattice core of the open-pore structure shown in FIG. 1, and the lattice core of the non-woven mat structure shown in FIG. 3, or a mat format (59), are comprised of organic polymers such as polyurethane, polyethylene, polypropylene, fluorocarbons, polyimides, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polyester, etc., preferably polypropylene. Such polymers are corrosion resistant in sulfuric acid but not intrinsically conductive. In another embodiment, the non-woven mat format shown in FIG. 3, or a mat format, can be made more rigid by fusing (60) together the fibers within the mat polymer structure by heating the fiber construct to near melting, using, for example, heat, ultrasonic welding or laser welding. An increase in lattice rigidity is advantageous to help support the relatively heavy solid active materials, especially if small diameter fibers are used. In this embodiment, fibers can be coated (62) with, first, nickel, preferably electroless nickel, followed by an intrinsically conductive polymer, preferably polyaniline, preferably polyaniline nanofibers, followed by a coating (64) with a solid active material, preferably lead sulfate.

(54) In another embodiment, the polymer fibers can be coated with a solution of poly(methylsilyne), which coating can be thermally decomposed in an inert atmosphere at a low temperature to create a coating of silicon carbide, which coating can be doped to enhance the electrical conductivity, followed by a coating with a solid active material, such as electroplated lead, preferably lead sulfate.

(55) In a further embodiment, intrinsically conductive fibers such as polyanaline or polyparaphenylene, preferably polyaniline, can be used directly to form a 3-dimensional fibrous structure. Such a structure can then be coated, and entrained, with solid active materials, such as electroplated lead, preferably lead sulfate.

(56) (c) Fabrication of Lattice Made from Carbon Material (66)

(57) Lattice cores made from carbon material, such as amorphous carbon, doped-silicon carbide, graphite or graphene, with a structure comprising an open-pore lattice format, fibrous mat, solid carbon spheres or porous carbon spheres, are generally corrosion resistant and intrinsically conductive. However, the oxidation/reduction regime and sulfuric acid environment of the lead-acid battery tends to break-down carbon-based materials, resulting in the generation of carbon dioxide (CO.sub.2). Accordingly, it is generally necessary to provide a conductive, protective coating over the carbon-based materials.

(58) In one embodiment, the carbon-based material is coated (68) with an intrinsically conductive polymer, such as polyaniline, preferably polyanaline nanofibers.

(59) In a further embodiment, the carbon-based material is coated with tantalum, preferably using a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique.

(60) In another embodiment, the carbon-based material is coated with silicon, using preferably, a CVD-silane gas process. A further aspect of such a coating is the formation of a silicon carbide coating by, preferably, further heating the silicon coated carbon in a vacuum. It is advantageous to dope the silicon carbide coating with, for example, boron, aluminum or nitrogen to increase the electrical conductivity.

(61) In a further embodiment, such dopant materials are preferably incorporated into the silicon carbide coating by doping a solvent solution containing poly(methylsilyne) and decomposing such a solution by heating in an inert atmosphere.

(62) In one embodiment, the carbon-based material is coated with a CVD process using silane gas, methane gas and nitrogen, where said gases form a doped-silicon carbide coating, upon heating, over the carbon-based material.

(63) In yet another embodiment, the carbon-based material is coated with at least one or more coatings comprising tantalum, silicon, doped-silicon carbide, DLC or polyaniline.

(64) In one embodiment, the carbon material is comprised of porous carbon spheres, which spheres can be fabricated using an ultrasonic spray pyrolysis process (see WO 2009/149540 A1). Such porous spheres can be packed together, and coated in a vacuum with silane gas (SiH.sub.4) using a chemical vapor deposition process. Such silane coating acts to create a thin corrosion-resistant silicon (Si) coating over the outer and inner surfaces of the porous sphere. In one embodiment, further heating of the silicon coated spheres in a vacuum (or in an inert atmosphere) will act to react part or all of the silicon coating with the underlying carbon to create an adhesive coating of silicon carbide (SiC). Both silicon and silicon carbide are corrosion resistant to sulfuric acid, and are semiconductors. In one embodiment, the silicon carbide coating is doped with one or more of boron, aluminum or nitrogen to improve the electrical conductivity.

(65) In a further embodiment, the lattice structure is comprised entirely of silicon carbide, where the silicon carbide is doped with one or more of boron, aluminum or nitrogen to increase the electrical conductivity. In a further embodiment, such dopant materials are preferably incorporated into the silicon carbide matrix by adding the dopant elements to a solvent solution containing poly(methylsilyne) and decomposing such a solution in an inert atmosphere and heating to form a doped silicon carbide lattice structure.

(66) In one embodiment the lattice structure with a fibrous mat format is comprised of doped-silicon carbide, where such mat is fabricated by an electrospinning process, which process is commercially available.

(67) In a yet further embodiment, the coated carbon materials are further coated (70), and entrained, with a solid active material, such as electroplated lead, or, preferably, coated with lead sulfate.

(68) (d) Fabrication of Lattice Made from Metal (72)

(69) In one embodiment of the present invention, a metal lattice can be fabricated by using an open-pore polymer foam as a mandrel (74), where the polymer is comprised of polyurethane, polyethylene, polypropylene, fluorocarbons, polyimides, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polyester, etc. and coating it with nickel, preferably by electroless nickel deposition (a well known process) (75). The metal lattice is subsequently heated at high temperature to densify the electroless nickel coating, and to vaporize and drive-off the polymer, leaving only the metal lattice structure.

(70) However, most metals will corrode in the approximately 33% v/v solution of sulfuric acid, and the oxidation/reduction regime of the lead-acid battery, especially at the positive electrode.

(71) In one embodiment, the open-pore format shown in FIG. 1, or the non-woven mat format shown in FIG. 3, or a mat format, made using a metal lattice, are coated (76) with one or more conductive protective coatings of tantalum, silicon, doped-silicon carbide, DLC or an intrinsically conducing polymer such as polyparaphenylene or polyaniline, preferably polyaniline, preferably polyaniline nanofibers.

(72) The coated metal lattice is then entrained (77) with a solid active material, for example electrodeposited lead, preferably lead sulfate, preferably by precipitating the lead sulfate in-situ within the metal lattice. Dilute sulfuric acid electrolyte is subsequently added. The metal lattice can then be used as an electrode in a lead-acid battery.

(73) In a battery embodiment of the invention, two electrodes are initially coated with substantially equal molar amounts of solid active materials, namely lead, lead dioxide, or preferably, lead sulfate. This provides an opportunity to periodically reverse the polarity of the electrodes.

(74) When the battery according to the invention is charged for the first time, if a lead sulfate coating is used, lead and lead dioxide are formed on the negative and positive electrodes, respectively. Such a design does not require forming of the batteries, and is convenient from a production perspective since only one solid active material (i.e. lead sulfate) is required.

(75) Upon subsequent complete battery discharge, where the active materials at both electrodes comprise substantially only lead sulfate, the stoichiometry of the active materials is set such that the sulfuric acid electrolyte is dilute, preferably about 1%-10% v/v so as to maintain an ionic conductivity. Such design minimizes the molar amount of sulfuric acid.

(76) Where equal molar weights of the active material is provided in the lattice of each electrode, the polarity of the battery electrodes may be periodically reversed, which reversal is initiated when the battery is completely discharged, so as to reduce and minimize the build-up of reaction products resulting from cumulative irreversible chemical reactions. Those skilled in the art will understand that the method for a polarity reversal can be realized by monitoring and adjusting the battery charge/discharge algorithm protocol.

(77) The various embodiments and features of the invention have been described herein. It will be appreciated that variations may be practised without departing from the scope of what has been invented, such scope being defined by the claims as amended from time to time.