Surface-functionalized, acidified metal oxide material in an acidified electrolyte system or an acidified electrode system

Abstract

Described herein are acidified metal oxide (“AMO”) materials useful in applications such as a battery electrode or photovoltaic component, in which the AMO material is used in conjunction with one or more acidic species. Advantageously, batteries constructed of AMO materials and incorporating acidic species, such as in the electrode or electrolyte components of the battery exhibit improved capacity as compared to a corresponding battery lacking the acidic species.

Claims

1. A lithium ion battery comprising: a cathode, wherein the cathode comprises an acidified metal oxide (AMO) nanomaterial as a lithium uptake cathode active material, wherein the AMO nanomaterial comprises nanoparticles of a metal oxide with electron withdrawing groups bound to a surface of the nanoparticles, wherein the electron withdrawing groups are selected from the group consisting of Cl, Br, BO.sub.3, SO.sub.4, PO.sub.4, NO.sub.3, CH.sub.3COO, C.sub.2O.sub.4, and C.sub.6H.sub.5O.sub.7; an anode comprising an anode active material; and an acidified electrolyte positioned between the cathode and the anode, wherein the acidified electrolyte comprises: a solvent; one or more lithium salts dissolved in the solvent; and an acidic species dissolved in the solvent, wherein the acidic species is different from the one or more lithium salts.

2. The lithium ion battery of claim 1, wherein the AMO nanomaterial exhibits a pH less than 7 and a Hammet function, H.sub.0, greater than −12 when suspended in water at 5 wt. %.

3. The lithium ion battery of claim 1, wherein the AMO nanomaterial comprises acidified tin oxide.

4. The lithium ion battery of claim 1, wherein the AMO nanomaterial comprises acidified iron oxide.

5. The lithium ion battery of claim 1, wherein the AMO nanomaterial comprises acidified zirconium oxide.

6. The lithium ion battery of claim 1, wherein the AMO nanomaterial comprises acidified titanium dioxide.

7. The lithium ion battery of claim 1, wherein the anode comprises graphite or lithium metal.

8. The lithium ion battery of claim 1, wherein the acidic species comprises: one or more organic acids selected from the group consisting of oxalic acid, acetic acid, maleic acid, methylmalonic acid, glutaric acid, succinic acid, methylsuccinic acid, methylenesuccinic acid, and citraconic acid, or one or more organic acid anhydrides selected from the group consisting of glutaric anhydride, methylsuccinic anhydride, and itaconic anhydride.

9. The lithium ion battery of claim 1, wherein the acidic species comprises citric acid or succinic anhydride.

10. A method of making a lithium ion battery, comprising: making an acidified metal oxide (AMO) nanomaterial, wherein the AMO nanomaterial comprises nanoparticles of a metal oxide with electron withdrawing groups bound to a surface of the nanoparticles, wherein the electron withdrawing groups are selected from the group consisting of Cl, Br, BO.sub.3, SO.sub.4, PO.sub.4, NO.sub.3, CH.sub.3COO, C.sub.2O.sub.4, and C.sub.6H.sub.5O.sub.7; forming a cathode using the AMO nanomaterial as a lithium uptake cathode active material; and positioning an acidified electrolyte between the cathode and an anode, the anode comprising an anode active material, and the acidified electrolyte comprising: a solvent, one or more lithium salts dissolved in the solvent, and an acidic species dissolved in the solvent, wherein the acidic species is different from the one or more lithium salts.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein the AMO nanomaterial exhibits a pH less than 7 and a Hammet function, H.sub.0, greater than −12 when suspended in water at 5 wt. %.

12. The method of claim 10, wherein making the AMO nanomaterial comprises: forming a solution comprising a metal salt, ethanol, and water; acidifying the solution by adding an acid to the solution; basifying the solution by adding an aqueous base to the solution; collecting precipitate from the solution; washing the precipitate; and drying the precipitate, wherein the precipitate corresponds to the AMO nanomaterial.

13. The method of claim 10, wherein the AMO nanomaterial comprises acidified tin oxide.

14. The method of claim 10, wherein the AMO nanomaterial comprises acidified iron oxide.

15. The method of claim 10, wherein the AMO nanomaterial comprises acidified zirconium oxide.

16. The method of claim 10, wherein the AMO nanomaterial comprises acidified titanium dioxide.

17. The method of claim 10, wherein the acidic species comprises: one or more organic acids selected from the group consisting of oxalic acid, acetic acid, maleic acid, methylmalonic acid, glutaric acid, succinic acid, methylsuccinic acid, methylenesuccinic acid, and citraconic acid, or one or more organic acid anhydrides selected from the group consisting of glutaric anhydride, methylsuccinic anhydride, and itaconic anhydride.

18. The method of claim 10, wherein the acidic species comprises citric acid or succinic anhydride.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) FIG. 1 provides a plot showing differences in the cyclic voltammogram of AMO tin prepared by the method disclosed herein relative to that of commercially available non-AMO tin, when cycled against Li.

(2) FIG. 2 provides a plot showing that the total reflectance of AMO tin oxide is different than that of commercially available non-AMO tin oxide.

(3) FIG. 3 provides X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) data showing surface functionalization arising endogeneously from the synthesis method disclosed herein. Numbers shown are atomic concentrations in percent. The far right column lists the corresponding pH of the synthesized nanoparticles as measured when dispersed at 5 wt % in aqueous solution.

(4) FIG. 4 provides electron micrograph images showing differences in morphology between AMO nanoparticles synthesized under identical conditions except for the use of a different group for functionalization.

(5) FIG. 5 provides electron micrograph images showing difference in morphology of AMO nanoparticles synthesized under identical conditions except for having two different total reaction times.

(6) FIG. 6 provides representative half-cell data showing differences in behavior between spherical and elongated (needle-like or rod-like) AMOs upon cycling against lithium.

(7) FIG. 7 provides X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis of the surface of AMO nanoparticles synthesized using both a strong (phosphorous containing) and weak (acetate) electron withdrawing group shows greater atomic concentration of phosphorous than of the bonds associated with acetate groups.

(8) FIG. 8A provides data showing visible light activity degradation data for different AMOs.

(9) FIG. 8B provides data showing ultraviolet light activity degradation data for different AMOs.

(10) FIG. 9 provides data comparing two AMOs, one having higher capacity for use in a primary (single use) battery application and the other having higher cyclability for use in a secondary (rechargeable) battery application.

(11) FIG. 10 provides charge and discharge capacity data and Columbic efficiency data, illustrating that AMOs can result in enhanced battery performance, without deterioration of battery components or gas generation.

(12) FIG. 11 shows capacity and cycling data for an AMO in standard, acidified, and basified electrolyte systems.

(13) FIG. 12 shows capacity and cycling data for an AMO, and for the same AMO from which the acidification was removed by solvent washing.

(14) FIG. 13 provides a schematic illustration of an example battery.

DEFINITIONS

(15) For the purposes of this disclosure, the following terms have the following meanings:

(16) Acidic oxide—a term used generally in the scientific literature to refer to binary compounds of oxygen with a nonmetallic element. An example is carbon dioxide, CO.sub.2. The oxides of some metalloids (e.g., Si, Te, Po) also have weakly acidic properties in their pure molecular state.

(17) Acidified metal oxide (“AMO”) or AMO material—terms used herein to denote binary compounds of oxygen with a metallic element which has been synthesized or modified to have an acidity greater than that of its natural mineralogical state and also a Hammet function, H.sub.0, greater than −12 (i.e., not superacidic). It will be appreciated that AMOs may have a surface pH less than 7, such as when suspended in water (or resuspended in water after drying) at 5 wt. %. Optionally, AMOs may exhibit a surface pH less than 6, less than 5, less than 4 or less than 3. The average particle size of the AMOs disclosed herein is also less than that of the natural mineralogical state. For example AMOs may comprise nanomaterials, such as particles having at least one dimension less than 100 nm, less than 20 nm, less than 10 nm, or falling between 1 and 100 nm. Naturally occurring mineralogical forms do not occur as nanomaterials and do not fall within the scope of the inventive AMO material. A synthesized metal oxide, however, that is more acidic than its most abundant naturally occurring mineralogical form (of equivalent stoichiometry) but not superacidic may fall within the bounds of this disclosure and can be said to be an AMO material provided it satisfies certain other conditions discussed in this disclosure.

(18) Acidic—a term used generally in the scientific literature to refer to compounds having a pH of less than 7 in aqueous solution.

(19) Electron-withdrawing group (“EWG”)—an atom or molecular group that draws electron density towards itself. The strength of the EWG is based upon its known behavior in chemical reactions. Halogens, for example are known to be strong EWGs. Organic acid groups such as acetate are known to be weakly electron withdrawing.

(20) Hammet function—An additional means of quantifying acidity in highly concentrated acid solutions and in superacids, the acidity being defined by the following equation: H.sub.0=.sub.pK.sub.BH++log([B]/[BH.sup.+]). On this scale, pure 18.4 molar H.sub.2SO.sub.4 has a H.sub.0 value of −12. The value H.sub.0=−12 for pure sulfuric acid must not be interpreted as pH=−12, instead it means that the acid species present has a protonating ability equivalent to H.sub.3O.sup.+ at a fictitious (ideal) concentration of 10.sup.12 mol/L, as measured by its ability to protonate weak bases. The Hammett acidity function avoids water in its equation. It is used herein to provide a quantitative means of distinguishing the AMO material from superacids. The Hammet function can be correlated with colorimetric indicator tests and temperature programmed desorption results.

(21) Metal oxide—a term used generally in the scientific literature to refer to binary compounds of oxygen with a metallic element. Depending on their position in the periodic table, metal oxides range from weakly basic to amphoteric (showing both acidic and basic properties) in their pure molecular state. Weakly basic metal oxides are the oxides of lithium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, rubidium, strontium, indium, cesium, barium, and tellurium. Amphoteric oxides are those of beryllium, aluminum, gallium, germanium, astatine, tin, antimony, lead, and bismuth. These and other metal oxides may optionally be useful as AMO materials.

(22) Monodisperse—characterized by particles of uniform size which are substantially separated from one another, not agglomerated as grains of a larger particle.

(23) pH—a functional numeric scale used generally in the scientific literature to specify the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution. It is the negative of the logarithm of the concentration of the hydronium ion [H.sub.3O.sup.+]. As used herein, pH may be used to describe the relative acidity of nanoparticles suspended in aqueous solution.

(24) Surface functionalization—attachment of small atoms or molecular groups to the surface of a material.

(25) Superacid—substances that are more acidic than 100% H.sub.2SO.sub.4, having a Hammet function, H.sub.0, less than −12.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

(26) Described herein are acidified metal oxide (“AMO”) materials useful in applications such as a battery electrode or photovoltaic component, in which the AMO material is used in conjunction with one or more acidic species. Advantageously, batteries constructed of AMO materials and incorporating acidic species, such as in the electrode or electrolyte components of the battery may allow for improving the capacity of a battery as compared to a corresponding battery lacking the acidic species. The acidic species may enhance the utility of the AMO materials, such as by modulating the acidity or reactivity of the AMO surface or by creating more favorable electronic interactions of the AMO materials or the surface thereof with adjacent or interacting substances.

(27) The surfaces of metal oxides are ideally arrays of metal and oxygen centers, ordered according to the crystalline structure of the oxide. In reality the arrays are imperfect, being prone to vacancies, distortion, and the effects of surface attachments. Regardless, any exposed metal centers are cationic (positively charged) and can accept electrons, thus functioning by definition as Lewis acid sites. Oxygen centers are anionic (negatively charged) and act as Lewis base sites to donate electrons. This allows metal oxide surfaces to behave in an amphoteric fashion.

(28) Under normal atmospheric conditions, the presence of water vapor will adsorb to the metal oxide surface either molecularly (hydration) or dissociatively (hydroxylation). Both OH.sup.− and H.sup.+ species can adsorb on the oxide surface. The negatively-charged hydroxyl species will attach at the metal, cationic (Lewis acid, electron accepting) centers, and the H.sup.+ will attach at the oxygen, anionic (Lewis base, electron donating) centers. Both adsorptions lead to the presence of the same functional group—a hydroxyl—on the metal oxide surface.

(29) These surface hydroxyl groups can serve as either Brçnsted acids or as Brçnsted bases, because the groups can either give up or accept a proton. The tendency of an individual hydroxyl group to be a proton donor or a proton acceptor is affected by the coordination of the metal cation or oxygen anion to which it is attached. Imperfections of the metal oxide surface such as oxygen vacancies, or coordination of the surface groups with other chemical species, mean that all cations and anions are not equally coordinated. Acid-base sites will vary in number and in strengths. When broadly “totaled” across the surface of the oxide, this can give the surface an overall acidic or basic character.

(30) The quantity and strength of Lewis acid and base sites—from the exposed metal cations and oxygen anions, respectively) and Brçnsted acid and base sites (from the surface hydroxyl groups)—add broad utility and functionality to the metal oxide and its use in both chemical reactions and device applications. The sites are a strong contributor to the chemical reactivity of the metal oxide. They can serve as anchor sites to which other chemical groups, and even additional metal oxides, may be attached. And they can affect surface charge, hydrophilicity and biocompatibility.

(31) One way of altering the surface of metal oxides is to attach small chemical groups or electron-withdrawing groups (“EWGs”) in a process known as surface functionalization. The EWG induces polarization of the hydroxide bonds and facilitates dissociation of hydrogen. For example, a stronger EWG should lead to a more polarized bond and therefore a more acidic proton. The acidity of Lewis sites can be increased by inducing polarization that facilitates the donation of electrons to the site. When compounds so made are placed in water, the acidic protons will dissociate and so reduce the aqueous pH measurement.

(32) Though somewhat imprecise when working with solid acid/base systems rather than liquid ones, traditional methods of pH measurement utilizing titrations, pH paper, and pH probes can be used to evaluate the acidity of metal oxides dispersed in aqueous solution. These measurements can be supplemented by the use of techniques including but not limited to colorimetric indicators, infrared spectroscopy, and temperature programmed desorption data to establish the acidified nature of the metal oxide surface. Surface groups can be examined by standard analytical techniques including but not limited to x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

(33) Surface functionalization can be accomplished post-synthesis, including, but not limited to, exposing the metal oxide to acidic solutions or to vapors containing the desired functional groups. It can also be accomplished via solid state methods, in which the metal oxide is mixed and/or milled with solids containing the desired functional groups. However, all of these methods require an additional surface functionalization step or steps beyond those required to synthesize the metal oxide itself.

(34) Synthesis and surface functionalization of the AMO material may be accomplished in a “single-pot” hydrothermal synthesis method or its equivalent in which the surface of the metal oxide is functionalized as the metal oxide is being synthesized from appropriate precursors. A precursor salt containing an EWG is solubilized and the resulting solution is acidified using an acid containing a second EWG. This acidified solution is then basified and the basified solution is heated then washed. A drying step produces the solid AMO material.

(35) By way of example, an example AMO form of tin oxide was synthesized and simultaneously surface functionalized using the following single-pot method: 1. Initially, seven grams (7 g) of a tin (II) chloride dihydrate (SnCl.sub.2 2H.sub.2O) is dissolved in a solution of 35 mL of absolute ethanol and 77 mL distilled water. 2. The resulting solution is stirred for 30 minutes. 3. The solution is acidified by the addition of 7 mL of 1.2 M HCl, added dropwise, and the resulting solution is stirred for 15 minutes. 4. The solution is basified by the addition of 1 M of an aqueous base, added dropwise until the pH of the solution is about 8.5. 5. The resulting opaque white suspension is then placed in a hot-water bath (˜60 to 90° C.) for at least 2 hours while under stirring. 6. The suspension is then washed with distilled water and with absolute ethanol. 7. The washed suspension is dried at 100° C. for 1 hour in air and then annealed at 200° C. for 4 hours in air.

(36) This method results in an AMO of tin, surface-functionalized with chlorine, whose pH is approximately 2 when measured in an aqueous solution at 5 wt. % and room temperature. By definition, its Hammet function, H.sub.0 is greater than −12. Although an open system such as a flask is described here, a closed system such as an autoclave may also be used.

(37) It will be appreciated that the method's parameters can be varied. These parameters include, but are not limited to, type and concentration of reagents, type and concentration of acid and base, reaction time, temperature and pressure, stir rate and time, number and types of washing steps, time and temperature of drying and calcination, and gas exposure during drying and calcination. Variations may be conducted singly, or in any combination, preferably using experimental design methodologies. Additionally, other metal oxide synthesis methods—e.g., spray pyrolysis methods, vapor phase growth methods, electrodeposition methods, solid state methods, and hydro- or solvo thermal process methods—may be useful for achieving the same or similar results as the method disclosed here.

(38) The performance characteristics of the AMO nanomaterial differ from those of non-acidified metal oxide nanoparticles. As one example, FIG. 1 shows differences in the cyclic voltammogram of AMO tin prepared by the single-pot method relative to that of commercially available, non-AMO tin when cycled against Li. As another example, FIG. 2 shows the total reflectance of AMO tin oxide is different than that of commercially available, non-AMO tin oxide. The data indicates that the AMO has a lower band gap and therefore more desirable properties as a component of a photovoltaic system.

(39) The AMO material may be represented by the formula
M.sub.mO.sub.x/G
where M.sub.mO.sub.x is the metal oxide, m being at least 1 and no greater than 5, x being at least 1 and no greater than 21; G is at least one EWG that is not hydroxide; and “/” makes a distinction between the metal oxide and the EWG, denoting no fixed mathematical relationship or ratio between the two. G may represent a single type of EWG, or more than one type of EWG.

(40) Example AMOs are acidified tin oxides (Sn.sub.xO.sub.y), acidified titanium dioxides (Ti.sub.aO.sub.b), acidified iron oxides (Fe.sub.cO.sub.d), and acidified zirconium oxide (Zr.sub.eO.sub.f). Preferred electron-withdrawing groups (“EWGs”) are Cl, Br, BO.sub.3, SO.sub.4, PO.sub.4, NO.sub.3, and CH.sub.3COO. Regardless of the specific metal or EWG, the AMO material is acidic but not superacidic, yielding a pH less than 7 when suspended in an aqueous solution at 5 wt. % and a Hammet function, H.sub.0 greater −12, at least on its surface.

(41) The AMO material structure may be crystalline or amorphous (or a combination thereof), and may be utilized singly or as composites in combination with one another, with non-acidified metal oxides, or with other additives, binders, or conductive aids known in the art. The AMO material may be added to a conductive aid material such as graphite or conductive carbon (or their equivalents) in a range of 10 wt. % to 80 wt. % and upwards of 90 wt. % to 95 wt. %. Optionally, the AMO is added at 10 wt. %, 33 wt. %, 50 wt. %, or 80 wt. %.

(42) To maximize the amount of overall surface area available, the AMO may be present in nanoparticulate form (i.e., less than 1 micron in size) and substantially monodispersed. Optionally, the nanoparticulate size is less than 100 nm and, may be smaller still, such as less than 20 nm or 10 nm. It will be appreciated that nanoparticulate sizes ranging from 1 nm to 100 nm or 1000 nm may be useful with certain AMOs.

(43) Mixed-metal AMOs, in which another metal or metal oxide is present in addition to the simple, or binary oxide, also have been reduced to practice. These mixed-metal AMOs may be represented by the formula
M.sub.mN.sub.nO.sub.x/G and M.sub.mN.sub.nR.sub.rO.sub.x/G
where M is a metal and m is at least 1 and no greater than 5; N is a metal and n is greater than zero and no greater than 5; R is a metal and r is greater than zero and no greater than 5; O is total oxygen associated with all metals and x is at least 1 and no greater than 21; “/” makes a distinction between the metal oxide and an EWG, denoting no fixed mathematical relationship or ratio between the two; and G is at least one EWG that is not hydroxide. G may represent a single type of EWG, or more than one type of EWG.

(44) Some prior art mixed metal oxide systems, of which zeolites are the most prominent example, display strong acidity even though each simple oxide does not. Preferred embodiments of the mixed-metal AMO of this disclosure differ from those systems in that any embodiment must include at least one AMO which is acidic (but not superacidic) in simple M.sub.mO.sub.x/G form. Example mixed metal and metal oxide systems include Sn.sub.xFe.sub.cO.sub.y+d and Sn.sub.xTi.sub.aO.sub.y+b, where y+d and y+b may be an integer or non-integer value.

(45) Optionally, the mixed metal AMO material is produced via the single-pot method with one modification: synthesis begins with two metal precursor salts rather than one, in any proportion. For example, Step 1 of the single-pot method described above may be altered as follows: Initially, 3.8 g of tin (II) chloride dihydrate (SnCl.sub.2 2H.sub.2O) and 0.2 g of lithium chloride (LiCl) are dissolved in a solution of 20 mL of absolute ethanol and 44 mL distilled water.

(46) Three metal precursor salts may optionally be used, in any proportion. The metal precursor salts may have the same or differing anionic groups, depending on the desired product. The metal precursor salts may be introduced at different points in the synthesis. The metal precursor salts may be introduced as solids or introduced in a solvent.

(47) Experimentation with the single-pot method led to seven key findings. First, in all cases both surface functionalization and acidity arise endogenously (see FIG. 3), rather than created post-synthesis. Unlike prior art surface functionalization methods, the single-pot method does not require any additional step or steps for surface functionalization beyond those required to synthesize the metal oxide itself, nor does it make use of hydroxyl-containing organic compounds or hydrogen peroxide.

(48) Second, the method is broadly generalizable across a wide range of metal oxides and EWGs. Using the method, metal oxides of iron, tin, antimony, bismuth, titanium, zirconium, manganese, and indium have been synthesized and simultaneously surface-functionalized with chlorides, sulfates, acetates, nitrates, phosphates, citrates, oxalates, borates, and bromides. Mixed metal AMOs of tin and iron, tin and manganese, tin and manganese and iron, tin and titanium, indium and tin, antimony and tin, aluminum and tin, lithium and iron, and lithium and tin also have been synthesized. Additionally, surface functionalization can be accomplished using EWGs that are weaker than halogens and SO.sub.4, yet still produce acidic but not superacidic surfaces. For example, the method also has been used to synthesize AMOs surface-functionalized with acetate (CH.sub.3COO), oxalate (C.sub.2O.sub.4), and citrate (C.sub.6H.sub.5O.sub.7).

(49) Third, there is a synergistic relationship between the EWG and other properties of the nanoparticles such as size, morphology (e.g., plate-like, spherical-like, needle- or rod-like), oxidation state, and crystallinity (amorphous, crystalline, or a mixture thereof). For example, differences in morphology can occur between AMO nanoparticles synthesized under identical conditions except for the use of a different EWG for surface functionalization, as illustrated in FIG. 4, which provides electron micrograph images of two AMOs generated using different EWGs. The surface functionalization may act to “pin” the dimensions of the nanoparticles, stopping their growth. This pinning may occur on only one dimension of the nanoparticle, or in more than one dimension, depending upon exact synthesis conditions.

(50) Fourth, the character of the AMO is very sensitive to synthesis conditions and procedures. For example, differences in morphology and performance of the AMO's nanoparticles can occur when synthesized under identical conditions except for having two different total reaction times. For example, FIG. 5 provides electron micrograph images of two AMOs reacted for different total reaction times, and FIG. 6 provides a plot of capacity (mAh/g) versus cycle number, showing a comparison of cyclability of two AMOs reacted for different total reaction times exhibiting different morphology. Experimental design methodologies can be used to decide the best or optimal synthesis conditions and procedures to produce a desired characteristic or set of characteristics.

(51) Fifth, both the anion present in the precursor salt and the anion present in the acid contribute to the surface functionalization of the AMO. In one embodiment, tin chloride precursors and hydrochloric acid are used in a synthesis of an AMO of tin. The performance of these particles differ from an embodiment in which tin chloride precursors and sulfuric acid are used, or from an embodiment in which tin sulfate precursors and hydrochloric acid are used. Matching the precursor anion and acid anion may be advantageous for some embodiments.

(52) Sixth, when utilizing a precursor with a weak EWG and an acid with a strong EWG, or vice versa, the strongly withdrawing anion will dominate the surface functionalization. This opens up a broader range of synthesis possibilities, allowing functionalization with ions that are not readily available in both precursor salts and acids. It may also permit mixed functionalization with both strong and weak EWGs. In one example, a tin acetate precursor and phosphoric acid are used to synthesize an AMO of tin. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis of the surface shows a greater atomic concentrations of phosphorous than of the bonds associated with acetate groups (see FIG. 7).

(53) Seventh, while the disclosed method is a general procedure for synthesis of AMOs, the synthesis procedures and conditions may be adjusted to yield sizes, morphologies, oxidation states, and crystalline states as are deemed to be desirable for different applications. As one example, catalytic applications might desire an AMO material which is more active in visible light or one which is more active in ultraviolet light. FIG. 8A provides visible light exposure degradation times of methylene blue when exposed to two different AMO materials. FIG. 8B provides ultraviolet light exposure degradation times of methylene blue when exposed to four different AMO materials.

(54) In another example, the AMO material may be used as a battery electrode. A primary (single-use) battery application might desire an AMO with characteristics that lead to the highest capacity, while a secondary (rechargeable) battery application might desire the same AMO but with characteristics that lead to the highest cyclability. FIG. 9 compares the cyclability of two different batteries constructed from AMO materials, including a chlorine containing AMO and a sulfur containing AMO. The AMO material can result in enhanced battery performance, without deterioration of battery components or gas generation (see FIG. 10). This is exactly opposite what the prior art teaches.

(55) Advantageously, the AMO material may optionally be used with an acidic binder, an acidic electrolyte, or an acidic electrolyte additive. The inventors have surprisingly found that including acidic species, such as organic acids or organic acid anhydrides, in a battery comprising an AMO material results in an increase in the capacity of versus batteries where the acidic species are not included. Again, the prior art teaches against use of acidic species, as these species may degrade metal current collectors and housings and cause deterioration in other electrode components. As shown in FIG. 11, which provides comparative cyclability data for AMO-based batteries formed of the same materials and structure except for one having a standard electrolyte, one having a basified electrolyte, and one having an acidified electrolyte. The batteries included a construction as follows: all cathodes included the same AMO material; all anodes were lithium metal; the standard electrolyte was 1:1:1 mix of dimethylene carbonate, diethylene carbonate, and ethylene carbonate with 1 M LiPF.sub.6; the acidified electrolyte was the standard electrolyte with 3 wt. % succinic anhydride; the basified electrolyte was the standard electrolyte with 3 wt. % dimethylacetamide. All batteries were cycled at the same discharge rate. As illustrated, the battery with the acidified electrolyte system exhibits the best cycling ability, maintaining the highest capacity over the largest number of cycles.

(56) FIG. 12 provides additional comparative cyclability data for two different batteries with the same battery construction including an acidified electrolyte, except that the AMO material of one battery is deacidified by washing with a solvent. The batteries included a construction as follows: the cathodes included the AMO material; the electrolyte was a 1:1:1 mix of dimethylene carbonate, diethylene carbonate, and ethylene carbonate with 1 M LiPF.sub.6 and 3 wt. % succinic anhydride; the anodes were lithium metal. The batteries were cycled at the same discharge rate. The battery having the acidified AMO material performs better, indicating that the acidified surface of the AMO may interact with the acidified electrolyte, providing enhanced performance.

(57) It will be appreciated that other battery constructions are possible using the AMO material and an acidic species as an additive to an electrode comprising the AMO material and/or to the electrolyte. For example, a battery may comprise a first electrode comprising an AMO nanomaterial, a second electrode, and an electrolyte positioned between the first electrode and the second electrode. As an example in a lithium ion battery, the first electrode may operate as a cathode or an anode. For example, in operation as a cathode, the second electrode may correspond to lithium metal, graphite, or another anodic material. As another example, in operation as an anode, the second electrode may correspond to a LiCoO.sub.2, LiMn.sub.2O.sub.4, LiNiO.sub.2, or another cathodic material. Useful materials for the second electrode include, but are not limited to, graphite, lithium metal, sodium metal, lithium cobalt oxide, lithium titanate, lithium manganese oxide, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), lithium iron phosphate, lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), or any combination of these.

(58) FIG. 13 provides an example construction of a battery cell 1300 incorporating features described herein. Battery cell 1300 comprises a cathode 1304, an anode 1306 and an electrolyte 1308 between cathode 1304 and anode 1306. As an example, cathode 1304 may comprise an AMO material disclosed herein. Electrolyte 1308 may correspond to a known electrolyte solvent in which a salt of a working ion is dissolved. In addition to the dissolved salt, an acidic species is optionally dissolved in electrolyte 1308. Alternatively or additionally, an acidic species may be included in cathode 1304 in addition to the AMO material. In a lithium ion system, the dissolved salt may correspond to a lithium salt, such as LiPF.sub.6, and the anode may correspond to lithium metal or a lithium intercalation material, such as graphite. An example acidic species may correspond to oxalic acid. Additional components, such as current collectors, separators, a case, etc., may be included in the battery cell 1300, but are not shown in FIG. 13.

(59) During charging of battery cell 1300, element 1310 represents a voltage source that is applied between cathode 1304 and anode 1306, and ions are shuttled from cathode 1304 to the anode 1304 through electrolyte 1308, while electrons are transported from the anode to the cathode. In a lithium ion system, lithium ions are the working ion. During discharging of battery cell 1300, element 1310 represents a load that is applied between cathode 1304 and anode 1306, and ions are shuttled from anode 1306 to cathode 1304 through the electrolyte 1308.

(60) Without wishing to be bound by any theory, it is believed that the presence of acidic species in the cathode 1304 and/or electrolyte 1308 improves a surface affinity of the AMO material toward lithium ions, resulting in an improved ability to take up lithium ions during discharge and overall improvement to capacity as compared to a similar cell lacking acidic species or having a basified cathode or electrolyte (i.e., including basic species). Alternatively or additionally, the presence of acidic species may allow for additional active sites for lithium uptake in cathode 1304.

STATEMENTS REGARDING INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE AND VARIATIONS

(61) All references throughout this application, for example patent documents including issued or granted patents or equivalents, patent application publications, and non-patent literature documents or other source material, are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties, as though individually incorporated by reference.

(62) All patents and publications mentioned in the specification are indicative of the levels of skill of those skilled in the art to which the invention pertains. References cited herein are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety to indicate the state of the art, in some cases as of their filing date, and it is intended that this information can be employed herein, if needed, to exclude (for example, to disclaim) specific embodiments that are in the prior art. For example, when a compound is claimed, it should be understood that compounds known in the prior art, including certain compounds disclosed in the references disclosed herein (particularly in referenced patent documents), are not intended to be included in the claim.

(63) When a group of substituents is disclosed herein, it is understood that all individual members of those groups and all subgroups and classes that can be formed using the substituents are disclosed separately. When a Markush group or other grouping is used herein, all individual members of the group and all combinations and subcombinations possible of the group are individually included in the disclosure. As used herein, “and/or” means that one, all, or any combination of items in a list separated by “and/or” are included in the list; for example “1, 2 and/or 3” is equivalent to “‘ 1’ or ‘2’ or ‘3’ or ‘1 and 2’ or ‘1 and 3’ or ‘2 and 3’ or ‘1, 2 and 3’”.

(64) Every formulation or combination of components described or exemplified can be used to practice the invention, unless otherwise stated. Specific names of materials are intended to be exemplary, as it is known that one of ordinary skill in the art can name the same material differently. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that methods, device elements, starting materials, and synthetic methods other than those specifically exemplified can be employed in the practice of the invention without resort to undue experimentation. All art-known functional equivalents, of any such methods, device elements, starting materials, and synthetic methods are intended to be included in this invention. Whenever a range is given in the specification, for example, a temperature range, a time range, or a composition range, all intermediate ranges and subranges, as well as all individual values included in the ranges given are intended to be included in the disclosure.

(65) As used herein, “comprising” is synonymous with “including,” “containing,” or “characterized by,” and is inclusive or open-ended and does not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps. As used herein, “consisting of” excludes any element, step, or ingredient not specified in the claim element. As used herein, “consisting essentially of” does not exclude materials or steps that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristics of the claim. Any recitation herein of the term “comprising,” particularly in a description of components of a composition or in a description of elements of a device, is understood to encompass those compositions and methods consisting essentially of and consisting of the recited components or elements. The invention illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in the absence of any element or limitation that is not specifically disclosed herein.

(66) The terms and expressions which have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention claimed. Thus, it should be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this invention as defined by the claims.