Method for generating hydrogen gas
12509784 ยท 2025-12-30
Assignee
Inventors
- Mohamed Jaffer Sadiq MOHAMED (Dhahran, SA)
- Muhammad Ashraf Gondal (Dhahran, SA)
- Muhammad Hassan (Dhahran, SA)
- Abdul Zeeshan KHAN (Dhahran, SA)
Cpc classification
C25B11/091
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
International classification
C25B11/091
CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
Abstract
A method of generating hydrogen gas including applying a potential of greater than 0 to 1.0 volts (V) to an electrochemical cell. The electrochemical cell is at least partially submerged in an aqueous solution. On applying the potential the aqueous solution is reduced thereby forming hydrogen gas. The electrochemical cell includes an electrocatalyst and a counter electrode. The electrocatalyst includes a substrate, strontium titanate (SrTiO.sub.3) nanoparticles, and cadmium selenide (CdSe) nanoparticles. The SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles have a substantially spherical shape. The CdSe nanoparticles have a polygon shape. The CdSe nanoparticles are distributed within a network of the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles on the surface of the substrate.
Claims
1. A method of generating hydrogen gas, comprising: applying a potential of greater than 0 to 1.0 volts (V) to an electrochemical cell, wherein the electrochemical cell is at least partially submerged in an aqueous solution, wherein on applying the potential the aqueous solution is reduced thereby forming hydrogen gas, wherein the electrochemical cell comprises: an electrocatalyst; and a counter electrode; wherein the electrocatalyst comprises: a substrate; strontium titanate (SrTiO.sub.3) nanoparticles; and cadmium selenide (CdSe) nanoparticles, wherein the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles have a substantially spherical shape, wherein the CdSe nanoparticles have a polygon shape, wherein the CdSe nanoparticles are distributed within a network of the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles on a surface of the substrate; and wherein forming the electrocatalyst further comprises: sonicating a solution of SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe to form a homogeneous solution; irradiating the homogeneous solution with a pulsed laser for at least 10 minutes to form the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles in a suspension; drying the suspension at a temperature of at least 80 C. for at least 30 minutes and coating it on the substrate to form the electrocatalyst.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles have an average diameter of 50-150 nanometers (nm).
3. The method of claim 1, wherein the CdSe nanoparticles have an average size of 500 nm to 5 micrometers (m).
4. The method of claim 1, wherein the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles form a heterostructure.
5. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrocatalyst comprises 0.1-10 wt. % CdSe nanoparticles relative to a total weight of the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles.
6. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrocatalyst comprises 80-99.9 wt. % SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles relative to a total weight of the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles.
7. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrocatalyst comprises 35-55 wt. % Sr, 20-30 wt. % Ti, 20-30 wt. % O, 0.1-5.0 wt. % Cd, and 0.01-2 wt. % Se, based on a total weight of the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles.
8. The method of claim 1, wherein the pulsed laser has a wavelength of 500-550 nm.
9. The method of claim 1, wherein the pulsed laser has a pulse duration of 5-10 nanoseconds (ns).
10. The method of claim 1, wherein the aqueous solution comprises at least one base selected from the group consisting of an alkaline earth metal hydroxide and an alkali metal hydroxide.
11. The method of claim 10, wherein the base is potassium hydroxide.
12. The method of claim 1, wherein the substrate is made from a material selected from the group consisting of platinum, gold, and carbon.
13. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrocatalyst has an overpotential of 200-250 millivolts (mV) for a current density of 10 milliampere per square centimeter (mA cm.sup.2).
14. The method of claim 13, wherein the overpotential does not vary by more than 5% after the potential is applied for 2-50 hours.
15. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrocatalyst has a double layer capacitance of 300-350 microfarads per square centimeter (F cm.sup.2).
16. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrocatalyst has a double layer capacitance at least 2 times larger than a same electrocatalyst having only one of the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles.
17. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrocatalyst does not include a cocatalyst.
18. The method of claim 1, wherein the electrocatalyst consists of the CdSe nanoparticles, the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles, and the substrate, wherein the substrate is made of carbon.
Description
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
(1) A more complete appreciation of this disclosure and many of the attendant advantages thereof will be readily obtained as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in connection with the accompanying drawings, wherein:
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DETAILED DESCRIPTION
(50) In the drawings, like reference numerals designate identical or corresponding parts throughout the several views. Further, as used herein, the words a, an and the like generally carry a meaning of one or more, unless stated otherwise.
(51) Furthermore, the terms approximately, approximate, about, and similar terms generally refer to ranges that include the identified value within a margin of 20%, 10%, or preferably 5%, and any values there between.
(52) Where a numerical limit or range is stated herein, the endpoints are included. Also, all values and subranges within a numerical limit or range are specifically included as if explicitly written out.
(53) As used herein, working electrode refers to the electrode in an electrochemical cell/device/sensor on which the electrochemical reaction of interest is occurring.
(54) As used herein, counter-electrode, is an electrode used in an electrochemical cell for voltametric analysis or other reactions in which an electric current is expected to flow.
(55) As used herein, the term glassy carbon refers to a non-graphitizing carbon which combines glassy and ceramic properties with those of graphite.
(56) As used herein, the term electrochemical cell refers to a device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions or using electrical energy to cause chemical reactions.
(57) As used herein, the term water splitting refers to the chemical reaction in which water is broken down into oxygen and hydrogen.
2H.sub.2O.fwdarw.2H.sub.2+O.sub.2
(58) The present disclosure is intended to include all hydration states of a given compound or formula, unless otherwise noted or when heating a material.
(59) Aspects of the present disclosure are directed to a method of generating hydrogen gas using an electrocatalyst including SrTiO.sub.3 composited with CdSe made by a facile and clean method of pulsed laser ablation in liquid (PLAL).
(60) According to an aspect of the present disclosure, an electrocatalyst is described. In some embodiments the electrocatalyst is used to generate hydrogen by splitting water. The electrocatalyst (otherwise referred to as the catalyst) includes cadmium selenide (CdSe) nanoparticles and strontium titanate (SrTiO.sub.3) nanoparticles on a substrate. The substrate may be made from a material selected from the group consisting of platinum, gold, and carbon. In the preferred embodiment, the substrate is made of carbon. The carbon substrate may be a porous material. Also, pores of the carbon substrate may exist in many shapes, such as cubical, conical, cuboidal, pyramidical, or cylindrical. In a preferred embodiment, the substrate is made of glassy carbon.
(61) In some embodiments, the electrocatalyst includes a co-catalyst. In an especially preferred embodiment, the electrocatalyst does not include a co-catalyst. As used herein, the term co-catalyst refers to the substance or agent that brings about catalysis in conjunction with one or more others. In a more preferred embodiment, the co-catalyst does not include platinum. In the most preferred embodiment, the co-catalyst does not include any precious metals such as gold, silver, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum. In a more preferred embodiment, the substrate and catalyst do not include platinum. In the most preferred embodiment, the substrate and catalyst do not include any precious metals such as gold, silver, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum. In a preferred embodiment, the electrocatalyst consists of the CdSe nanoparticles, the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles, and the substrate.
(62) The electrocatalyst includes 0.1-10 wt. %, preferably 0.5-9 wt. %, 1-8 wt. %, 2-7 wt. %, 3-6 wt. %, or 4-5 wt. % CdSe nanoparticles relative to the total weight of the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles. Furthermore, the electrocatalyst includes 90-99.9 wt. %, preferably 91-99.5 wt. %, 92-99 wt. %, 93-98 wt. %, 94-97 wt. %, or 95-96 wt. % SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles relative to the total weight of the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles.
(63) The electrocatalyst includes 35-55 wt. %, more preferably 40-45 wt. %, and yet more preferably 43.4 wt. % Sr; 20-30 wt. %, more preferably 25-30 wt. %, and yet more preferably 27.2 wt. % Ti, 20-30 wt. %, more preferably 25-28 wt. %, and yet more preferably 26.8 wt. % O, 0.1-5.0 wt. %, more preferably 0.5-4.0 wt. %, and yet more preferably 1-3 wt. % Cd, and 0.01-2 wt. %, more preferably 0.05-1.5 wt. %, and yet more preferably 0.7 wt. % Se, based on the total weight of the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles.
(64) In some embodiments, a perovskite is included in the electrocatalyst. In some embodiments, the perovskite has a formula of ABO.sub.3 (where A=alkaline earth metal, and B=transition metal). The alkaline earth metal (A) is selected from the group consisting of beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra). The transition metal (B) is selected from the group consisting of scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), yttrium (Y), zirconium (Zr), niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), technetium (Tc), ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), silver (Ag), cadmium (Cd), lanthanum (La), hafnium (Hf), tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), rhenium (Re), osmium (Os), iridium (Ir), platinum (Pt), gold (Au), and mercury (Hg). In a preferred embodiment, the only perovskite included in the electrocatalyst is SrTiO.sub.3.
(65) In an embodiment, the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles can be any shape known to one of ordinary skill in the art. Examples of suitable shapes the nanoparticles may take include spheres, spheroids, lentoids, ovoids, solid polyhedra such as tetrahedra, cubes, octahedra, icosahedra, dodecahedra, hollow polyhedral (also known as nanocages), stellated polyhedral (both regular and irregular, also known as nanostars), triangular prisms (also known as nanotriangles), hollow spherical shells (also known as nanoshells), tubes (also known as nanotubes), nanosheets, nanoplates, nanodisks, rods (also known as nanorods), and mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have uniform shape. Alternatively, the shape may be non-uniform. As used herein, the term uniform shape refers to an average consistent shape that differs by no more than 10%, by no more than 5%, by no more than 4%, by no more than 3%, by no more than 2%, by no more than 1% of the distribution of nanoparticles having a different shape. As used herein, the term non-uniform shape refers to an average consistent shape that differs by more than 10% of the distribution of nanoparticles having a different shape. In some embodiments, the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles are substantially spherical. In some embodiments, SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles have an average diameter of 50-150 nanometers (nm), preferably 75-125 nm, or about 100 nm. In some embodiments, the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles are aggregated and form aggregates have a largest dimension of 500 to 1,000 nm, preferably 600-900 nm, or 700-800 nm.
(66) In some embodiments, nanoparticles including transition metal oxides, sulfides, and selenides are included in the electrocatalyst. In an embodiment, the transition metal is selected from the group consisting of scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), yttrium (Y), zirconium (Zr), niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), technetium (Tc), ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), silver (Ag), cadmium (Cd), lanthanum (La), hafnium (Hf), tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), rhenium (Re), osmium (Os), iridium (Ir), platinum (Pt), gold (Au), and mercury (Hg). In a preferred embodiment, the only transition metal oxide, sulfide, or selenide included in the electrocatalyst is CdSe.
(67) In an embodiment, the CdSe nanoparticles can be any shape known to one of ordinary skill in the art. Examples of suitable shapes the nanoparticles may take include spheres, spheroids, lentoids, ovoids, solid polyhedra such as tetrahedra, cubes, octahedra, icosahedra, dodecahedra, hollow polyhedral (also known as nanocages), stellated polyhedral (both regular and irregular, also known as nanostars), triangular prisms (also known as nanotriangles), hollow spherical shells (also known as nanoshells), tubes (also known as nanotubes), nanosheets, nanoplates, nanodisks, rods (also known as nanorods), and mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, the nanoparticles have uniform shape. Alternatively, the shape may be non-uniform. In some embodiments, the CdSe nanoparticles have a polygon shape. As referred to herein a polygon can be defined as a two-dimensional closed shape bounded with straight sides and does not have curved sides. In a preferred embodiment, the polygon shape has 4 sides and is a rectangle, square, or trapezoid. In some embodiments, a majority, at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or 100%, of the CdSe nanoparticles have a rectangular shape. In a preferred embodiment, less than 30%, preferably 20%, 10%, or 5% of the CdSe nanoparticles have a square or trapezoid shape, based on a total amount of the CdSe nanoparticles. In some embodiments, the CdSe nanoparticles have an average size of 500 nm to 5 micrometers (m), preferably 1 to 4.5 m, 2.5-4.0 m, or 3.0-3.5 m. The average size refers to an average of the longest dimension of the CdSe nanoparticles.
(68) In some embodiments, the CdSe nanoparticles are distributed within a network of the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles on a surface of the substrate. In other words, the CdSe nanoparticles are intermixed with the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles in a matrix and are not divided into separate sides. In some embodiments, the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles are linked together. In some embodiments, the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles form a heterostructure. In some embodiments, the CdSe nanoparticles and SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles retain their shape when incorporated together in the electrocatalyst.
(69) In an embodiment, the substrate is deposited partially or wholly with at least one layer of the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles in a uniform and continuous manner. In an embodiment, the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles cover at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or 100%, or a surface area of the substrate surface. In a preferred embodiment, the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles form a continuous layer on the substrate. In an embodiment, particles of the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles form a monolayer on the substrate. In another embodiment, the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles may form more than a single layer on the substrate.
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(71) At step 82, the method 80 includes sonicating a solution of SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe to form a homogeneous solution. The sonication can be performed ultrasonically (using a sonication bath or sonication probe) for a time range of 25 to 35 minutes, more preferably 27 to 32 minutes, and yet more preferably 30 minutes. As used herein, the term sonication refers to the process in which sound waves are used to agitate particles in a solution. In some embodiments, other modes of agitation known to those of ordinary skill in the art, for example, via stirring, swirling, mixing, or a combination thereof may be employed to form the resultant mixture.
(72) At step 84, the method 80 includes irradiating the homogeneous solution with a pulsed laser for at least 10 minutes to form the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles in a suspension. PLAL is a facile, one-step and clean method which follows a top-down approach to synthesize nanomaterials and their composites with ultra-high purity. PLAL approach is environmentally friendly and does not require any special conditions of temperature and pressure. The resultant suspension doesn't need any post-synthesis purification because there are no intermediary chemicals or catalysts used in the PLAL process thereby yielding a highly pure nanocomposite material.
(73) The pulsed laser has a wavelength of 500-550 nm, more preferably 525-535 nm, and yet more preferably 532 nm. The pulsed laser has a pulse duration of 5-10 nanoseconds (ns), more preferably 7-9 nm, and yet more preferably 8 ns.
(74) At step 86, the method 80 includes drying the suspension at a temperature of at least 80 C., preferably 80-150 C., preferably 100-120 C. for at least 30 minutes, preferably 30 minutes to 10 hours, more preferably 1-3 hours and coating it on the substrate to form the electrocatalyst. The drying can be done by using heating appliances such as ovens, microwaves, autoclaves, hot plates, heating mantles and tapes, oil baths, salt baths, sand baths, air baths, hot-tube furnaces, and hot-air guns. In an embodiment, the coating is done by drop casting, spin coating or with an automatic coating machine.
(75) In a preferred embodiment, the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles are made in a same solution, i.e., the homogeneous solution includes both SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe. In another embodiment, the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles are made separately, i.e. the homogenous solution includes only SrTiO.sub.3 or CdSe and then they are mixed together before being deposited on the substrate.
(76) In some embodiment, the produced electrocatalyst is included in an electrochemical cell for water splitting. The electrochemical cell includes an electrocatalyst and a counter electrode. In some embodiments, a method of generating hydrogen gas is described. The method includes applying a potential of greater than 0 to 1.0 volts (V) to an electrochemical cell, preferably 0.1 to 0.9 V, 0.2 to 0.8 V, 0.3 to 0.7 V, or 0.4 to 0.6 V. The electrochemical cell is at least partially submerged in an aqueous solution, preferably at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or fully submerged in the aqueous solution.
(77) The electrochemical cell includes an electrocatalyst and a counter electrode. The electrocatalyst may form the working electrode, while the counter electrode may form the auxiliary electrode. The outer surface of the counter electrode may include an inert, electrically conducting chemical substance, such as platinum, gold, or carbon. The carbon may be in the form of graphite or glassy carbon. In one embodiment, the counter electrode may be a wire, a rod, a cylinder, a tube, a scroll, a sheet, a piece of foil, a woven mesh, a perforated sheet, or a brush. The counter electrode material should thus be sufficiently inert to withstand the chemical conditions in the electrolyte solution, such as acidic or basic pH values, without substantially degrading during the electrochemical reaction. The counter electrode preferably should not leach out any chemical substance that interferes with the electrochemical reaction or lead to undesirable contamination of either electrode.
(78) In some embodiments, the working electrode and the counter-electrode may be connected to each other by way of electrical interconnects that allow for the passage of current between the electrodes, when a potential is applied between them. In a preferred embodiment, the electrocatalyst (which forms the working electrode) and the counter electrode may be at least partially submerged in the aqueous solution and are not in physical contact with each other. In an embodiment, the working electrode and the counter-electrode may have the same or different dimensions. The working electrode and the counter-electrode may be arranged as obvious to a person of ordinary skill in the art. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell further includes a reference electrode. In some embodiments, the reference electrode is selected from the group consisting of a standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), a calomel electrode, a silver-silver chloride electrode and a glass electrode.
(79) In some embodiments, the aqueous solution includes water and an inorganic base. The water may be tap water, distilled water, bidistilled water, deionized water, deionized distilled water, reverse osmosis water, and/or some other water. In one embodiment, the water is bidistilled to eliminate trace metals. Preferably the water is bidistilled, deionized, deionized distilled, or reverse osmosis water and at 25 C. has a conductivity at less than 10 micro siemens per centimeter (S.Math.cm.sup.1), preferably less than 1 S.Math.cm.sup.1, a resistivity greater than 0.1 megaohms-cm (M-cm), preferably greater than 1 M-cm, more preferably greater than 10 M-cm, a total solid concentration less than 5 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), preferably less than 1 mg/kg, and a total organic carbon concentration less than 1000 microgram per liter (g/L), preferably less than 200 g/L, more preferably less than 50 g/L.
(80) The aqueous solution includes at least one base selected from the group consisting of an alkaline earth metal hydroxide and an alkali metal hydroxide. The base may be selected from the group consisting of an alkaline earth metal hydroxide such as beryllium hydroxide (Be(OH).sub.2), magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH).sub.2), strontium hydroxide (Sr(OH).sub.2), and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH).sub.2) and an alkali metal hydroxide such as lithium hydroxide (LiOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH) and rubidium hydroxide (RbOH), and cesium hydroxide (CsOH). In a preferred embodiment, the base is potassium hydroxide.
(81) On applying the potential, the aqueous solution is reduced thereby forming hydrogen gas. The electrocatalyst has an overpotential of 200-250 mV, preferably 210-240 mV, or 220-230 mV for a current density of 10 mA cm-2. The overpotential does not vary by more than 5%, preferably 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% after the potential is applied for 2-50 hours. As used herein, the term overpotential is referred to as the difference between the equilibrium potential for a given reaction (also called the thermodynamic potential) and the potential at which a catalyst operates at a specific current under specific conditions. In other words, for the present electrocatalyst a potential of only 200-250 mV is needed to achieve a current density of 10 mA cm.sup.2. Whereas the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles alone separately require an overpotential of 375-400 mV to achieve a current density of 10 mA cm.sup.2.
(82) The electrocatalyst has a double-layer capacitance of 300-350, preferably 310-340, or 320-330 microfarads per square centimeter (F cm.sup.2). Whereas the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles alone have a double-layer capacitance of about 67 F cm.sup.2 and 145 F cm.sup.2, respectively. In some embodiments, the electrocatalyst has a double layer capacitance at least 2, preferably 3, 4, or 5 times larger than a same electrocatalyst having only one of the CdSe nanoparticles and the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles. Double-layer capacitance is a characteristic of an electrical double layer which appears at an interface between a surface and a fluid (for example, between a conductive electrode and an adjacent liquid electrolyte).
(83) While not wishing to be bound to a single theory, it is thought that the heterostructure formed by the PLAL synthesis method between the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles offers more efficient ion and electron transfer/diffusion channels. The incorporation of CdSe into SrTiO.sub.3 improves the nanohybrid's electrocatalytic HER performance by increasing the electrochemical surface area and the number of active sites, hence facilitating the electron transfer at a semiconductor-electrolyte interface. Further, the uniform and continuous spherical morphology of the SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles provides many active catalytic centers, thus boosting the electrocatalyst's performance. The synergistic relationship between the SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe nanoparticles together in the heterostructure thereby result in a higher performing electrocatalyst compared to the two materials alone.
(84) The electrocatalyst of the present disclosure may also be used in water-splitting reactions. In some embodiments, the electrocatalyst may also be used in the field of batteries, fuel cells, photochemical cells, water splitting cells, electronics, water purification, hydrogen sensors, semiconductors (such as field-effect transistors), magnetic semiconductors, capacitors, data storage devices, biosensors (such as redox protein sensors), photovoltaics, liquid crystal screens, plasma screens, touch screens, OLEDs, antistatic deposits, optical coatings, reflective coverings, anti-reflection coatings, and/or reaction catalysis.
EXAMPLES
(85) The following examples describe and demonstrate exemplary embodiments of the method of generating hydrogen gas described herein. The examples are provided solely for the purpose of illustration and are not to be construed as limitations of the present disclosure, as many variations thereof are possible without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure.
Example 1: Chemicals
(86) Strontium titanate (SrTiO.sub.3), cadmium selenide (CdSe), potassium hydroxide (KOH), and 5 wt. % Nafion solution are the chemicals purchased from Sigma Aldrich and used without any further treatment.
Example 2: Synthesis
(87) Pulsed laser ablation in liquid (PLAL) was used to synthesize SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-(x) (x=1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0%) composites. To synthesize SrTiO.sub.3+CdSe 1, 10 milligrams (mg) of CdSe were mixed with 100 mg of SrTiO.sub.3 in 25 milliliters (mL) of deionized water (DI) and ultrasonically homogenized (Ultrasonic homogenizer UZ SONOPULS HD 2070; 70 W and 20 kHz) for 30 min. The resulting combination (SrTiO.sub.3+CdSe) was then irradiated with a Q-Switched Nd-YAG laser with a 532 nm wavelength and 8 ns pulse duration. The intensity of the laser beam was further enhanced by employing a focusing lens, and the irradiation period for each sample was set to 30 min under continuous stirring. The resulting suspension of the CdSe incorporated SrTiO.sub.3 nanoparticles were dried at 120 C. for 2 h. The remaining SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe samples with varying CdSe wt. % were synthesized using the same method. The synthesized SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-(x) that includes x with 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 wt. % of CdSe is designated as SrTiO.sub.3, SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-1, SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-2, SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-3, and SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-4, respectively. Collectively, they are referred to as the catalyst.
Example 3: Electrochemical Measurement Techniques
(88) Electrochemical measurements of SrTiO.sub.3, CdSe and their composites SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-(x) electrodes were performed in a computer-controlled AutoLab (Autolab PGSTAT302N Potentiostat) in a standard three-electrode cell configuration. Teflon made electrochemical cell contains a reference electrode of Ag/AgCl (3.0 molar (M) KCl solution), a counter electrode made of platinum (Pt), and a working electrode made of glassy carbon (GC) electrode modified with the catalyst are submerged in the aqueous solution of 0.1 M KOH as an electrolyte. The modified working electrode was prepared by combining 4 mg of the catalyst with 80 microliters (L) of 5 wt. % Nafion solution in 1 mL of DI water and ethanol (4:1 v/v). For 30 min, ultrasonication was used to mix the solution to form a suspension properly. Then, 5 L of the resultant suspension was dropped at the tip of the GC electrode and allowed to dry for 2 h at 60 C. The resulting mass loading of the catalyst was 0.285 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm.sup.2) and was maintained constant for all other working electrodes. Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) method was used with a scan rate of 5 millivolts per second (mV/s) in a KOH (0.1 M) solution with pH=13.0. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements were performed at 10 mV of alternating current (AC) voltage amplitude with frequencies ranging from 0.1 hertz (Hz) to 105 Hz. The potential values have been adjusted in accordance with the reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) by using Nernst Equation (E.sub.RHE=E.sub.applied+0.0591pH+E.sup.0.sub.Ag/AgCl), where E.sub.applied and E.sub.RHE are applied potential against Ag/AgCl and reversible hydrogen electrode potential, respectively. The reference electrode potential is represented by E.sup.0.sub.Ag/AgCl and equal to 0.198 V at 25 C.
Example 4: Characterization Techniques
(89) X-ray diffractometer diffractometer (manufactured by Rigaku, 2601A, Tengda Plaza, No. 168, Xizhimenwai Ave) was used to perform X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements, which used Cu K (=0.15406 nm) as an X-ray radiation source. The Raman analysis of the samples was carried out using a LabRAM HR Evolution Raman spectrometer (manufactured by HORIBA Scientific, 9755 Research Drive, Irvine, CA 92618, U.S.A) equipped with a HeNe laser source. The 532 nm excitation wavelength with 10% of the power was used for the spectral measurement. The morphology of the materials, including their shape and size, was investigated by using scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) (Zeiss Company), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (Titan-FEI-Morgagni-268, Hillsboro, Oregon). The Kratos DLD (Trafford Wharf Road Wharfside Manchester, M17 1GP United Kingdom), equipped with a monochromatic micro-focused Al K as X-ray source, was used for the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) studies.
Example 5: Characterization of the Electrodes
(90) Structural information of bare SrTiO.sub.3, CdSe, and composite SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe electrodes was carried out by XRD, as depicted in
(91) The Raman spectra of CdSe, SrTiO.sub.3, and SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-3 composite electrodes are illustrated in
(92) SEM images of SrTiO.sub.3, CdSe, and SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-3 are illustrated in
(93) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Elemental concentration of SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-3 sample for Sr, Ti, O, Cd, and Se elements. Elements Wt. % Sr 43.4 0.8 Ti 27.2 0.5 O 26.8 1 Cd 1.8 0.3 Se 0.7 0.3
(94) EDX spectrum, elemental mapping, and concentration of pristine SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe are also presented in
(95) TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Elemental concentration of SrTiO.sub.3 sample for Sr, Ti, and O elements. Elements Wt. % Sr 43.8 0.7 O 32.2 1 Ti 23.9 0.5
(96) TABLE-US-00003 TABLE 3 Elemental concentration of CdSe sample for Cd and Se elements. Elements Wt. % Cd 62.8 0.6 Se 37.2 0.6
(97) The EDX spectrum contains some peaks related to Au relating owing to the use of Au-coated grids for the analysis and no extra peaks were observed for contaminates which confirm the purity of the nanocomposite materials.
(98) The chemical states of Sr, Ti, O, Cd, and Se in SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-3 electrode was examined by using XPS to establish the presence of CdSe on SrTiO.sub.3. All binding energies for the representative elements were corrected with respect to the reference C 1s peak (284.6 eV).
(99) This indicates that SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe formed a heterostructure and that the composite is not a simple physical mixture. Therefore, the XPS result supports the co-existence of SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe in SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe nanocomposites. Furthermore, to avoid any other interference factors, that leads the position shifts of XPS peaks, all the samples were characterized by the XPS in the same batch with the same equipment.
Example 6: Electrocatalytic HER Activity
(100) Cathodic polarization curves (I-V) were employed in a typical three-electrode system to determine the electrocatalytic activity of the representative electrodes for hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) in an N.sub.2 degassed basic medium (0.1M, KOH). The effect of CdSe on SrTiO.sub.3 for HER was investigated and presented in
(101) Cyclic voltammetry (CV) of the SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-3 electrode was performed in a distinct area to confirm the high active surface area. ECSA is calculated by measuring the double-layer capacitance (DLC). The DLC is directly proportional to the ECSA, assuming that no faradic current is present in this region.
(102) To elucidate the high HER electrocatalytic activity of the as-prepared CdSe incorporation into the SrTiO.sub.3 catalyst, EIS was used to evaluate the charge transfer kinetics at the semiconductor electrolyte interface. The Nyquist plots of representative electrodes are shown in
(103) The stability of CdSe-incorporated SrTiO.sub.3 was examined by using 1000 successive LSV scans and chronopotentiometry as illustrated in
Example 7: Mechanism for PLAL Synthesis and HER
(104) SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe nanocomposite was synthesized using an advanced and clean PLAL technique with a 532 nm ND: YAG laser working at the second harmonic. The other parameters of laser setup include: (i) pulse energy of 350 millijoules (mJ), (ii) pulse width of 8 ns, and (iii) repetition rate of 10 Hz. During the PLAL process, a laser beam was focused on the SrTiO.sub.3, and CdSe homogenized water dispersion for nearly 30 min using a focusing lens to convey an adequate laser fluence, as shown in
(105) The laser beam is absorbed as soon as it contacts the solid sample surface, and the absorbed energy is quickly converted to heat. As a consequence of the heat, the metallic sample melts in the vicinity. Because of the superior irradiance of the concentrated laser pulses, the focal zone on the sample surface includes sufficient energy to induce the vaporization of a tiny region on the solid sample's surface. As a consequence of the heat generated, the laser-interrelated surface of the solid material vaporizes. The photon energy from the laser beam ionizes the vapor gas, resulting in the development of a plasma. The created plasma plume contains atoms, high-energy particles, ions, electrons, and molecules, respectively. Because of the high irradiance at the site on the metallic sample's surface, the created plasma bubble has unique properties such as high temperature and pressure. The laser-stimulated plasma bubble quickly develops to its extreme size before cooling and fracturing due to the huge pressure difference between the bubble cavity and the liquid. The energetic particles within the plasma network with the molecules of the liquid form as a consequence of the plume's unique features, resulting in the production of nanomaterials made up of atoms from the solid sample and the neighboring solution. The physical appearance of the mixture after laser ablation, especially a change in color, indicates a successful composition between SrTiO.sub.3 and CdSe. The resultant mixture doesn't need any post-synthesis purification because there are no intermediary chemicals or catalysts used in the PLAL process and yielding a highly pure nanocomposite material.
(106) To further understand the HER mechanism process, the Tafel slopes of the electrocatalysts were assessed from the recorded LSV curves using the Tafel equation: =a+blog(j), where a is the Tafel constant, b is the Tafel slope, j is the current density, and is the overpotential. SrTiO.sub.3, CdSe, and SrTiO.sub.3/CdSe-3 electrocatalysts had Tafel slopes (
(107) Numerous modifications and variations of the present disclosure are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein.