BIOMARKERS

Abstract

The present invention relates to a method for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, or for providing a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject or for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the risk of a subject of having or developing at least one disease; and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject. This invention also relates to a device for determining the presence and/or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers; a set of probes for determining the presence or amount of a set of biomarkers, and the use of such device and/or probes in any of the above methods. Also provided is a biomarker testing kit for use in a method as described herein and a computer-readable storage medium or a computer program comprising computer-executable instructions and associated method.

Claims

1. A method for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, for providing a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the severity of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the risk of a subject developing at least one disease; and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject wherein the method comprises a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises i) at least 7 biomarkers selected from Table 1: Or TABLE-US-00038 TABLE 1 Acrosomal protein SP-10 Glial fibrillary acidic protein Agouti-related protein Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Prostate-specific antigen Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain Kallikrein-7 C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 Tumor necrosis factor receptor Latent-transforming growth factor superfamily member 27 beta-binding protein 2 Elastin Neurofilament light polypeptide Endoglin Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Follitropin subunit beta Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Growth/differentiation factor 15 Scavenger receptor class F member 2 ii) at least 50 biomarkers selected from Table 2: TABLE-US-00039 TABLE 2 Acrosomal protein SP-10 PDZ domain-containing protein GIPC2 Actin, aortic smooth muscle Pancreatic secretory granule membrane major glycoprotein GP2 Adenosine deaminase Granzyme B A disintegrin and metalloproteinase Hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 with thrombospondin motifs 13 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase Hemicentin-2 with thrombospondin motifs 15 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase Corticosteroid 11-beta-dehydrogenase with thrombospondin motifs 16 isozyme 1 ADAMTS-like protein 5 Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 Adhesion G-protein coupled receptor Interleukin-17D G1 Alpha-fetoprotein Interleukin-5 receptor subunit alpha Advanced glycosylation end product- Interleukin-7 receptor subunit alpha specific receptor Agouti-related protein Insulin-like 3 Protein AHNAK2 Integrin alpha-V Angiopoietin-2 Integrin beta-5 BAG family molecular chaperone Integrin beta-like protein 1 regulator 3 Brevican core protein Kinesin-like protein KIF22 Osteocalcin Mast/stem cell growth factor receptor Kit Brother of CDO Kallikrein-14 Basigin Prostate-specific antigen Protein C19orf12 Kallikrein-4 Complement C1q-like protein 2 Kallikrein-7 Carbonic anhydrase 14 Kallikrein-8 Carbonic anhydrase 4 Killer cell lectin-like receptor subfamily F member 1 Calbindin Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 Coiled-coil domain-containing protein Extracellular glycoprotein lacritin 80 C-C motif chemokine 28 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 CCN family member 5 Protein LEG1 homolog T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1c Lutropin subunit beta Endosialin Leiomodin-1 T-cell surface glycoprotein CD8 alpha Lactoperoxidase chain Complement component C1q receptor Latent-transforming growth factor beta- binding protein 2 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein 3 Cadherin-2 Apical endosomal glycoprotein Cadherin-3 Matrilin-3 Cadherin-related family member 2 Meprin A subunit beta Cell adhesion molecule-related/down- Matrix extracellular regulated by oncogenes phosphoglycoprotein Cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass G-type Tyrosine-protein kinase Mer receptor 2 Complement factor H-related protein 5 Lactadherin Secretogranin-1 Promotilin Chitotriosidase-1 Macrophage metalloelastase Chordin-like protein 1 Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein Chordin-like protein 2 Matrix remodeling-associated protein 8 Cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 Neurocan core protein C-type lectin domain family 14 member Neurofilament light polypeptide A Contactin-5 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase 3 Collagen alpha-1(XV) chain Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 3 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain N-acetylneuraminate lyase Collagen alpha-1(IX) chain Neuronal pentraxin-2 Complement receptor type 2 Neurotrophin-3 Corticoliberin Neurotrophin-4 Cartilage acidic protein 1 N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide Beta-crystallin B2 Odontogenic ameloblast-associated protein Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 5 Glycodelin Cystatin-SN Inactive serine protease PAMR1 Cystatin-D phospholipase A2 inhibitor and Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein Collagen triple helix repeat-containing Polycystin-1 protein 1 Cathepsin F Tissue-type plasminogen activator Cathepsin L2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Coxsackievirus and adenovirus Pro-opiomelanocortin receptor Stromal cell-derived factor 1 Prolargin C-X-C motif chemokine 14 Prolactin C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Prion-like protein doppel C-X-C motif chemokine 9 Prokineticin-1 NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase 2 Persephin Cytokine-like protein 1 Prostaglandin-H2 D-isomerase Discoidin, CUB and LCCL domain- Pleiotrophin containing protein 2 Decorin Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase mu Divergent protein kinase domain 2B Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase N2 Dickkopf-related protein 3 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Dickkopf-like protein 1 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase zeta Protein delta homolog 1 Renin Dentin matrix acidic phosphoprotein 1 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Ret Dipeptidase 2 Repulsive guidance molecule A Dermatopontin RGM domain family member B Tumor necrosis factor receptor Prorelaxin H2 superfamily member 27 Epididymal secretory protein E3-beta Roundabout homolog 1 EGF-like repeat and discoidin I-like Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase domain-containing protein 3 subunit M2 EGF-containing fibulin-like extracellular Scavenger receptor class F member 2 matrix protein 1 EF-hand domain-containing protein D1 Secretogranin-2 Epidermal growth factor receptor Secretogranin-3 Elastin Uteroglobin Protein enabled homolog Protein sidekick-2 Endoglin Neuronal-specific septin-3 Beta-enolase Superoxide dismutase [Mn], mitochondrial Ectonucleotide VPS10 domain-containing receptor pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase SorCS2 family member 2 Ectonucleotide Sclerostin pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 5 Receptor tyrosine-protein kinase erbB- Serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 4 Fatty acid-binding protein, adipocyte Spondin-2 Protein FAM3B Small proline-rich protein 3 Prolyl endopeptidase FAP Sushi repeat-containing protein SRPX Tumor necrosis factor receptor Sushi domain-containing protein 2 superfamily member 6 Tumor necrosis factor ligand Sushi domain-containing protein 5 superfamily member 6 Fibulin-2 Trefoil factor 1 Fc receptor-like protein 2 Thrombospondin-2 Fibroblast growth factor 5 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 11B Follitropin subunit beta Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 13B Follistatin-related protein 1 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 13 Growth arrest-specific protein 6 Tenascin-X Growth/differentiation factor 15 Tetraspanin-1 Glial fibrillary acidic protein WAP four-disulfide core domain protein 2 GDNF family receptor alpha-like Wnt inhibitory factor 1 Appetite-regulating hormone Protein Wnt-9a Gastric inhibitory polypeptide Lymphotactin

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from Table 1 or at least 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from Table 2.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is a human.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the biological sample is a blood-based sample, optionally plasma or serum.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises b) measuring, in a further biological sample obtained from the subject at a different time point from step a), the presence or amount of each biomarker in the set of biomarkers; c) determining the difference in the presence or amount of each biomarker in the set of biomarkers between the measurements of step a) and step b); and optionally d) comparing the measurement of step a), or the determined difference of step c) with a reference measurement obtained from a subject of a known chronological age to determine, predict or estimate a biological age of the subject.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein the method further comprises; e) determining the relationship between chronological age and the biological age of the subject to determine or estimate a value of accelerated or decelerated aging of the subject, optionally wherein the method further comprises; f) using the value of accelerated or decelerated aging of the subject to predict: i) the presence or absence of at least one disease in the subject; ii) the severity of at least one disease in a subject iii) the risk of the subject developing at least one disease; and/or iv) the risk of mortality of the subject.

7. The method of claim 5, wherein a greater chronological age than biological age in the subject indicates decelerated aging of the subject or wherein a greater biological age than chronological age in the subject indicates accelerated aging of the subject.

8. The method of claim 5, wherein the method further comprises: g) comparing the measurement of step a), or the determined difference of step c) with reference measurements from a subject with a known disease, known risk of disease, or known risk or mortality to predict; i) the presence or absence of at least one disease in the subject; ii) the severity of at least one disease in a subject; iii) the risk of the subject developing at least one disease; and/or iv) the risk of mortality of the subject.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one disease is an age-related disease, optionally wherein the at least one disease is selected from chronic liver disease, type II diabetes, Parkinson's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, macular degeneration, ischemic heart disease, stroke, osteoporosis, ischemic stroke, emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic kidney diseases, all-cause dementia, Alzheimer's disease, oesophageal cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma or combinations thereof.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein mortality is selected from all-cause mortality; age-related mortality; or mortality related to; chronic liver disease, type II diabetes, Parkinson's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, macular degeneration, ischemic heart disease, stroke, osteoporosis, ischemic stroke, emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic kidney diseases, all-cause dementia, Alzheimer's disease, oesophageal cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma or combinations thereof.

11. The method of claim 1, wherein one or more of the biomarkers are proteins, or fragments of proteins.

12. A set of probes for determining the presence or amount of a set of biomarkers, wherein each probe in the set of probes specifically recognises at least one biomarker in the set of biomarkers; and wherein the set of biomarkers comprises i) at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from Table 1: TABLE-US-00040 TABLE 1 Acrosomal protein SP-10 Glial fibrillary acidic protein Agouti-related protein Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Prostate-specific antigen Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain Kallikrein-7 C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 Tumor necrosis factor receptor Latent-transforming growth factor superfamily member 27 beta-binding protein 2 Elastin Neurofilament light polypeptide Endoglin Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Follitropin subunit beta Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Growth/differentiation factor 15 Scavenger receptor class F member 2 or ii) at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from Table 2: TABLE-US-00041 TABLE 2 Acrosomal protein SP-10 PDZ domain-containing protein GIPC2 Actin, aortic smooth muscle Pancreatic secretory granule membrane major glycoprotein GP2 Adenosine deaminase Granzyme B A disintegrin and metalloproteinase Hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 with thrombospondin motifs 13 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase Hemicentin-2 with thrombospondin motifs 15 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase Corticosteroid 11-beta-dehydrogenase with thrombospondin motifs 16 isozyme 1 ADAMTS-like protein 5 Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 Adhesion G-protein coupled receptor Interleukin-17D G1 Alpha-fetoprotein Interleukin-5 receptor subunit alpha Advanced glycosylation end product- Interleukin-7 receptor subunit alpha specific receptor Agouti-related protein Insulin-like 3 Protein AHNAK2 Integrin alpha-V Angiopoietin-2 Integrin beta-5 BAG family molecular chaperone Integrin beta-like protein 1 regulator 3 Brevican core protein Kinesin-like protein KIF22 Osteocalcin Mast/stem cell growth factor receptor Kit Brother of CDO Kallikrein-14 Basigin Prostate-specific antigen Protein C19orf12 Kallikrein-4 Complement C1q-like protein 2 Kallikrein-7 Carbonic anhydrase 14 Kallikrein-8 Carbonic anhydrase 4 Killer cell lectin-like receptor subfamily F member 1 Calbindin Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 Coiled-coil domain-containing protein Extracellular glycoprotein lacritin 80 C-C motif chemokine 28 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 CCN family member 5 Protein LEG1 homolog T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1c Lutropin subunit beta Endosialin Leiomodin-1 T-cell surface glycoprotein CD8 alpha Lactoperoxidase chain Complement component C1q receptor Latent-transforming growth factor beta- binding protein 2 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein 3 Cadherin-2 Apical endosomal glycoprotein Cadherin-3 Matrilin-3 Cadherin-related family member 2 Meprin A subunit beta Cell adhesion molecule-related/down- Matrix extracellular regulated by oncogenes phosphoglycoprotein Cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass G-type Tyrosine-protein kinase Mer receptor 2 Complement factor H-related protein 5 Lactadherin Secretogranin-1 Promotilin Chitotriosidase-1 Macrophage metalloelastase Chordin-like protein 1 Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein Chordin-like protein 2 Matrix remodeling-associated protein 8 Cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 Neurocan core protein C-type lectin domain family 14 member Neurofilament light polypeptide A Contactin-5 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase 3 Collagen alpha-1(XV) chain Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 3 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain N-acetylneuraminate lyase Collagen alpha-1(IX) chain Neuronal pentraxin-2 Complement receptor type 2 Neurotrophin-3 Corticoliberin Neurotrophin-4 Cartilage acidic protein 1 N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide Beta-crystallin B2 Odontogenic ameloblast-associated protein Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 5 Glycodelin Cystatin-SN Inactive serine protease PAMR1 Cystatin-D phospholipase A2 inhibitor and Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein Collagen triple helix repeat-containing Polycystin-1 protein 1 Cathepsin F Tissue-type plasminogen activator Cathepsin L2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Coxsackievirus and adenovirus Pro-opiomelanocortin receptor Stromal cell-derived factor 1 Prolargin C-X-C motif chemokine 14 Prolactin C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Prion-like protein doppel C-X-C motif chemokine 9 Prokineticin-1 NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase 2 Persephin Cytokine-like protein 1 Prostaglandin-H2 D-isomerase Discoidin, CUB and LCCL domain- Pleiotrophin containing protein 2 Decorin Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase mu Divergent protein kinase domain 2B Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase N2 Dickkopf-related protein 3 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Dickkopf-like protein 1 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase zeta Protein delta homolog 1 Renin Dentin matrix acidic phosphoprotein 1 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Ret Dipeptidase 2 Repulsive guidance molecule A Dermatopontin RGM domain family member B Tumor necrosis factor receptor Prorelaxin H2 superfamily member 27 Epididymal secretory protein E3-beta Roundabout homolog 1 EGF-like repeat and discoidin I-like Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase domain-containing protein 3 subunit M2 EGF-containing fibulin-like extracellular Scavenger receptor class F member 2 matrix protein 1 EF-hand domain-containing protein D1 Secretogranin-2 Epidermal growth factor receptor Secretogranin-3 Elastin Uteroglobin Protein enabled homolog Protein sidekick-2 Endoglin Neuronal-specific septin-3 Beta-enolase Superoxide dismutase [Mn], mitochondrial Ectonucleotide VPS10 domain-containing receptor pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase SorCS2 family member 2 Ectonucleotide Sclerostin pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 5 Receptor tyrosine-protein kinase erbB- Serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 4 Fatty acid-binding protein, adipocyte Spondin-2 Protein FAM3B Small proline-rich protein 3 Prolyl endopeptidase FAP Sushi repeat-containing protein SRPX Tumor necrosis factor receptor Sushi domain-containing protein 2 superfamily member 6 Tumor necrosis factor ligand Sushi domain-containing protein 5 superfamily member 6 Fibulin-2 Trefoil factor 1 Fc receptor-like protein 2 Thrombospondin-2 Fibroblast growth factor 5 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 11B Follitropin subunit beta Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 13B Follistatin-related protein 1 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 13 Growth arrest-specific protein 6 Tenascin-X Growth/differentiation factor 15 Tetraspanin-1 Glial fibrillary acidic protein WAP four-disulfide core domain protein 2 GDNF family receptor alpha-like Wnt inhibitory factor 1 Appetite-regulating hormone Protein Wnt-9a Gastric inhibitory polypeptide Lymphotactin

13. The set of probes of claim 12, wherein each probe in the set is independently selected from the group consisting of an antibody, antibody fragment, oligonucleotide, protein, biotin-binding protein, enzyme, and fluorophore, or a combination thereof.

14. The set of probes of claim 12, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9 or 10 biomarkers selected from Table 3: TABLE-US-00042 TABLE 3 Tumor necrosis factor receptor Elastin superfamily member 27 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 Growth/differentiation factor 15 Follitropin subunit beta Neurofilament light polypeptide Latent-transforming growth factor beta- binding protein 2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Prostate-specific antigen.

15. A device for determining the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers; wherein the device comprises a set of probes according to claim 12, preferably wherein each probe is independently selected from the group consisting of an antibody, antibody fragment, oligonucleotide, protein, biotin-binding protein, enzyme, and fluorophore, or a combination thereof.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0084] FIG. 1. Overview of the study design and analytic approaches. a) UK Biobank (UKB) participants were both split into 70/30 training/test sets. Training the proteomic age clock model was conducted in the UKB training data and performance of the model was tested in the test set. b) Independent data from the China Kadoorie Biobank (CKB) and FinnGen were used for further independent validation of the proteomic age clock model. c) Protein predicted age (ProtAge) was calculated in the full UKB sample using 5-fold cross-validation, with proteomic age acceleration (ProtAgeAccel) calculated as the difference between ProtAge and chronological age. ProtAgeAccel was tested in relation to a comprehensive panel of biological aging markers and measure of frailty and physical/cognitive decline, as well as mortality, 14 common diseases, and 12 common cancers. Most association analyses were carried out in the UKB only, due to smaller sample in the CKB and lack of disease cases in FinnGen.

[0085] FIG. 2. Baseline characteristics and proteomic aging clock performance across cohorts. a) Density plot of age at recruitment in the UK Biobank (UKB), China Kadoorie Biobank (CKB), and FinnGen. b) Density plot of age at death in the UKB (10.6%) and CKB (9%)FinnGen only had 1.1% mortality. c) Counts of prevalent and incident cases of all common diseases studied in the UKB sample (n=45,441). d) Performance of the trained proteomic aging model in the UKB holdout test set (n=13,633). e) Performance of the trained proteomic aging model in the CKB (n=3,977). f) Performance of the trained proteomic aging model in FinnGen (n=1,990). g) Sex specific distributions of ProtAgeAccel in the UKB, CKB, and FinnGen. h) Distributions of ProtAgeAccel according to self-reported ethnicity in the UKB. i) Distributions of ProtAgeAccel according to geographic region of residence in the CKB. Correlation coefficients shown in d-f are Pearson correlation coefficients. Violin plots in g-i show both the median (white dot) and interquartile range. COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, ProtAge: protein predicted age, ProtAgeAccel: proteomic age acceleration (in years).

[0086] FIG. 3. ProtAgeAccel is associated with age-related biological, physical, and cognitive status. a) Associations between ProtAgeAccel and biological aging mechanisms in the full UKB sample (n=45,441). b) Associations between ProtAgeAccel and measures of physiological and cognitive (reaction time, fluid intelligence) status in the full UKB sample (n=45,441). c) Associations between ProtAgeAccel and biological aging mechanisms in the subsample of UKB participants with no lifetime diagnosis of any of the 26 diseases studied (n=20,353). d) Associations between ProtAgeAccel and measures of physiological and cognitive status in the subsample of UKB participants with no lifetime diagnosis of any of the 26 diseases studied (n=20,353). All models used linear or logistic regression and were adjusted for age, sex, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, ethnicity, IPAQ activity group, and smoking status. Estimates in dark circles are from the full 204-protein model, whereas estimates in light diamonds are from the smaller proteomic age clock model with 20 proteins (ProtAgeAccel20). ALT: alanine aminotransferase, AST: aspartate aminotransferase, BMI: body mass index, FEV1: forced expiratory volume in 1 second, GGT: Gamma-glutamyl Transferase, IGF-1: insulin-like growth factor 1, ProtAgeAccel: proteomic age acceleration (in years).

[0087] FIG. 4. ProtAgeAccel predicts age-specific mortality and disease risk trajectories in the UKB and CKB. Cumulative incidence plots for the top, median, and bottom deciles of ProtAgeAccel in a) UK Biobank (UKB; total random participants n=45,441) and b) China Kadoorie Biobank (CKB; n=3,977). Number of incident cases are shown for each diseasethese numbers reflect the total number of incident cases present only among those in the 3 deciles shown, not the full dataset. Incidence rates are shown for the subsequent 11-16 years (UKB) or 11-14 years (CKB) of follow-up after recruitment for each given age at recruitment (e.g., the cumulative incidence rate shown at age 65 in a) is the rate of incident cases in the 11-16 years of follow up for those aged 65 at recruitment). All plots show 95% confidence intervals in lighter shading. Diseases shown here for the CKB are those with greater than 50 cases across the three deciles of ProtAgeAccel. ProtAgeAccel: proteomic age acceleration (in years).

[0088] FIG. 5. Effect size of ProtAgeAccel on mortality and common diseases are largely invariant to covariate adjustment. Associations between ProtAgeAccel and mortality or diseases in Cox proportional hazards models with increasing levels of covariate adjustment. All models were run in the UK Biobank (UKB; n=45,441). a). Model 1 is adjusted for age and sex. b) Model 2 is adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, IPAQ activity group, and smoking status. c) Model 3 is adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, IPAQ activity group, smoking status, BMI, and prevalent hypertension. Estimates in dark circles are from the full 204-protein model, whereas estimates in light diamonds are from the smaller proteomic age clock model with 20 proteins (ProtAgeAccel20). ProtAgeAccel: proteomic age acceleration (in years).

[0089] FIG. 6. Stability of ProtAge protein associations with age across 3 time points. Comparison of betas for the association between age and each of the 149 ProtAge APs with repeat measurements available during baseline and two follow up imaging visits (n=1,085). a) Comparison of betas for the association between age and each of the 149 ProtAge APs during baseline and the 2014+ follow up imaging visit. b) Comparison of betas for the association between each of these 149 ProtAge APs and age during baseline and the 2019+ imaging visit. c) Comparison of betas for the association between each of the 149 ProtAge APs and age during the 2014+ imaging visit and during the 2019+ imaging visit. Shown in each plot are the Pearson correlation coefficient (r), p-value for the correlation, and the model slope (A). APs: aging-related proteins.

[0090] FIG. 7. Associations between ProtAgeAccel and 12 common cancers in the UKB. Associations between ProtAgeAccel and incident cancer diagnosis in Cox proportional hazards models with increasing levels of covariate adjustment. All models were run in the UK Biobank (UKB; n=45,441). a). Model 1 is adjusted for age and sex. b) Model 2 is adjusted for age, sex, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, IPAQ activity group, and smoking status. c) Model 3 is adjusted for age, sex, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, IPAQ activity group, smoking status, BMI, and prevalent hypertension. ProtAgeAccel: proteomic age acceleration (in years).

[0091] FIG. 8. Effect size of ProtAgeAccel on mortality and disease among non-smokers and those within normal weight range. Associations between ProtAgeAccel and mortality or diseases among UK Biobank participants who report being never smokers (n=24,528) (a) and with a BMI18.5 and <25 kg/m2 (n=14,555) (b). All models are Cox proportional hazards models using model 2 (adjusted for age, sex, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, and IPAQ activity group). ProtAgeAccel: proteomic age acceleration (in years).

[0092] FIG. 9. ProtAgeAccel increases linearly with increasing disease multimorbidity. a) Average years of ProtAgeAccel in those with 1 disease diagnosis or 2, 3, 4+ comorbid conditions compared with average ProtAgeAccel in those with no diagnoses among UK Biobank (UKB) participants 40-50 years old at recruitment. b) Average years of ProtAgeAccel in UKB participants with 1 disease diagnosis or 2, 3, 4+ comorbid conditions compared with average ProtAgeAccel in those with no diagnoses aged 51-65 years old at recruitment. c) Percentages of the UKB population with 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4+ lifetime disease diagnoses. d) Average years of ProtAgeAccel according to levels of self-rated health in the UKB. In a) and b), values on the y-axis represent the average years of ProtAgeAccel for each group compared with the average in those with no diagnoses (calculated as the difference in average ProtAgeAccel between the two groups). Multimorbidity is defined as the number of lifetime diagnoses of any of the 26 diseases analyzed in this study. In a, b, and d, error bars are shown as the standard error of the mean. ProtAgeAccel: proteomic age acceleration (in years).

[0093] FIG. 10. PPI network of ProtAge APs from the STRING database. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of a highly interconnected subset of APs in the ProtAge model with at least 2 node connections using experimental PPI information from the STRING database. Proteins are sized and colored by number of connections, with those showing a greater number of connections with other proteins displayed larger and lighter color.

[0094] FIG. 11. PPI network of ProtAge APs using SHAP values. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network using SHAP values from the trained model. Proteins shown are only those that are highly interconnected using a cutoff of 0.0083 for absolute SHAP interaction values. Proteins are sized and colored by number of connections, with those showing a greater number of connections with other proteins displayed larger and lighter color.

[0095] FIG. 12. Model benchmarking for estimation of proteomic age in the UK Biobank and China Kadoorie Biobank. Scatterplots comparing actual chronological age (x-axis) versus protein predicted age (protAge; y-axis) in a) the UK Biobank test set (n=13,633); b) China Kadoorie Biobank (n=3,977); and c) FinnGen (n=1,990). Models compared included two penalized linear regression models (LASSO, elastic net), one gradient boosting machine learning model (LightGBM), and three neural network architectures (ResNet, MLP, TabR). LASSO: least absolute shrinkage and selection operator; MAE: mean absolute error; MLP: multilayer perceptron; RMSE: root mean square error.

[0096] FIG. 13. Performance of proteomic age clocks with decreasing numbers of proteins in the UKB. Plots shown are the comparison of actual chronological age versus protein predicted age from three LightGBM models using: a) all 2,987 proteins considered, b) 204 proteins identified in the Boruta feature selection process, c) 20 proteins identified through further recursive feature elimination analysis using SHAP values. d) Models were tested iteratively using 5-fold cross-validation starting from 204 proteins down to 5 proteins. At each step, the protein with the smallest absolute mean SHAP values across the folds was discarded. For each model, the R.sup.2 of explained variance in chronological age is presented as the average R.sup.2 across all 5 folds. Correlation coefficients (r) shown are from a Pearson correlation test. MAE: mean absolute error; ProtAge: protein predicted age; RMSE: root mean square error.

[0097] FIG. 14. Proteomic age model performance across age bins in the UKB test set. The performance of the 2,897-protein model is shown in the full UKB test set (a), as well as in the subset of participants aged 40-50 years (b), 50-60 years (c), and 60-70 years (d). MAE: mean absolute error; RMSE: root mean square error; UKB: UK Biobank.

[0098] FIG. 15. Proteomic age estimation accuracy by sex in the UKB. Comparison of actual chronological age versus protein predicted age (ProtAge) for a model using: a) all participants; b) female participants only; c) male participants only; Model accuracy metrics comparing predicted versus actual age values are shown as Pearson r correlation coefficient, R.sup.2, root mean square error (RMSE), and mean absolute error (MAE). d) Comparison of protein predicted age (ProtAge) for the same female participants from the all participant model (y-axis) and model with only female participants (x-axis). e) Comparison of protein predicted age (ProtAge) for the same male participants from the all participant model (y-axis) and model with only male participants (x-axis). In both d and e, the Pearson r correlation coefficient, p-value for correlation and slope of the best fit line (A) are shown for comparison of the two predicted ages.

DEFINITIONS

[0099] Herein, a biomarker is a molecule that is associated either quantitatively or qualitatively with a biological change. A biomarker may be a compound that is differentially present (i.e., increased or decreased) in a biological sample from a subject or a group of subjects having a first phenotype (e.g., having a biological age, or disease or condition) as compared to a biological sample from a subject or group of subjects having a second phenotype (e.g., not having the said biological age, disease or condition or having a less severe version of the disease or condition).

[0100] A protein (used interchangeably with the terms polypeptide, and peptide) is a polymer of at least two amino acids covalently linked by an amide bond. A protein may be any suitable length, and may comprise post-translational modification, for example glycosylation, phosphorylation, lipidation, myristilation, ubiquitination, etc. A protein may comprise D- and L-amino acids, and mixtures of D- and L-amino acids.

[0101] As used herein, omics refers to any of several areas of biological study defined by the investigation of the entire complement of a specific type of biomolecule or the totality of a molecular process within an organism. In biology the word omics refers to the sum of constituents within a cell. The omics sciences share the overarching aim of identifying, describing, and quantifying the biomolecules and molecular processes that contribute to the form and function of cells and tissues.

[0102] Therefore, by the term ome or omic or omic data refers to data generated from the study of one or more of the omes of an organism, for example the genome (all the genetic material), proteome (all the protein and peptide material), transcriptome (all of the RNA molecules), metabolome (all of the small molecules), interactome (all of the interactions, for example protein-protein, nucleic acid-protein), epigenome (all of the alterations other than the DNA sequence that may change gene activity such as changes in DNA methylation [CpG methylation], chromatin accessibility, histone modifications, among others), microbiome (collection of all the microorganisms and viruses that live in a given environment, including the human body or part of the body, such as the digestive system) etc.

[0103] As used herein, the term proteomic refers to the large-scale study of proteins or proteome. A proteome is the entire complement of proteins produced in an organism, system, or biological context. A proteome may refer to the proteome of a species (for example, Homo sapiens) or an organ (for example, the liver) or any biological sample (for example, a blood-based sample), for example as defined herein. The proteome is not constant; it differs from cell to cell and changes over time. To some degree, the proteome reflects the underlying genome and transcriptome. However, protein activity (often assessed by the reaction rate of the processes in which the protein is involved) is also modulated by many factors in addition to the expression level of the relevant gene. Herein the proteome refers to the entire set of proteins of a biological sample.

[0104] The terms polynucleotide, oligonucleotide, nucleic acid and nucleic acid molecule are used herein to refer to a polymeric form of a nucleotide of any length, either ribonucleotides or deoxyribonucleotides. This term refers only to the primary structure of the molecule. There is no intended distinction in length between the terms polynucleotide, oligonucleotide, nucleic acid and nucleic acid molecule, and these terms are used interchangeably.

[0105] A genome is the entire complement of genetic material of an organism, system, or biological context. A genome may include coding and non-coding sequences. A genome refers to all DNA sequences. Where the term genome is used to refer to DNA sequences, the term transcriptome may be used to refer to the RNA material of the organism, system, or biological context. A genome, epigenome, or transcriptome may refer to that of a species (for example, Homo sapiens) or an organ (for example, the liver), or any biological sample (e.g. a blood-based sample), for example as defined herein. The genome is constant; however the epigenome and transcriptome may differ from cell to cell and change over time.

[0106] A fragment refers to a part of a whole biological molecule, for example a protein, nucleic acid, or antibody. A fragment may comprise at least 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 98%, and 99% of the full-length molecule.

[0107] A biological sample refers to any type of biological material derived from a living organism. A blood-based sample refers to any type of biological material derived from the blood of a living organism.

[0108] A reference as used herein is an item which is used for comparison purposes. For example, a reference may be a value of chronological age or may be a biomarker level, amount, concentration, or profile which is used for comparison purposes against the measure obtained in a method of the invention. A reference may be from the same or a different subject to which the invention is applied. A reference may be a predetermined threshold value.

[0109] As used herein, the terms biological age, physiological age and proteomic age are used synonymously. As used herein, biological age, physiological age and proteomic age refer to an estimation of age using omics data or biomarker data to capture the level of biological functioning of an individual in association with an expected level of functioning for a given chronological age.

[0110] As used herein in-vitro refers to methods that are performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological materials outside their normal biological context. Typically, these methods are performed in labware such as test tubes, flasks, Petri dishes, and microtiter plates. Sometimes in-vitro methods use components of an organism that have been isolated from their usual biological surroundings to permit a more detailed or more convenient analysis than can be done with whole organisms. Herein, in vitro refers to a method which is performed on a sample which has been obtained from a subject.

[0111] As used herein ex-vivo refers to experimentation or measurements done in or on tissue from an organism in an external environment with minimal alteration of natural conditions. For example, the measurements can be performed on an isolated tissue or organ from the subject such as the blood, liver, heart, spleen, muscle, tumour sample, blood vessel or combinations thereof.

[0112] As used herein prediction refers to a method of assigning a probability or likelihood for when or where an event is likely to occur based upon specific data sources.

[0113] As used herein estimation refers to a value that is usable for some purpose even if input data may be incomplete, uncertain, or unstable. The value is nonetheless usable because it is derived from the best information available. Typically, estimation involves using the value of a statistic derived from a sample to estimate the value of a corresponding population parameter. The sample provides information that can be projected, through various formal or informal processes, to determine a range most likely to describe the missing information.

[0114] A biological age clock refers to an estimate of biological age. It represents any biological system or biomarker that changes during age. Measuring the amount of variation in those biological systems or biomarkers can allow the determination of how far an organism has drifted from youthful function or how close they are to morbidity and mortality. Biological age clocks specifically aim to determine a biological age of a subject.

[0115] Chronological age refers to the number of days, weeks, months and/or years that have elapsed since a subject's birth.

[0116] As used herein disease refers to any disorder of structure or function in a human, animal, or plant.

[0117] As used herein mortality refers to the action or fact of dying and/or the cessation of life of an organism.

[0118] As used here predetermined threshold value refers to the level or amount of at least one of the plurality of biomarkers above or below. The predetermined threshold values indicates a point at which the subject likely has a particular biological age, a particular risk of having or developing at least one disease; and/or a particular risk of mortality.

[0119] As used herein, a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject is any quantitative value or any qualitative value. Said values can be further processed to usefully aid the user of the invention in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject.

[0120] As used herein the term risk of mortality refers to a value determined by calculating a relationship between the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers in a reference measurement from a subject having a known risk of mortality/death and the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers in subjects with an unknown risk of mortality. Alternatively the term risk of mortality refers to a value determined by correlation of the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers in a reference measurement from a subject having a known Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE I to IV) (Zimmerman et al. 2006) and/or Pediatric Risk of Mortality (PRISM) (Pollack et al. 2015) score against the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers in subjects with an unknown risk of mortality. The risk of mortality can be any of the risk of mortalities disclosed herein. Risk of mortality can also refer to the probability or likelihood of the subject dying in a given period of time. In some embodiments, the invention measures the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins.

[0121] As used herein, the term disease risk refers to the probability or likelihood of the subject developing a disease, or a particular severity of a disease, in a given period of time. In some embodiments, mortality or disease risk can be determined by analyzing the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers. In some embodiments, mortality or disease risk can be determined by using the age gap or accelerated/decelerated aging value. The presence or absence of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers or particular amounts of the biomarkers of the set of biomarkers of the disclosure as described herein can be characteristic of mortality or disease risk. Risk can encompass both increased or decreased risk. The disease can be any of the diseases disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the invention measures the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins.

[0122] As used herein, risk of developing a disease can refer to a likelihood of a subject towards the development of a disease, or towards being less able to resist a particular disease than one or more reference subjects. Risk of developing a disease also refers to the future risk of a subject developing at least one disease within a defined time period in the future. In some embodiments the defined time period is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, or 60 years. The future risk may be relative to a reference subject having the same chronological age (measured in years) as the subject in question. For example, an increased risk of developing a disease can be indicative of an increased likelihood of developing at least one disease compared to a similarly aged reference subject and a decrease risk of disease can be indicative of a decreased likelihood of developing at least one disease compared to a similarly aged reference subject. Risk of disease can encompass increased risk of disease. For example, the presence or absence of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers or particular amounts of the biomarkers of the set of biomarkers of the disclosure as described herein can be characteristic of increased risk of development of a disease. Risk of disease can encompass decreased risk of disease. For example, the presence or absence of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers or particular amounts of the proteins of the set of proteins of the disclosure as described herein can be characteristic of decreased risk of development of a disease. The disease can be any of the diseases disclosed herein.

[0123] As used herein, a severity of disease refers to the extent of organ system derangement or physiologic decompensation for a subject. A severity of disease in a subject may be minor, moderate, major, or extreme severity. In certain embodiments, severity may be defined by a known clinical, biological, or medical disease severity rating system. Such rating systems are known in the art.

[0124] As used herein, positive age gap or accelerated aging is indicated when the biological age of a subject is greater than the chronological age of a subject. Positive age gap and accelerated aging are used synonymously.

[0125] As used herein, negative age gap or decelerated aging is indicated when the biological age of a subject is less than the chronological age of a subject. Negative age gap and decelerated aging are used synonymously.

[0126] Difference as determined in step (e), age gap or accelerated/decelerated aging can be determined by subtracting the chronological age from the biological age of a subject. Alternatively, age gap or accelerated/decelerated aging can be estimated by determining the relationship between the biological and chronological age of the subject through regression or other statistical methods and extracting information from this model to estimate an age gap or measure of accelerated/decelerated aging. Information extracted can be residuals or other metrics resulting from the statistical method used. These techniques are well known in the art (Rutledge et al. 2022).

[0127] As used herein, the term probe is used synonymously with molecular probe and refers to a group of atoms or molecules used in molecular biology or chemistry to study the properties of other molecules or structures. If some measurable property of the molecular probe used changes when it interacts with the analyte (such as a change in absorbance), the interactions between the probe and the analyte can be studied. Antibodies can be probes. Radioactive isotopes, enzymes and fluorescent dyes are different types of chemical tags that can been used to make probes detectable.

[0128] An antibody is used in reference to any immunoglobulin molecule that reacts with a specific antigen. An immunoglobulin can derive from any of the commonly known isotypes, including but not limited to IgA, secretory IgA, IgG and IgM. IgG subclasses are also well known to those in the art and include but are not limited to human IgGI, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4. Isotype refers to the antibody class or subclass (e.g., IgM or IgGI) that is encoded by the heavy chain constant region genes.

[0129] The phrase specifically binds to and recognises or specifically recognises with reference to binding of a probe to a biomarker (for example an antibody to an antigen such as a protein in a set of proteins) refers to a binding reaction that is determinative of the presence of the antigen in a heterogeneous population of proteins and other biologies. Thus, under designated immunoassay conditions, the specified antibodies bind to a particular antigen at least two times over the background and do not substantially bind in a significant amount to other antigens present in the sample. Specific binding to an antigen under such conditions may require an antibody that is selected for its specificity for a particular antigen. For example, antibodies raised to an antigen from specific species such as rat, mouse, or human can be selected to obtain only those antibodies that are specifically immunoreactive with the antigen and not with other proteins, except for polymorphic variants and alleles. This selection may be achieved by subtracting out antibodies that cross-react with molecules from other species. A variety of immunoassay formats may be used to select antibodies specifically immunoreactive with a particular antigen. For example, solid-phase ELISA immunoassays are routinely used to select antibodies specifically immunoreactive with a protein (see, e.g., Harlow & Lane. Antibodies, A Laboratory Manual (1988), for a description of immunoassay formats and conditions that can be used to determine specific immunoreactivity). Typically, a specific or selective reaction will be at least twice background signal or noise and more typically more than 10 to 100 times background.

[0130] A set of biomarkers is plurality of biomarkers, suitably two or more predetermined biomarkers. The set can include at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 of the biomarkers selected from Table 1; at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 of the biomarkers selected from Table 2; or at least 7, 8, 9 or 10 of the biomarkers selected from Table 3.

[0131] The present invention can measure the presence or absence of a biomarker in a sample, and/or the amount of a biomarker in a sample. As used herein, presence of a biomarker is defined by a measurement signal at or above the limit of detection of the detection method being used. As used herein, absence of a biomarker is defined by a measurement signal below the limit of detection of the detection method being used. As used herein, amount of a biomarker is defined as an absolute or relative concertation or expression level.

[0132] The terms determining, measuring, evaluating, assessing, assaying, and analyzing are used interchangeably herein to refer to any form of measurement, and include determining if an element is present or not. These terms include both quantitative and/or qualitative determinations. Assaying may be relative or absolute. For example, measuring can be determining whether the expression level is less than or greater than or equal to a particular threshold, (the threshold can be pre-determined or can be determined by measuring a control sample). On the other hand, measuring the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers can mean determining a quantitative value (using any convenient metric) that represents the level of expression (i.e., expression level, e.g., the amount of protein and/or RNA, e.g., mRNA) of a particular biomarker. The level of expression can be expressed in arbitrary units associated with a particular assay (e.g., fluorescence units, e.g., mean fluorescence intensity (MFI)), or can be expressed as an absolute value with defined units (e.g., number of mRNA transcripts, number of protein molecules, concentration of protein, etc.). Additionally, the level of expression of a biomarker can be compared to the expression level of one or more additional biomarkers (e.g., nucleic acids and/or their encoded proteins) to derive a relative or normalized value that represents a normalized expression level. The specific metric (or units) chosen is not crucial as long as the same units are used (or conversion to the same units is performed) when biological samples from the same individual (e.g., biological samples taken at different points in time from the same individual). This is because the units cancel when calculating a fold-change (i.e., determining a ratio) in the expression level from one biological sample to the next (e.g., biological samples taken at different points in time from the same individual).

[0133] The term model refers to any computational model that may be used to perform the analyses described herein. The model may be a trained or untrained model. Where the model is an untrained model, the predictive model compares the measured levels with a reference measurement obtained from a subject of a known chronological age.

[0134] The model may be a machine learning model. For example the model may be a LASSO or elastic net model, a neural network, a large language model, a gradient boosting model (e.g., LightGBM, XGBoost), a support vector machine model, or a tree-based model (e.g., random forest).

[0135] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. For example, the Concise Dictionary of Biomedicine and Molecular Biology, Juo, Pei-Show, 2nd ed., 2002, CRC Press; The Dictionary of Cell and Molecular Biology, 3rd ed., Academic Press; and the Oxford University Press, provide a person skilled in the art with a general dictionary of many of the terms used in this disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0136] The present invention is based upon the identification of a number of biomarkers that can be used to determine or estimate biological aging or disease status in a subject. This provides a biologically and medically useful measure of biological aging or disease status.

[0137] It has been further established by the inventors that a specific subset of the biomarkers can also be used to predict biological aging and/or disease status in a subject. Reducing the number of biomarkers allows for easier and more convenient measurements and therefore improves the usability of the panel.

[0138] Each set of biomarkers has also been validated across diverse populations and is predictive of aging and disease.

[0139] The inventors have developed a proteomic age clock in the UK Biobank (n=45,441). The inventors have shown that using proteomic data generated from the Olink Explore 3072 panel, they can predict a participant's biological age with very high accuracy using all 2,897 proteins on the panel (FIG. 13a), and even in much smaller sets of 204 proteins (FIG. 13b) or 20 proteins (FIG. 13c). The accuracy of these models remains similar when validated in diverse populations from China (n=4,000) and Finland (n=1,990), which indicates that this model generalizes well to other diverse populations (FIG. 2). To date, these models have been validated in participants ranging from 20-90 years of age. The 204-protein model and the 20-protein model are predictive of many chronic diseases and mortality (FIG. 5); as well as predictive of biochemical, functional, and subjective markers of aging (FIG. 3) that the inventors tested in the UK Biobank. The present inventors have surprisingly shown that a single panel of proteins can be used to predict a number of age-related diseases.

[0140] The present inventors have also surprisingly shown that the model is transferable between different ethnic and geographic populations. The present inventors surprisingly have shown that a model trained to estimate biological age from proteins in one population (i.e., predominantly white Europeans in the UK Biobank) performs well in other populations that are distinct from the training population in terms of genetic ancestry and geography (FIG. 2).

[0141] Further features of certain embodiments of the present invention are described below. The practice of embodiments of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of molecular biology, microbiology, recombinant DNA technology and immunology, which are within the skill of those working in the art.

[0142] Most general molecular biology, microbiology recombinant DNA technology and immunological techniques can be found in Sambrook et al, Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual (2001) Cold Harbor-Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. or Ausubel et al., Current protocols in molecular biology (1990) John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.

[0143] Before the present compositions, methods, and kits are described, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to particular methods or compositions described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present invention will be limited only by the appended claims.

[0144] The methods of the present invention comprises the step of measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers.

[0145] A method of the present invention may be practised on a biological sample of any suitable subject, where it is desirable to understand any difference between chronological and biological age in the subject, or where it is desirable to assess the presence, absence or likelihood of a disease in a subject or where it is desirable to assess a risk of mortality in a subject, for example as described herein. A subject may be an animal or a human. The subject may have one or more symptoms of a disease as recited herein. The subject may be suspected of having a disease recited herein. The subject may wish to know their risk of having or dying from a disease recited herein. The subject may wish to know their biological age in comparison to their chronological age. The subject may be a human adult. A human adult may be a human with a chronological age of at least 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, or 115 years, or any integer there between. The subject may be an animal and the method is used for veterinary health purposes. For example, the animal might be a dog, cat, horse, cow, pig, or rabbit. The subject may be an animal and the method may be developed or validated in a laboratory animal. For example, the laboratory animal might be a rodent including mice, rats and hamsters, a primate including chimpanzees, or another model organism used in the art.

[0146] Therefore, in a suitable embodiment, there is provided a method for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a human adult, or for providing a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0147] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 2.

[0148] There is also provided a method for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a human adult, predicting the risk of a subject of having or developing at least one disease; and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0149] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 2.

[0150] Suitably, the biomarkers are proteins and the invention measures the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins. Suitably, the subject is a human adult.

[0151] In some embodiments the biological sample is a blood-based sample. The sample can be whole blood which is a blood sample that has been collected with an anti-coagulant but is not processed further. The sample can be plasma which is whole blood that is collected in tubes that are treated with an anticoagulant. The blood does not clot in the plasma tube. The cells are pelleted by centrifugation. The supernatant, designated plasma, is removed from the cell pellet. The sample can be serum which is whole blood that is allowed to clot by leaving it undisturbed at room temperature. This takes around 15-30 minutes. The clot is removed by centrifugation. The resulting supernatant, designated serum, is removed from the cell pellet.

[0152] In some embodiments, the biological sample can be a cell sample such as a blood sample, a tissue sample, a urine sample, a saliva sample, a semen sample, a faeces or a stool sample, a bone marrow sample, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), a DNA or RNA sample, a hair sample, a skin sample, a nail sample, an organ, or combinations thereof. For example, a method of the invention can be performed on an isolated tissue or organ from the subject such as the liver, heart, spleen, muscle, tumour sample, blood vessel or combinations thereof. A method of the present invention may comprise processing a biological sample to provide a protein sample thereof.

[0153] A biological sample may be obtained from a subject in any suitable manner. A biological sample may be obtained from a subject by a medical practitioner, for example in a point of care location, or may be provided by the subject. A biological sample may be obtained in a separate location to performance of a method of the invention. A biological sample may be processed, such as by centrifugation, filtration, precipitation, dialysis, chromatography, treatment with reagents, washed, or enriched, frozen, defrosted, or fixed, prior to performing a method of the invention. Therefore, a sample as referred to herein may include a biological sample obtained from a subject which has not been processed in any way (a native sample) or may include a processed sample. A sample may be provided in any suitable form, for example processed, extracted, filtered, fractionated, fixed, frozen or defrosted.

[0154] It will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that in some cases, it is convenient to wait until multiple samples have been obtained prior to assaying the samples. Accordingly, in some cases an isolated biological sample is stored until all appropriate samples have been obtained. One of ordinary skill in the art will understand how to appropriately store a variety of different types of biological sample and any convenient method of storage may be used (e.g., refrigeration) that is appropriate for the particular biological sample. In some embodiments, a biological sample from a first time point is analysed prior to obtaining a biological sample from a second time point. In some cases, a biological sample from a first time point and a biological sample from a second time point are analysed in parallel. In some cases, biological samples are processed immediately or as soon as possible after they are obtained.

[0155] The terms obtained or obtaining as used herein can also include the physical extraction or isolation of a biological sample from a subject. Accordingly, a biological sample can be isolated from a subject (and thus obtained) by the same person or same entity that subsequently measures a set of biomarkers in the sample, or by a different person or entity, including the subject themselves. When a biological sample is extracted or isolated from a first party or entity and then transferred (e.g., delivered, mailed, etc.) to a second party, the sample was obtained by the first party (and also isolated by the first party), and then subsequently obtained (but not isolated) by the second party. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the step of obtaining does not comprise the step of isolating a biological sample.

[0156] In a suitable embodiment, there is provided a method for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, or for providing a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0157] a) measuring, in a blood, serum or plasma sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 2.

[0158] There is also provided a method for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the risk of a subject of having or developing at least one disease; and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0159] a) measuring, in a blood, serum or plasma sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 2.

[0160] Examples of suitable biomarkers for use in the present invention include polypeptides, proteins or fragments of a polypeptide or protein; and polynucleotides, such as a gene product, RNA or RNA fragment; and other body metabolites. Suitably, a biomarker is a protein or a fragment thereof. Suitably, a biomarker is a nucleic acid. Suitably, a set of biomarkers may comprise a combination of nucleic acids and proteins. In an embodiment, a method of the invention may be performed by analysing a sample for a combination of protein and nucleic acid biomarkers.

[0161] Suitably, the biomarkers are proteins and the invention measures the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins. Suitably, the subject is a human adult.

[0162] Therefore, in a suitable embodiment, there is provided a method for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, or for providing a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0163] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins, wherein the set of proteins comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 proteins selected from Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 proteins selected from Table 2.

[0164] There is also provided a method for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the risk of a subject of having or developing at least one disease; and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0165] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins, wherein the set of proteins comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 proteins selected from Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 proteins selected from Table 2.

[0166] In some embodiments, the sample is a blood-based sample such as plasma or serum and/or the subject is a human adult.

[0167] The biomarkers measured by the present invention are referred to by their names in accordance with the International Protein Nomenclature Guidelines. When a protein is measured it will be appreciated that the protein name is relevant in identifying the protein. When a nucleic acid is measured it will be appreciated that the gene name is relevant in identifying the nucleic acid. The protein names are used synonymously with the UniProt ID number provided in Tables 5 and 6. In some embodiments the proteins as recited in Tables 1, 2 and 3 are defined by the UniProt ID number as defined in Tables 5 and 6. The protein names are used synonymously with the gene name provided in Tables 5 and 6. In some embodiments the proteins as recited in Tables 1, 2 and 3 are defined by the gene name as defined in Tables 5 and 6.

[0168] A protein measured by the present invention can be a whole protein or a fragment of a protein. A fragment of a protein can contain at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98% or 99% of the amino acid sequence of the whole protein. Suitably, a fragment comprises a contiguous length of at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 98% or 99% of the amino acid sequence of the whole protein. In some embodiments, a set of proteins comprises a combination of whole proteins and fragments of proteins.

[0169] In some embodiments a fragment of a protein measured in a method of the present invention may comprise at least 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 659, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673, 674, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 769, 770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 775, 776, 777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 801, 802, 803, 804, 805, 806, 807, 808, 809, 810, 811, 812, 813, 814, 815, 816, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 828, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838, 839, 840, 841, 842, 843, 844, 845, 846, 847, 848, 849, 850, 851, 852, 853, 854, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 861, 862, 863, 864, 865, 866, 867, 868, 869, 870, 871, 872, 873, 874, 875, 876, 877, 878, 879, 880, 881, 882, 883, 884, 885, 886, 887, 888, 889, 890, 891, 892, 893, 894, 895, 896, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904, 905, 906, 907, 908, 909, 910, 911, 912, 913, 914, 915, 916, 917, 918, 919, 920, 921, 922, 923, 924, 925, 926, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932, 933, 934, 935, 936, 937, 938, 939, 940, 941, 942, 943, 944, 945, 946, 947, 948, 949, 950, 951, 952, 953, 954, 955, 956, 957, 958, 959, 960, 961, 962, 963, 964, 965, 966, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971, 972, 973, 974, 975, 976, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981, 982, 983, 984, 985, 986, 987, 988, 989, 990, 991, 992, 993, 994, 995, 996, 997, 998, 999, or 1000 contiguous amino acids contained in an amino acid sequence of a protein recited in Table 1, 2 or 3. Suitably, a fragment of a protein is specific to the protein from which is derived, for example a fragment may comprise an epitope of the protein which is recognisable by an antibody specific to that protein.

[0170] The present invention may detect, as described herein, any form of a protein, for example splice variant (isoform), a mutant or polymorphic form, degraded and other post-translational modified forms including citrullinations, glycosylations, acetylations, phosphorylations etc.

[0171] Included within the scope of the biomarkers described herein are homologues thereof, for example structural or functional analogues and isoforms. Therefore, the present invention may detect or measure a homologue of a biomarker listed in Table 1, 2 or 3. Functional homologues are considered to be biomarkers having a different scientific name but performing the same function as one of the biomarkers listed in Table 1, 2 or 3. Structural analogues are considered to be biomarkers having a different scientific name but containing at least 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of the same primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary structure as the biomarkers listed in Table 1, 2 or 3. It will be appreciated that some biomarkers will have a different name to those listed in Table 1, 2 or 3 but will perform a slightly different function or have a slightly different structure. It is intended that these similar biomarkers also fall within the scope of the biomarkers listed in Table 1, 2 or 3.

[0172] The present invention may detect, as described herein, a biomarker which may be any form of a nucleic acid, for example RNA, DNA, coding DNA (cDNA), genomic DNA (gDNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), peptide nucleic acids (PNA), Morpholino and locked nucleic acids (LNA), glycol nucleic acids (GNA), threose nucleic acids (TNA) hexitol nucleic acids (HNA). The nucleic acid may be modified by capping, cleavage, polyadenylation, intron splicing, histone processing, or methylation. Where a biomarker is a nucleic acid, suitably it may encode a protein of Table 1, 2 or 3 as provided herein, or a fragment thereof.

[0173] The set of biomarkers may be a subset of the biomarkers listed in a table provided herein. Suitably, a set of biomarkers is a subset of biomarkers provided in Table 1. More suitably the biomarkers are those found in Table 3. Suitably, the biomarkers are proteins or fragments thereof.

[0174] A method of the invention may comprise determining the presence (or absence) of each biomarker in the defined set of biomarkers, and/or determining the amount of a biomarker in the defined set of biomarkers, in a biological sample. A method of the invention further comprises the step of comparing the biomarker profile generated to a standard profile or to one or more predetermined values, one or more reference values, or to a biomarker profile generated from the same subject at a different time point, to obtain a measurement for use in determining or predicting biological age, or determining or predicting risk of disease, for example as described herein.

[0175] A measurement of the presence or amount of a biomarker in a sample obtained from a subject is suitably made at a time point. The time point may be pre-determined. A time point may refer to the time at which the sample is obtained from the subject. A time point may refer to the time at which the biomarker profile of the sample is measured. A time point may be an interval of time, for example a time point may span the time from obtaining a sample from a subject to analysing the sample according to the invention.

[0176] A method of the present invention may comprise measuring, in a further biological sample obtained from the subject at a second or further time point from step a), the presence or amount of each biomarker in the set of biomarkers; and determining the difference in the presence or amount of each biomarker in the set of biomarkers between the measurements of first, second and/or further measurements. A second or further time point may be separated from a first time point, by any suitable interval. For example, a first, second or further time points may be each separated by an interval of 1 hour, 12 hours, 24 hours, 1 month, 6 months, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years or 5 years or more. Therefore, a method of the present invention may be performed twice or more on a subject, in order to obtain an indication of any change in the biomarker profile. A method of the invention may comprise a step of comparing a measurement with a measurement at the immediate preceding time point or a measurement of any previous time point or with a measurement taken at the first time point. A method of the present invention may comprise tracking the measurements across two or more time points for a subject. In some embodiments, the biomarkers are proteins and the invention measures the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins.

[0177] In certain embodiments the method of the invention further comprises contacting each of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers disclosed herein with a plurality of antibodies wherein each antibody specifically binds to and recognises one of the biomarkers of the set of biomarkers. In some embodiments, the antibody is suitable for a proximity extension assay. In some embodiments the method further comprises measuring the amount of binding between the antibody and the biomarker to determine the presence or amount of the biomarkers in a biological sample. In some embodiments, the biomarkers are proteins and the invention measures the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins.

[0178] The method can further comprise comparing the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the biological sample with predetermined threshold values, wherein levels of expression of at least one of the plurality of biomarkers above or below the predetermined threshold values is indicating of the biological age of a subject or the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, or the risk of a subject of having or developing at least one disease; and/or the risk of mortality of a subject.

[0179] The present invention can measure the amount of biomarkers. As used herein, amount may refer to the absolute amount of a biomarker, for example the concentration of a biomarker in a biological sample. The amount of a biomarker may also refer to a relative amount of the biomarker, for example a relative difference versus a reference measurement. The reference measurement may be the same biomarker within a larger population of subjects, the amount of another biomarker, the same biomarker at a different time point, the amount of another biomarker, or any other value such as an amount of DNA methylation levels, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) levels, telomere length, or other cellular senescence biomarkers. The amount of a biomarker may be a single measurement or may be a value associated with a change over time in the amount of said biomarker. In some embodiments, amount refers to the concentration of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers. In some embodiments, amount refers to the abundance of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers relative to other biomarkers in the set of biomarkers. In some embodiments, the invention measures the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins.

[0180] A method of the invention may be for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, or for providing a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject. Such a measurement may be useful in predicting the risk of disease, suitably age-related disease, in the subject. A method of the present invention may also be used for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the risk of a subject of having or developing at least one disease; and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject.

[0181] As used herein, age-related disease refers to any disease that is associated with increased frequency and/or severity in subjects with a greater chronological age or biological age. In some embodiments, an age-related disease is one that occurs more frequently in subjects with increased chronological age. This can be in subjects that are 20 years or older, 30 years or older, 40 years or older, 50 years or older, 60 years or older, 70 years or older, 80 years or older, 90 years or older or 100 years or older, compared to younger subjects. In some embodiments the younger subjects are at least 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 or 80 years younger than the subject with a greater chronological age. The disease may be a chronic disease or an acute disease. Herein, disease, suitably an age-related disease, may be selected from chronic liver disease, type II diabetes, Parkinson's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, macular degeneration, ischemic heart disease, stroke, osteoporosis, ischemic stroke, emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic kidney diseases, all-cause dementia, Alzheimer's disease, oesophageal cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma or combinations thereof. The symptoms and diagnostic methods for these diseases are known in the art.

[0182] Examples of suitable probes include antibodies, antibody fragments, oligonucleotides, proteins, biotin-binding proteins, enzymes, fluorophores, aptamers, primers or combinations thereof. Specific combinations of probes can include antibodies and antibody fragments. Specific examples of oligonucleotides include DNA and RNA probes. In some embodiments a combination of DNA and RNA probes are used. In preferred embodiments, the biomarkers are proteins and the probes are antibodies. In some embodiments the antibodies are suitable for ELISA or proximity extension assay.

[0183] Herein, a set of probes for detecting a set of biomarkers, as described in the methods of the invention, may include a probe specific for detection of a single biomarker in the panel of biomarkers (e.g. the selected proteins of Table 1, 2 or 3), such that each biomarker in the set can be individually detected. For example, where there is a panel of 10 biomarkers to be detected in a sample, a set of probes will suitably comprise 10 probes, one probe specific for each biomarker. The probes must differ in terms of specificity for the biomarkers, but may each be the same or different types of probe, for example antibody, nucleic acid etc. A set of probes may include one type of probe (e.g. an antibody) for detection of each biomarker in the set of biomarkers. A set of probes may include more than one type of probe (three, four, five, six, or more types of probe) for detection of each biomarker in the set of biomarkers. Suitably, each probe is specific for one biomarker. It will be appreciates that there will be multiple copies of each probe, and reference herein to each probe or a probe of the set refers to the specificity of the probe. Typically, the number of probes in a set will correlate to the number of biomarkers in the set.

[0184] In a suitable embodiment, a method of the invention may be an antibody based assay.

[0185] Therefore, in a suitable embodiment, there is provided an ELISA assay or proximity extension assay for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, or for providing a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0186] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins, wherein the set of proteins comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 proteins selected from Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 proteins selected from Table 2.

[0187] There is also provided an ELISA assay or proximity extension assay for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the risk of a subject of having or developing at least one disease; and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0188] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins, wherein the set of proteins comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 proteins selected from Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 proteins selected from Table 2.

[0189] In some embodiments, the biological sample is a blood-based sample such as serum or plasma and/or the subject is a human adult.

[0190] An antibody may be naturally occurring and non-naturally occurring antibodies, including a wholly synthetic antibody. An antibody may be monoclonal, polyclonal or recombinant, chimeric and humanized antibodies. An antibody may be human or non-human. A nonhuman antibody can be humanized by recombinant methods to reduce its immunogenicity in man (i.e. to produce a humanized antibody). An antibody may be. An antibody may include a single chain antibody. An antibody includes any immunoglobulin (e.g., IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD, etc.) obtained from any source (e.g., humans, rodents, nonhuman primates, caprines, bovines, equines, ovines, etc.). Where not expressly stated, and unless the context indicates otherwise, the term antibody also includes an antigen-binding fragment or an antigen-binding portion of any of the aforementioned immunoglobulins, and includes a monovalent and a divalent fragment or portion, and a single chain antibody.

[0191] In an antibody based assay of the invention, an antibody may be measured directly wherein the antibody is conjugated with an enzyme or fluorescent dye for direct detection. The antibody may be measured indirectly in which an unlabelled primary antibody is detected using an enzyme- or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. A probe may also be a fragment of an antibody disclosed herein. Examples of suitable antibody fragments include F(ab)2, Fab, Fab and Fv. These can be generated from the variable region of IgG and IgM.

[0192] These antigen-binding fragments vary in size (MW), valency and Fc content. Fc fragments are generated entirely from the heavy chain constant region of an immunoglobulin. These and several additional unique fragment structures can be generated from pentameric IgM, including an IgG-type fragment, an inverted IgG-type fragment, and a pentameric Fc fragment.

[0193] A probe/detection agent may be labelled with a detectable moiety. Suitable detectable moieties may be selected from the group consisting of luminescent agents, chemiluminescent agents, radioisotopes, colorimetric agents; and enzyme-substrate agents. In preferred embodiments the probes are antibodies coupled to unique DNA sequence tags. In preferred embodiments the probe/detection agent is for use in a proximity extension assay which is known in the art.

[0194] A nucleic acid probe/detection agent may include triple-, double- and single-stranded DNA, as well as triple-, double- and single-stranded RNA. A nucleic acid probe may be a modified form, for example by methylation and/or by capping, or an unmodified form of the polynucleotide. A nucleic acid probe may include polydeoxyribonucleotides (containing 2-deoxy-D-ribose), polyribonucleotides (containing D-ribose), and any other type of polynucleotide which is an N- or C-glycoside of a purine or pyrimidine base. A nucleic acid probe may be any suitable length, for example about 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000, or 1500 bases long.

[0195] Oligonucleotide probes for protein detection can involve nucleic acid-based fluorescence probe for protein detection and are known in the art. An oligonucleotide probe may be DNA, RNA, and include antisense oligonucleotides (ASO), RNA interference (RNAi), and aptamer RNAs. Some oligonucleotides can detect proteins by scission of an aptamer into two probes, which are then attached with a chemically reactive fluorogenic compound. The protein-dependent association of the two probes accelerates a chemical reaction and indicates the presence of the target protein, which is detected using a fluorescence readout.

[0196] Biotin-binding protein probes use fluorescent conjugates of streptavidin to detect biotinylated biomolecules such as primary and secondary antibodies, ligands and toxins, or DNA probes for in situ hybridization or bead-based detection. Enzyme conjugates of streptavidin, such as HRP and AP, are commonly used in western blotting, ELISA, and in situ hybridization imaging applications. Streptavidin-conjugated magnetic beads and resins can be used to isolate proteins, cells, and DNA, or they can be used in immunoassays or bio-panning.

[0197] Enzymatic probes, such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and alkaline phosphatase (AP), can be used to detect target proteins through chromogenic, chemiluminescent or fluorescent outputs. The variability of these readouts demonstrates the versatility that enzymatic probes have in biological research methods, including immunohistochemistry (IHC), immunoblotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Such enzymatic probes and typically conjugated to an antibody or other suitable detecting agent that specifically binds to and recognises the biomarkers of interest.

[0198] The use of fluorescent molecules in biological research is the standard in many applications, and their use is continually increasing due to their versatility, sensitivity and quantitative capabilities. Among their myriad of uses, fluorescent probes are employed to detect protein location and activation, identify protein complex formation and conformational changes and monitor biological processes. Examples of fluorescent probes include fluorescent proteins not normally expressed in the subject, including but not limited to green fluorescent protein (GFP), red fluorescent protein (RFP), yellow fluorescent protein (RFP), mCherry, blue fluorescent protein (BFP), cyan fluorescent protein (CFP).

[0199] When the biomarker is a protein, a variety of different methods of assaying protein levels are known to one of ordinary skill in the art, and any convenient method may be used. Representative exemplary methods include but are not limited to antibody-based methods (e.g., immunofluorescence assay, radioimmunoassay, immunoprecipitation, Western blotting, proteomic arrays, xMAP microsphere technology (e.g., Luminex technology), immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, and the like) as well as non-antibody-based methods (e.g., mass spectrometry or tandem mass spectrometry). Examples of mass spectrometers are time-of-flight, magnetic sector, quadrupole filter, ion trap, ion cyclotron resonance, Orbitrap, hybrids or combinations of the foregoing, and the like. In another embodiment, the method comprises the use of MALDI-TOF tandem mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS/MS).

[0200] Two representative and convenient techniques for assaying protein levels in a sample include aptamer-based assays and antibody-based methods such as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Aptamer-based assays use aptamers comprising single-stranded oligonucleotides that bind specifically to biomarker proteins of interest. Either high affinity RNA aptamers or DNA aptamers with specificity for a protein of interest may be used. Functional groups that mimic amino acid side-chains may be added to aptamers to confer protein-like properties to improve binding affinity to a protein of interest. Aptamers that bind specifically and with high affinity to a biomarker protein of interest can be selected from large libraries of aptamers having randomized sequences using Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential enrichment (SELEX). The aptamers may be designed with unique nucleotide sequences recognizable by specific hybridization probes for capture on a hybridization array for multiplexed detection of biomarkers.

[0201] Where mass spectrometry is used in a method of the invention, the method may comprise a step of protein digestion e.g. trypsin digestion. The method may include fractionation, for example by capture on a chromatographic resin or cation exchange resin. Alternatively, the method could be preceded by fractionating the sample on an anion exchange resin before application to the cation exchange resin.

[0202] The present invention can use a multiplex assay for detecting multiple biomarkers in a single assay, e.g. in a single reaction using a single sample such that two or more biomarkers may be detected simultaneously. An example of a suitable multiplex assay is a proximity extension assay. Alternatively, the present invention can use separate assays or reactions for each biomarker of a sample, such that the detection of each biomarker is performed in a separate reaction. The separate reactions may be performed simultaneously, for example in an array. An example of an embodiment where a single biomarker is detected in a reaction is an ELISA. For any sample, a combinations of multiplex and separate assays can be used.

[0203] Where the invention comprises two or more separate reactions to detect the presence or absence or amount of a set of biomarkers, the reactions may be performed spatially separately, using distinct reaction locations. The reactions may alternatively or additionally be performed temporally separately, for example wherein two or more biomarker assays are performed at different time points, e.g one after the other. In some embodiments the reactions are performed spatially separate and temporally separate, for example in sequential batches.

[0204] In some preferred embodiments the detection method for a protein is a proximity extension assay. A proximity extension assay (PEA) is a method for detecting and quantifying the amount of many specific proteins present in a biological sample such a serum or plasma. The method is used in the research field of proteomics, specifically affinity proteomics, wherein one searches for differences in the abundance of many specific proteins in blood for use as a biomarker. PEA is performed without a solid phase in a homogeneous one tube reaction solution where in sets of antibodies coupled to unique DNA sequence tags, so called proximity probes, work in pairs specific for each target protein. PEA is often performed using antibodies and is a type of immunoassay. Target binding by the proximity probes increases their local relative effective concentration of the DNA-tags enabling hybridization of weak complementarity to each other which then enables a DNA polymerase mediated extension forming a united DNA sequence specific for each target protein detected. The use of 3exonuclease proficient polymerases lowers background noise and hyper thermostable polymerases mediate a simple assay with a natural hot-start reaction. This created pool of extension products of DNA sequence forms amplicons amplified by PCR where each amplicon sequence corresponds to a target proteins identity and the amount reflects its quantity. Subsequently, these amplicons are detected and quantified by either real-time PCR or next generation DNA sequencing by DNA-tag counting. PEA enables the detection of many proteins simultaneously (so called multiplexing) due to the readout requiring the combination of two correctly bound antibodies per protein to generate a detectable DNA sequence from the extension reaction. Only cognate pairs of sequence are detected as true signal. The DNA amplification power also enable minute sample volumes even below one microliter.

[0205] Suitably when the detection method is PEA, the step of (a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers can comprise the steps of: [0206] i) contact a biological sample from the subject with blocking antibodies to prevent nonspecific binding of proximity probes [0207] ii) incubating the mixture of step (i) with proximity extension assay probe pairs specific to each biomarker in the set of biomarkers [0208] iii) performing a DNA polymerase driven DNA extension assay to extend the dimerised oligomer tags on the proximity extension assay probe pairs when they are in proximity to produce DNA products specific to each biomarker in the set of biomarkers [0209] iv) detecting the DNA products specific to each biomarker in the set of biomarkers by polymerase chain reaction; [0210] wherein the biomarkers are proteins or fragments thereof.

[0211] When the biomarker is a nucleic acid, a variety of different methods of assaying nucleic acid levels are known to one of ordinary skill in the art, and any convenient method may be used.

[0212] Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be used when the biomarker is a nucleic acid. For example, the PCR may be quantitative type PCR, such as quantitative, real-time PCR (both singleplex and multiplex). Therefore, a method of the invention may comprise the steps of contacting nucleic acid of the biological sample with one or more primers that specifically bind one or more biomarker described herein, to form a primer:biomarker complex; maintaining the nucleic acid under conditions to allow the primers to hybridise to the nucleic acid of the biological sample; and amplifying the primer:biomarker complexes. The conditions may be stringent hybridisation conditions. The amplified complexes can then be detected/quantified to determine a level of expression of the one or more biomarkers.

[0213] Therefore, in a suitable embodiment, there is provided a method of polymerase chain reaction for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, or for providing a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0214] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from Table 2.

[0215] There is also provided a method of polymerase chain reaction for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the risk of a subject of having or developing at least one disease; and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0216] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from Table 2.

[0217] Suitably when the detection method is PCR, the step of (a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers can comprise the steps of: [0218] i) contacting a biological sample from the subject with primers specific to each biomarker in the set of biomarkers [0219] ii) performing repeated steps of DNA amplification to produce DNA extension products specific to each biomarker in the set of biomarkers [0220] iii) detecting the DNA extension products specific to each biomarker in the set of biomarkers to quantify the amounts of each biomarkers in the set of biomarkers in biological sample;
wherein the biomarkers are nucleic acids or fragments thereof.

[0221] In some embodiments the subject is a human adult and/or the biomarker is a gene product of one of the biomarkers disclosed in Tables 1, 2, or 3 and/or the biological sample is a blood-based sample such and plasma or serum.

[0222] In some embodiments of the invention the method comprises comparing the amount of the biomarkers in a set of biomarkers against a reference measurement obtained from a subject of a known age or disease status. As used herein, reference subject or reference measurement refers to a measured presence or amount of a biomarker that has been correlated with a known disease status or severity, or known chronological age or biological age in a subject or in a group of subjects. The reference measurement may be a single value or a set of values, for example a value for each biomarker. The reference measurement may be a range. Suitably, a reference measurement is from UK Biobank samples, FinnGen samples, China Kadoorie Biobank samples or combinations thereof.

[0223] The method of the invention may include a step of comparing measurement of presence or amount for each biomarker with reference values for each biomarker. The method may include assessing whether the presence or level of one or more biomarkers of the set in a sample from a patient is the same as, more or less than, different from levels of the same biomarkers in a control or reference sample or a reference value. In some embodiments, the biomarkers are proteins and the invention measures the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins.

[0224] In some embodiments the subject is assigned a numerical biological age determined by the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers. This can be determined by a statistical or machine learning model that uses information on the presence or amount of the biomarkers to predict chronological age or to predict a previously calculated physiological age phenotype. In some embodiments, the biomarkers are proteins and the invention measures the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins. In some embodiments, the subject is assigned a numerical biological age based on the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers.

[0225] In some embodiments, the relationship between the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers is the correlation between the presence or amount of each of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers.

[0226] The prediction made according to some method of the invention allows for assessing whether the probability is high and, thus, it is expected that a subject has a disease or a particular severity of a disease, or whether the probability is low and, thus, it is expected that a subject does not have a disease or a particular severity of a disease. This is determined by calculating the relationship between the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers in a reference measurement and the presence or amount of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers in subjects in need of prediction. The prediction can be of the presence or absence of at least one disease in the subject, the risk of the subject of having or developing at least one disease; and/or the risk of mortality of the subject. In some embodiments, the invention measures the presence or amount of each protein in a set of proteins.

[0227] A method of the present invention may comprise obtaining information about the subject, including for example chronological age, sex, race, nationality, residence, health status, functional measurements, blood biochemistry values etc. One or more of these data may be used in estimating the biological age or comparing with the biological age to provide a determination or prediction relating to disease as described herein.

[0228] A device of the present invention comprises the probes as disclosed herein. In some embodiments the device is for performing a proximity extension assay. In these embodiments, the device comprises a set of antibodies that specifically bind to and recognise each of the proteins in a set of proteins wherein the set of proteins comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 proteins selected from Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 proteins selected from Table 2. In certain embodiments the device comprises a set of antibodies that comprises at least two antibodies that bind to each protein in the set of proteins and are conjugated to complementary DNA tags such that proximity of the antibodies occurs when both antibodies bind to the same proteins and the complementary DNA tags can hybridise and allows DNA polymerase mediated extension of the hybridised DNA tag. The device can further comprise reagents for detecting the DNA polymerase mediated extension product of the hybridised DNA tag.

[0229] In some embodiments the device is for performing an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In these embodiments, the device comprises a set of antibodies wherein each antibody specifically binds to and recognises a proteins in a set of proteins wherein the set of proteins comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 proteins selected from the biomarkers of Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 proteins selected from the biomarkers of Table 2. Certain embodiments further comprise at least one of suitable buffers, wash solution, microwell plate, instructions, reference chart or combinations thereof. In an ELISA assay, the antigen is immobilized to a solid surface. The device or method of the present invention may be for performing an ELISA. The ELISA may be direct, indirect, sandwich, or competitive. Such methods and devices are known in the art.

[0230] In some embodiments the device is for performing a PCR analysis. In these embodiments, the device comprises a set of primers wherein each primer is specific for one of the biomarkers in a set of biomarkers wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 1 or at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 2. The device can further comprise reagents for performing a PCR reaction including DNA polymerase, a thermocycler, dNTPs, buffers, and a detection reagent. The detection reagent may bind at all double-stranded DNA or may be specific to the amplicons of each biomarker in the set of biomarkers.

[0231] In some embodiments the devices as disclosed herein further comprise at least one of the following nitrocellulose membranes, fractionation columns, protein binding columns, protein affinity columns, protein purification columns, magnetic beads, labelled beads, tagged beads, 96-well plates, 384-well plates, microtiter plates, biochips (biochips generally comprise solid substrates and have a generally planar surface, to which a capture reagent), buffers. In some embodiments the device of the present invention further comprises a solid substrate to which the probes can be immobilised on. The probe may be permanently immobilized or reversibly immobilized. The solid substrate can be the well of a plate, a bead, a membrane, or combinations thereof.

[0232] In some embodiments the device of the present invention further comprises a solid substrate and a plurality of binding agents immobilized on the substrate, wherein each of the binding agents is immobilized at a different, indexable, location on the substrate and the binding agents specifically bind to a plurality of biomarkers.

[0233] In some embodiments of the invention them is provided a kit comprising the probes disclosed herein and suitable sampling equipment. Suitably, the sampling equipment is for blood sampling. Sampling equipment may include at least one of a lancet, plaster, pre-injection swab, name label, gauze swab, a protective packing wallet, blood collection tube, a pre-paid return envelope, or a combination thereof. Where a kit is for home use, it may comprise a suitable device for detection of the presence or absence or amount of a set of biomarkers as described herein. Such a device may be disposable. A kit of the invention may also include instructions for use. A kit of the invention may also include a reference chart for comparison with the assay results.

[0234] In some embodiments, there is provided a computer-implemented method of determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject comprising the steps of: [0235] a) obtaining data of the measured levels of: i) at least 7 biomarkers in Table 1 in claim 1; or ii) at least 50 biomarkers in Table 2 of claim 2; [0236] b) Inputting the measured levels in step a) to a predictive model which relates the measured levels with biological age or chronological age; and [0237] c) Outputting a determined, predicted or estimated biological age.

[0238] The method may be performed using measured levels taken at different time points. The method may additionally compute the relationship between chronological age and the biological age of the subject to determine or estimate a value of an age gap or accelerated/decelerated aging. By relate is meant the model finds the relationship between the input and the output.

[0239] By computer program is meant machine readable program instructions. These may be provided on a transitory medium such as a transmission medium or on a non-transitory medium such as a storage medium. Such machine readable instructions (computer program code) may be implemented in a high level procedural or object oriented programming language. However, the program(s) may be implemented in assembly or machine language, if desired. In any case, the language may be a compiled or interpreted language, and combined with hardware implementations. Program instructions may be executed on a single processor or on two or more processors in a distributed manner.

[0240] In some embodiments there is provided a data processing apparatus comprising means of carrying out the computer-implemented method. The processing circuitry of the apparatus may be communicatively coupled to a memory. The memory may store the machine learning model. The processing circuitry may comprise general purpose processor circuitry configured by program code to perform specified processing functions. Alternatively, the processing circuitry may comprise special purpose processing circuitry. Thus, the configuration of the circuitry to perform its specified function may be limited exclusively to hardware, limited exclusively to software, or a combination of hardware modification and software execution.

[0241] In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof. In the drawings, similar symbols typically identify similar components, unless context dictates otherwise. The illustrative embodiments described in the detailed description, drawings, and claims are not meant to be limiting. Other embodiments may be utilized, and other changes may be made, without departing from the spirit or scope of the subject matter presented herein. It will be readily understood that the aspects of the present disclosure, as generally described herein, and illustrated in the figures, can be arranged, substituted, combined, separated, and designed in a wide variety of different configurations, all of which are explicitly contemplated herein.

[0242] The protein expression data generated from the Olink Explore 3072 panel is used in this invention. Data generated from this panel are provided in Olink's Normalized Protein eXpression (NPX) format. According to Olink, this means that NPX values can be compared only for the same protein across the samples analyzed in a single occasion and cannot be compared across projects run at separate occasions without the use of reference bridging samples. Despite this stated limitation by Olink, the inventors have developed and employed a statistical and analytical technique to normalize the protein data across biobanks with no bridging samples. With this approach, they have been able to develop a model in one population and validate it in a completely new population without bridging samples.

[0243] The invention is described herein by way of non-limiting examples and with reference to the drawings.

EXAMPLES

[0244] In the following, the invention will be explained in more detail by means of non-limiting examples of specific embodiments. In the example experiments, standard reagents and buffers free from contamination are used.

Example 1Methods

Study Populations

[0245] The UK Biobank (UKB) is a prospective cohort study with extensive genetic, metabolomic and proteomic and phenotype data available for 502,505 individuals resident in the United Kingdom who were recruited from 2006-2010 (Sudlow et al. 2015). The inventors restricted the UKB sample to those participants with Olink Explore 3072 data available at baseline who were randomly sampled from the main UKB population (n=45,441).

[0246] The China Kadoorie Biobank (CKB) is a prospective cohort study of 512,724 adults aged 30-79 years who were recruited from ten geographically diverse (five rural and five urban) areas across China during 2004-2008. Details on the CKB study design and methods have been previously reported (Chen et al. 2011). The inventors restricted the CKB sample to those participants with Olink Explore 3072 data available at baseline in a nested case-cohort study of ischemic heart disease and who were genetically unrelated to each other (n=3,977).

[0247] The FinnGen study is a public-private partnership research project that has collected and analyzed genome and health data from 500,000 Finnish biobank donors to understand the genetic basis of diseases (Kurki et al. 2023). FinnGen includes 9 Finnish biobanks, research institutes, universities and university hospitals, 13 international pharmaceutical industry partners and the Finnish Biobank Cooperative (FINBB). The project utilizes data from the nationwide longitudinal health register collected since 1969 from every resident in Finland. In FinnGen, the inventors restricted the analyses to those participants with Olink Explore 3072 data available and passing proteomics data quality control (QC) (n=1,990).

Proteomic Profiling

[0248] Proteomic profiling in the UKB, CKB, and FinnGen was carried out for protein analytes measured via the Olink Explore 3072 platform that links four Olink panels (Cardiometabolic, Inflammation, Neurology, and Oncology). The random subsample of UKB proteomics participants (n=45,441) were selected by removing those in batches 0 and 7. Randomized participants selected for proteomic profiling in the UKB have been shown previously to be highly representative of the wider UKB population (Sun et al. 2023). UKB Olink data are provided Normalized Protein eXpression (NPX) values on a log 2 scale, with details on sample selection, processing, and quality control documented online.

[0249] In the CKB, stored baseline plasma samples from participants were retrieved, thawed, and sub-aliquoted into multiple aliquots, with one (100 L) aliquot used to make two sets of 96-well plates (40 L/well). Both sets of plates were shipped on dry ice, one to the Olink Bioscience Laboratory at Uppsala, Sweden (batch 1, 1463 unique proteins) and the other shipped to the Olink laboratory in Boston, USA (batch 2, 1460 unique proteins), for proteomic analysis using a multiplex proximity extension assay, with each batch covering all 3,977 samples. Samples were plated in the order they were retrieved from long-term storage at the Wolfson laboratory in Oxford, UK and normalized using both an internal control (extension control) and an inter-plate control and then transformed using a pre-determined correction factor. The limit of detection (LOD) was determined using negative control samples (buffer without antigen). A sample was flagged as having a QC warning if the incubation control deviated more than a pre-determined value (t 0.3) from the median value of all samples on the plate (but values below LOD were included in the analyses). The pre-processed data were provided in the arbitrary NPX unit on a log 2 scale.

[0250] In the FinnGen study, blood samples were collected from healthy individuals and EDTA-plasma aliquots (230 L) were processed and stored at 80 C. within 4 hours. Plasma aliquots were subsequently thawed and plated in 96-well plates (120 L/well) as per Olink's instructions. Samples were shipped on dry ice to the Olink Bioscience Laboratory (Uppsala, Sweden) for proteomic analysis using the 3072 multiplex proximity extension assay. Samples were sent in three batches and to minimize any batch effects, bridging samples were added according to Olink's recommendations. In addition, plates were normalized using both an internal control (extension control) and an inter-plate control and then transformed using a pre-determined correction factor. The limit of detection (LOD) was determined using negative control samples (buffer without antigen). A sample was flagged as having a QC warning if the incubation control deviated more than a pre-determined value (0.3) from the median value of all samples on the plate (but values below LOD were included in the analyses). The pre-processed data were provided in the arbitrary NPX unit on a log 2 scale.

[0251] The inventors excluded from analysis any proteins not available in all three cohorts, as well as an additional three proteins that were missing in over 10% of the UKB sample (CTSS, PCOLCE, NPM1), leaving a total of 2,897 proteins for analysis. After missing data imputation (see below), proteomic data was re-normalized separately within each cohort by first rescaling values to be between 0-1 using MinMaxScaler( ) from scikit-learn and then centering on the median. This approach allowed for NPX data from one cohort or population to be related to another, and allowed for predictions to be made in new NPX data using models trained from NPX data in other cohorts or populations.

Outcomes

[0252] UKB aging biomarkers were measured using baseline non-fasting blood serum samples as previously described (Elliott and Peakman 2008). Biomarkers were previously adjusted for technical variation by the UKB, with sample processing and quality control procedures described on the UK Biobank website. Field IDs for all biomarkers and measures of physical and cognitive decline are shown in Table 22. Poor self-rated health, slow walking pace, self-rated facial aging, feeling tired/lethargic every day, and frequent insomnia were all binary dummy variables coded as all other responses versus responses for Poor (overall health rating; Field ID 2178), Slow pace (usual walking pace; Field ID 924), Older than you are (facial aging; Field ID 1757), Nearly every day (frequency of tiredness/lethargy in last 2 weeks; Field ID 2080), and Usually (sleeplessness/insomnia; Field ID 1200), respectively. Sleeping 10+ hours/day was coded as a binary variable using the continuous measure of self-reported sleep duration (Field ID 160). Systolic and diastolic blood pressure were averaged across both automated readings. Standardized lung function (FEV1) was calculated by dividing the FEV1 best measure (field ID 20150) by standing height squared (field ID 50). Hand grip strength variables (field ID 46,47) were divided by weight (Field ID 21002) to normalize according to body mass. Frailty index was calculated using the algorithm previously developed for UK Biobank data by Williams et al. (2019). Components of the frailty index are shown in Table 23. Leukocyte telomere length was measured as the ratio of telomere repeat copy number (T) relative to that of a single copy gene (S, HBB, which encodes human hemoglobin subunit B) (Codd et al. 2022). This T/S ratio was adjusted for technical variation and then both log-transformed and Z-standardized using the distribution of all individuals with a telomere length measurement.

[0253] Detailed information about the linkage procedure with national registries for mortality and cause of death information in the UKB is available online. Mortality data were accessed from the UKB data portal on May 23, 2023, with a censoring date of Nov. 30, 2022 for all participants (12-16 years of follow-up).

[0254] Data used to define prevalent and incident chronic diseases in the UKB are outlined in Table 24. In the UKB, incident cancer diagnoses were ascertained using ICD diagnosis codes and corresponding dates of diagnosis from linked cancer and mortality register data. Incident diagnoses for all other diseases were ascertained using ICD diagnosis codes and corresponding dates of diagnosis taken from linked hospital inpatient, primary care, and mortality register data. Primary care read codes were converted to corresponding ICD diagnosis codes using the lookup table provided by the UKB. Linked hospital inpatient, primary care, and cancer register data were accessed from the UKB data portal on May 23, 2023, with a censoring date of Oct. 31, 2022; Jul. 31, 2021; or Feb. 28, 2018 for participants recruited in England, Scotland, or Wales, respectively (8-16 years of follow-up).

[0255] In the CKB, information about incident disease and cause-specific mortality was obtained by electronic linkage, via the unique national identification number, to established local mortality (cause-specific) and morbidity (for stroke, IHD, cancer and diabetes) registries and to the health insurance system that records any hospitalization episodes and procedures (Chen et al. 2005, Chen et al. 2011). All disease diagnoses were coded using the Tenth International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), blinded to any baseline information and participants were followed up to death, loss-to-follow-up or the 1 Jan. 2019. ICD-10 codes used to define diseases studied in the CKB are shown in Table 25.

Missing Data Imputation

[0256] Missing values for all non-proteomics UKB data were imputed using the R package missRanger (Mayer et al. 2019), which combines random forest imputation with predictive mean matching. The inventors imputed a single dataset using a maximum of 10 iterations and 200 trees. All other random forest hyperparameters were left at their default. The imputation dataset included all baseline variables available in the UKB as predictors for imputation, excluding variables with any nested response patterns. Responses of do not know were set to NA and imputed. Responses of prefer not to answer were not imputed and set to NA in the final analysis dataset. Age and incident health outcomes were not imputed in the UKB. CKB data had no missing values to impute.

[0257] Protein expression values were imputed in the UKB and FinnGen cohort using the miceforest package in Python. All proteins except those missing in >30% of participants were used as predictors for imputation of each protein. The inventors imputed a single dataset using a maximum of 5 iterations. All other parameters were left at their default.

Calculation of Chronological Age Measures

[0258] In the UKB, the inventors derived a more precise estimate of chronological age, since age at recruitment (field ID 21022) is only provided as a whole integer value. This was done by taking month of birth (field ID 52) and year of birth (field ID 34) and creating an approximate date of birth for each participant as the first day of their birth month and year. Age at recruitment as a decimal value was then calculated as the number of days between each participant's recruitment date (field ID 53) and approximate birth date divided by 365.25. Age at the first imaging follow-up (2014+) and the repeat imaging follow-up (2019+) were then calculated by taking the number of days between the date of each participant's follow-up visit and their initial recruitment date divided by 365.25 and adding this to age at recruitment as a decimal value. Recruitment age in the CKB is already provided as a decimal value.

Model Benchmarking

[0259] The inventors compared the performance of 6 different machine learning models (LASSO, elastic net, LightGBM, and three neural network architectures: multilayer perceptron [MLP], ResNet, and TabR) for using plasma proteomics data to predict age. For each model, the inventors trained a regression model using all 2,897 Olink protein expression variables as input to predict chronological age. All models were trained using 5-fold cross validation in the UK Biobank training data (n=31,808) and were tested against the UKB holdout test set (n=13,633), as well as independent validation sets from the CKB and FinnGen cohorts. The inventors found that LightGBM provided the 2nd best model accuracy among the UKB test set, but showed significantly better performance in the independent validation sets (FIG. 12).

[0260] LASSO and elastic net models were calculated using the scikit-learn package in python. For the LASSO model, the inventors tuned the alpha parameter using the LassoCV function and an alpha parameter space of [1e-15, 1e-10, 1e-8, 1e-5,1e-4, 1e-3,1e-2, 1, 5, 10, 50, 100]. Elastic net models were tuned for both alpha (using the same parameter space) and L1 ratio drawn from the following possible values: [0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9, 0.95, 0.99, 1].

[0261] The LightGBM model hyperparameters were tuned via 5-fold cross-validation using the Optuna module in Python (Akiba et al. 2019), with parameters tested across 200 trials and optimized to maximize the average R.sup.2 of the models across all folds.

[0262] The neural network (NN) architectures tested in this analysis were selected from a list of architectures that performed well on a variety of tabular datasets [1, 2]. The architectures considered were: (i) a multilayer perceptron (MLP); (ii) a residual feedforward network (ResNet); and (iii) a retrieval-augmented neural network for tabular data (TabR). Similar to the other models, each NN model utilized the concentration of 2,897 proteins as input and trained via a regression model to predict biological age. All NN model hyperparameters were tuned via 5-fold cross-validation using Optuna across 100 trials and optimized to maximize the average R.sup.2 of the models across all folds.

[0263] The MLP architecture is the simplest NN architecture with multiple layers of neurons stacked on each other, and the information flows in a feedforward manner from the input features to the predicted output. Dropout (randomly dropping out nodes during training) is introduced between each layer as a form of regularization. After hyperparameter tuning, the best MLP parameters were identified to be 4 layers, with each layer containing 73, 71, 71, and 200 neurons respectively; a dropout probability of 0.1884; and learning rate of 1.406710.sup.4. ResNet contains multiple blocks stacked over each other with skip or residual connections between blocks. Each block is a stack of two layers of neurons along with a layer of batch normalization and dropout. The output of each block is summed with its input and then passed on to the next block, thereby providing a skip connection for information to flow. These skip or residual connections help in optimizing the training of deeper networks [1]. After hyperparameter tuning, the optimal parameters for the ResNet architecture were identified to be 6 blocks, with each block having two layers of 133 and 386 neurons respectively; a dropout probability of 0.2841; and learning rate of 1.378410.sup.4.

[0264] Finally, the TabR architecture belongs to the family of retrieval-augmented neural networks. For a given target sample, TabR retrieves a candidate set of samples from the training data that are most similar to the target sample and makes a final prediction using the information in the candidate set along with the target sample. The concept of retrieval-based models outside the realm of neural networks can be seen in methods like k-nearest neighbors [2]. To find similarity between samples, a single layer of neurons encodes the samples into a latent space and calculates the similarity between the latent representations. The encoded candidate samples and candidate labels are assigned weights (that sum to 1) based on their similarities to the target sample and summed with the encoded target sample. This is then passed through a final block of two layers of neurons, along with layer normalization and dropout, to obtain the final prediction. After hyperparameter tuning, the optimal model parameters were identified to be an encoded latent space of size 99; a dropout of 0.5385 for the candidate set weights; the final block layers with 198 and 99 neurons, along with dropout probabilities of 0.3497 and 0.0 after each layer; and a learning rate of 3.794410.sup.5.

Calculation of ProtAge

[0265] Using gradient boosting (LightGBM) as the selected model type, the inventors initially ran models trained separately on males and females, however the male- and female-only models showed similar age prediction performance to a model with both sexes (FIG. 15a-c) and protein predicted age from the sex-specific models were nearly perfectly correlated with protein predicted age from the model using both sexes (FIG. 15d-e). The inventors therefore calculated the proteomic age clock in both sexes combined to improve the generalizability of the findings.

[0266] To calculate proteomic age, the inventors first split all UKB participants (n=45,441) into 70/30 train/test splits. In the training data (n=31,808), the inventors trained a model to predict chronological age at recruitment using all 2,897 proteins in a single LightGBM model (Ke et al. 2017). First, model hyperparameters were tuned via 5-fold cross-validation using the Optuna module in Python (Akiba et al. 2019), with parameters tested across 200 trials and optimized to maximize the average R.sup.2 of the models across all folds. The inventors then carried out Boruta feature selection via the shap-hypetune module. Boruta feature selection works by making random permutations of all features in the model (called shadow features), which are essentially random noise (Kursa et al. 2010). In the use of Boruta, at each iterative step these shadow features were generated and a model was run with all features and all shadow features. The inventors then removed all features that didn't have a mean of the absolute SHAP value that was higher than all random shadow features. The selection processes ended when there were no features remaining that didn't perform better than all shadow features. This procedure identified all relevant features to the outcome that have a greater influence on prediction than random noise. When running Boruta, the inventors used 200 trials and a threshold of 100% to compare shadow and real features (meaning that a real feature is selected if it performs better than 100% of shadow features). Third, the inventors re-tuned model hyperparameters for a new model with the subset of selected proteins using the same procedure as before. Both tuned LightGBM models before and after feature selection were checked for overfitting and validated by performing 5-fold cross-validation in the combined train set and testing the performance of the model against the holdout UKB test set. Across all analysis steps, LightGBM models were run with 5,000 estimators, 20 early stopping rounds, and using R.sup.2 as a custom evaluation metric to identify the model that explained the maximum variation in age (according to R.sup.2).

[0267] Once the final model with Boruta-selected APs was trained in the UKB, the inventors calculated protein predicted age (ProtAge) for the entire UKB cohort (n=45,441) using 5-fold cross-validation. Within each fold, a LightGBM model was trained using the final hyperparameters and predicted age values were generated for the test set of that fold. The inventors then combined the predicted age values from each of the folds to create a measure of protein predicted age (ProtAge) for the entire sample. ProtAge was calculate in the CKB and FinnGen by using the trained UKB model to predict values in those datasets. Finally, the inventors calculated proteomic aging acceleration (ProtAgeAccel) separately in each cohort by taking the difference of ProtAge minus chronological age at recruitment separately in each cohort.

Recursive Feature Elimination Using SHAP

[0268] For the recursive feature elimination analysis, the inventors started from the 204 Boruta-selected proteins. In each step, the inventors trained a model using 5-fold cross-validation in the UKB training data and then within each fold calculated the model R.sup.2 and the contribution of each protein to the model as the mean of the absolute SHAP values across all participants for that protein. R.sup.2 values were averaged across all 5 folds for each model. The inventors then removed the protein with the smallest mean of the absolute SHAP values and computed a new model, eliminating features recursively using this method until the inventors reached a model with only 5 proteins. If at any step of this process a different protein was identified as the least impactful in the different cross-validation folds, the inventors chose the protein ranked the lowest across the greatest number of folds to remove. The inventors identified 20 proteins as the smallest number of proteins that provide adequate prediction of chronological age. The inventors re-tuned hyperparameters for this 20-protein model (ProtAge20) using Optuna according to the methods described above, and the inventors also calculated proteomic age acceleration according to these top 20 proteins (ProtAgeAccel20) using 5-fold cross validation in the entire UKB cohort (45,441) using the methods described above.

Bench Marking

[0269] All statistical benchmarking/utility analyses were carried out using Python v.3.6 and R v.4.2.2. All associations between ProtAgeAccel and aging biomarkers and physical/cognitive decline measures in the UKB were tested using linear/logistic regression using the statsmodels module (Skipper et al. 2010). All models were adjusted for age, sex, Townsend deprivation index, assessment center, self-reported ethnicity (Black, white, Asian, Mixed, Other), IPAQ activity group (low, moderate, high), and smoking status (never, previous, current). P-values were corrected for multiple comparisons via the False Discovery Rate (FDR) using the Benjamini-Hochberg method (Benjamini et al. 1995).

[0270] All associations between ProtAgeAccel and incident outcomes (mortality, 26 diseases) were tested using Cox proportional hazards models using the lifelines module (Davidson-Pilon 2023). Survival outcomes were defined using follow-up time to event and the binary incident event indicator. For all incident disease outcomes, prevalent cases were excluded from the dataset before models were run. For all incident outcome Cox modelling in the UKB, three successive models were tested with increasing numbers of covariates. Model 1 included adjustment for age at recruitment and sex. Model 2 included all model 1 covariates, plus Townsend deprivation index (Field ID 22189), assessment center (Field ID 54), physical activity (IPAQ activity group; Field ID 22032), and smoking status (Field ID 20116). Model 3 included all model 2 covariates plus BMI (Field ID 21001) and prevalent hypertension (definition in Table 24). P-values were corrected for multiple comparisons via FDR.

[0271] Functional enrichments (GO biological processes, GO molecular function, KEGG, Reactome) and protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks were downloaded from STRING (v.12) using the STRING API in Python. For functional enrichment analyses, the inventors used all proteins included in the Olink Explore 3072 platform as the statistical background (except for 19 Olink proteins that could not be mapped to STRING IDs. None of these proteins that could not be mapped were included in the final Boruta-selected proteins). The inventors only considered PPIs from STRING at a high level of confidence (>0.7) from the co-expression data.

[0272] SHAP interaction values from the trained LightGBM ProtAge model were retrieved using the shap module (Lundberg et al. 2010, Lundberg et al. 2017). SHAP-based PPI networks were generated by first taking the mean of the absolute value of each protein-protein SHAP interaction score across all samples. The inventors then used an interaction threshold of 0.0083 and removed all interactions below this threshold, which yielded a subset of variables similar in number to the node degree >2 threshold used for the STRING PPI network. Both SHAP-based and STRING-based (Szklarczyk et al. 2015) PPI networks were visualized and plotted using the NetworkX module (Hagberg et al. 2008).

[0273] Cumulative incidence curves and survival tables for deciles of ProtAgeAccel were calculated using KaplanMeierFitter from the lifelines module. Since the data were right-censored, the inventors plotted cumulative events against age at recruitment on the x-axis. All plots were generated using matplotlib (Hunter 2007) and seaborn (Waskom 2021).

Example 2Proteomic Age Clock

[0274] A schematic representation of the study design and main analytic approaches is shown in FIG. 1. Characteristics of participants across the discovery (UKB) and two validation cohorts are shown in Table 4. The inventors used plasma proteomic expression data from the subset of 45,441 randomly selected UKB participants (54% female, age range: 39-71 years), 3,977 Chinese (CKB) participants in an ischemic heart disease (IHD) case-cohort study (54% female, age range: 30-78 years), and 1,990 Finnish (FinnGen) participants (52% female, age range: 19-78 years). Across 11-16 years of follow-up in the UKB and 11-14 years of follow-up in the CKB, there were 4,828 (10.6%) and 1,426 (36%) deaths, respectively. Proteomic profiling was conducted among mostly healthy participants in FinnGen without major diseases and only 1% (n=22) died during follow up.

[0275] The inventors randomly split the UKB cohort into 70% training and 30% test sets to develop the proteomic age clock. In the training phase, the inventors compared six machine learning methods (LASSO, elastic net, gradient boosting, and three neural networks) to train proteomic age clock models to predict chronological age using normalized expression of 2,897 proteins from the Olink Explore 3027 panel. The inventors found that gradient boosting (LightGBM, Ke et al 2017) showed the second best age prediction accuracy in the UKB test set (n=13,633) and the highest accuracy in the independent samples from the CKB and FinnGen (FIG. 12). After selecting LightGBM as the final model, the inventors used the Boruta feature selection algorithm (Kursa et al. 2010) and SHAP values (SHapley Additive exPlanations, Lundberg et al. 2020) to identify the subset of all proteins relevant for predicting chronological age (see Example 1). This process resulted in the identification of 204 APs in the dataset (Tables 2 and 5). Protein predicted age (ProtAge) from this 204-protein model explained a similar degree of variation in chronological age compared with the 2,897-protein model (FIG. 13a-b), with similar model error across different age groups (FIG. 14). The gradient boosting ProtAge model explained a high degree of variation in chronological age in the UKB test set (R.sup.2=0.88; Pearson r=0.94) and the independent validation sets from the CKB (R.sup.2=0.85; Pearson r=0.92) and FinnGen (R.sup.2=0.86; Pearson r=0.94) (FIG. 2d-f).

[0276] To assess whether each of the AP's association with age was stable over time, the inventors used repeat protein expression measurements available for a subset of 149 proteins in the model among 1,085 UKB participants who had proteomic data measured at three time points (baseline [2006-11], imaging study visit [2014+], and the repeat imaging visit [2019+]). For each of these 149 APs, the inventors assessed their association with age at each study visit using linear regression. Beta coefficients for the associations of these APs with age across all three time points were strongly correlated with each other (Pearson r=0.89-0.97), suggesting good stability of associations between APs and age across repeat visits spanning at least 9-13 years (FIG. 6).

[0277] Using 204 APs in the final model, the inventors calculated accelerated proteomic aging (ProtAgeAccel) as the difference between ProtAge and chronological age in all three cohorts. In the UKB, the average years of biological age acceleration among the top 5% and bottom 5% of ProtAgeAccel was 6.3 and 6 years, respectively, resulting in a mean difference of approximately 12.3 years in biological aging between them. ProtAgeAccel showed similar distributions across all three cohorts in females and males, across self-reported ethnicities in the UKB, and across geographical regions in the CKB (FIG. 2g-i).

[0278] As a final feature selection step, the inventors explored whether recursive feature elimination using SHAP values could identify a much smaller set of proteins (<50) that accurately predict chronological age (see Methods). The inventors identified a model of 20 proteins (ProtAge20) that achieved 91% of the age prediction performance of the 204-protein model (R.sup.2=0.78, Pearson r=0.89; FIG. 13c-d; Tables 1 and 6). The inventors further calculated accelerated proteomic aging according to these top 20 proteins (ProtAgeAccel20) in the UKB, using the same approach as above.

Example 3Proteomic Aging Predicts Frailty and Aging Phenotypes

[0279] To understand how accelerated proteomic aging may influence aging-related physiological and cognitive status, the inventors examined the associations in the UKB of ProtAgeAccel with: (i) a comprehensive frailty index (Williams et al. 2019, see Example 1); (ii) 16 individual measures of physical (e.g., slow walking pace, grip strength) and cognitive status (reaction time, fluid intelligence), and (iii) 10 measures of biological aging (e.g., telomere length, insulin-like growth factor 1 [IGF-1]) and clinical blood biochemistry (e.g., albumin, creatinine). After adjustment for chronological age, sex, and major sociodemographic and lifestyle confounders, ProtAgeAccel was significantly associated with all measures investigated except for two liver biomarkers (alanine aminotransferase [ALT] and total bilirubin; FIG. 3a-b). Among biological aging mechanisms investigated (FIG. 3a), increasing ProtAgeAccel was associated with increasing levels of two kidney function biomarkers (Cystatin C, Creatinine), two liver enzymes (aspartate aminotransferase [AST], gamma-glutamyl transferase [GGT]), and C-reactive protein; and was associated with decreased levels of albumin, IGF-1, and telomere length. Among physical measures (FIG. 3b), increasing ProtAgeAccel was associated with poor self-rated health, slow walking pace, self-rating one's face as older than average, sleeping 210 hours per day, feeling tired every day, and having frequent insomnia. It was also associated with higher values of a frailty index, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, longer (slower) reaction time, arterial stiffness, and BMI; and with lower values of bone mineral density, fluid intelligence, lung function, and hand grip strength.

[0280] To explore whether these associations are explained by reverse causation (i.e., resulting from a non-detected pathology), the inventors restricted the analyses to a subset of UKB participants who had no lifetime diagnoses (according to hospital inpatient, cancer registry, and GP records) of any of the 26 diseases studied (n=20,353). Among these participants (FIG. 3c-d), the inventors found that ProtAgeAccel remained significantly associated with nearly all markers except for albumin (which is a typical protein marker of end-stage morbidity), self-rated facial aging, sleeping for 10+ hours/day, and feeling tired every day (FIG. 3d).

[0281] ProtAgeAccel20 was also associated with all aging functional phenotypes except for diastolic blood pressure (DBP). Compared with the 204-protein model, ProtAgeAccel20 showed stronger effect estimates in relation to biological measures of aging (e.g., telomeres, IGF-1) (FIG. 3a) but somewhat smaller effect estimates for measures of frailty and physiological/cognitive decline (FIG. 3b). ProtAgeAccel20 was significantly associated with all biological aging markers (FIG. 3c) in the subset of UKB participants without lifetime disease diagnoses, and was associated with all physiological measures except sleeping for 10+ hours/day, DBP, and BMI (FIG. 3d).

[0282] Summary statistics from all models are shown in Tables 7-10.

Example 4Proteomic Age Acceleration is a Strong Predictor of Common Diseases

[0283] UKB participants in the top, median, and bottom deciles of ProtAgeAccel showed divergent age-specific incidence rates of all-cause mortality and the 14 common non-cancer diseases studied (FIG. 4a; Table 20). Cumulative incidence risk trajectories according to these deciles of ProtAgeAccel were similar in females and males. For those aged 65 years at recruitment, the highest cumulative incident rates (equivalent to absolute risk) across the study follow-up period of 11-16 years for the top decile of ProtAgeAccel were observed for osteoarthritis (59.4%), all-cause mortality (55.2%), IHD (50.6%) type 2 diabetes (T2D; 35.3%), and chronic kidney disease (CKD; 33.6%). Neurodegenerative diseases (Parkinson's disease, all-cause dementia, Alzheimer's disease [AD]) all showed cumulative incidence rates below 1% in the bottom decile of ProtAgeAccel across all recruitment ages.

[0284] In the CKB, the inventors also calculated cumulative incidence rates according to deciles of ProtAgeAccel for diseases with >10 incident cases across the 3 deciles of ProtAgeAccel (FIG. 4b; Table 21). The inventors observed significant differences for IHD, all-cause mortality, all stroke, and ischemic stroke. Differences were also observed for T2D, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic liver diseases, and CKD, however confidence intervals were much wider due to a smaller number of incident cases.

[0285] The inventors further used multivariable Cox proportional hazards models to investigate whether associations of ProtAgeAccel with mortality and the 14 common diseases persisted after adjustment for chronological age, sex, smoking, physical activity, sociodemographic factors, and clinical risk factors. ProtAgeAccel showed a significant association with mortality and all non-cancer incident disease outcomes except Parkinson's disease across all models in the UKB (FIG. 5). In the fully adjusted model that also included covariates for BMI and prevalent hypertension (Model 3), the largest effect size per one year increase of ProtAgeAccel were observed for AD (HR: 1.15; 95% Cl: 1.12-1.19), all-cause dementia (HR: 1.13; 95% Cl: 1.1-1.16) and CKD (HR: 1.10; 95% Cl: 1.08-1.11). ProtAgeAccel20 was associated with all diseases investigated, including Parkinson's. Summary statistics from all models are shown in Tables 11-16.

[0286] Based on the HR per year increase of ProtAgeAccel for each outcome shown above, the inventors estimated that those in the top 5% of ProtAgeAccel had on average a 2.5-fold higher risk of AD than those with no difference between ProtAge and chronological age (HR of 1.156.3=2.6), and a 5.8-fold higher risk of AD (HR of 1.15(6.3+[6])) compared with those in the bottom 5% of biological age acceleration. For CKD, the increases in risk were 1.8-fold (top 5% vs. 0) and 3.1-fold (top 5% vs. bottom 5%), and for mortality the increases in risk are 1.9-fold (top 5% vs. 0) and 3.6-fold (top 5% vs. bottom 5%).

[0287] In Cox multivariable models, ProtAgeAccel was associated with only four cancers (esophageal, lung, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and prostate) after adjustment for age, sex, sociodemographic and lifestyle factors, BMI, and prevalent hypertension (FIG. 7). Summary statistics are shown in Tables 17-19.

[0288] Although the analyses described above were adjusted for smoking status, the inventors conducted further sensitivity analyses in never smokers. Among never smokers, ProtAgeAccel remained significantly associated with mortality and all non-cancer outcomes except Parkinson's disease (FIG. 8a). In a similar sensitivity analysis restricted to those within a normal weight range (BMI18.5 & BMI<25), ProtAgeAccel remained significantly associated with all outcomes except Parkinson's disease, macular degeneration, and rheumatoid arthritis (FIG. 8b).

Example 5Proteomic Age Acceleration Increases with Increasing Multimorbidity

[0289] The inventors defined multimorbidity as the number of lifetime diagnoses of any of the 26 diseases examined in the UKB, and categorized participants according to having 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4+ lifetime diagnoses. The inventors found that the average years of ProtAgeAccel increased with number of lifetime conditions (FIG. 9). The inventors also found that this effect was more pronounced for younger participants at recruitment (aged 40-50 years; FIG. 11a), among whom presence of disease was less common (FIG. 9c). On average, 1.5 greater years of ProtAgeAccel was observed in those with 4+ lifetime diagnoses compared to those with 0 diagnoses in participants aged 40-50 years at recruitment (FIG. 9a), whereas in those aged 51-65 years at recruitment the inventors observed 0.8 greater years of ProtAgeAccel (FIG. 9b). The relationship between ProtAgeAccel and multimorbidity status derived from health records was also reflected in self-reported health information. On average, 0.9 fewer years of ProtAgeAccel was observed in those reporting excellent health (likely no diseases present) compared with those reporting poor self-reported health (FIG. 9d).

Example 6Biological Functions and Protein-Protein Interaction Networks Among Aging Proteins

[0290] Testing for functional enrichment among the 204 APs revealed that these APs were enriched for one Gene Ontology (GO) biological processes: anatomical structure development and developmental process. No enrichments were found using GO molecular function, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), or Reactome. However, these 204 APs showed highly interconnected subnetwork of 66 proteins with at least 2 node connections in a PPI network using co-expression information from the STRING database (FIG. 10).

[0291] Individual proteins with the greatest numbers of connections to other proteins were EGFR (involved in cancer drug resistance, brain structure, and platelet count), CXCL12 (an immune-related chemokine involved in immune surveillance, inflammation response, tissue homeostasis, and tumor growth and metastasis), ITGAV (an integrin protein implicated in body height, handedness, dyslexia, and albumin/creatinine metabolism), CXCL9 (implicated in T-cell function and inflammation), and CD8A (a CD8 antigen implicated in the innate immune system).

[0292] The inventors also used SHAP interaction values from the trained ProtAge model to calculate a second PPI network that represents the interactions of proteins together in the model to predict age (FIG. 11). Individual proteins with the largest numbers of connections to other proteins according to SHAP interaction values were ELN (an elastic fiber protein that makes up part of the extracellular matrix and confers elasticity to organs and tissues including the heart, skin, lungs, ligaments, and blood vessels), EDA2R (involved in the NF-B and innate immune pathways and implicated in baldness, estradiol, testosterone and HDL metabolism), LTPB2 (a protein involved in BMI, blood pressure, neuroticism and anxiety, glaucoma and retina pathology, lung function and mortality), CXCL17 (a chemokine interacting with CXCL9, that plays a role in tumor genesis, antimicrobial defense through monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells), and GDF15 (implicated in BMI, liver function, systemic lupus erythematosus, and COVID-19). Overall, the inventors found quite distinct results when using a data driven approach to modelling PPIs using interactions from the machine learning models versus using the most up-to-date experimental biological knowledge from the STRING database.

[0293] The inventors further examined the roles and functions of the 20 proteins comprising the ProtAge20 score, which together capture 91% of the 204-protein model's ability to predict age. These key APs are involved in: (1) cell adhesion and extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions (ELN, COL6A3, CDCP1, PODXL2, LTBP2, SCARF2, ENG); (2) immune response and inflammation (CXCL17, LECT2, SCARF2, GDF15); (3) hormone regulation and reproduction (FSHB, AGRP, ACRV1); (4) cell signalling (EDA2R, SCARF2, PTPRR); (5) protease activity and enzymatic function (KLK3, KLK7:); (6) regulation of body weight and energy balance (GDF15, AGRP); (7) neuronal structure and function (GFAP, NEFL), and (8) development and differentiation (EDA2R, LTBP2, ENG).

Tables

TABLE-US-00004 TABLE 1 20 biomarker panel Acrosomal protein SP-10 Glial fibrillary acidic protein Agouti-related protein Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Prostate-specific antigen Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain Kallikrein-7 C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily Latent-transforming growth factor beta- member 27 binding protein 2 Elastin Neurofilament light polypeptide Endoglin Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Follitropin subunit beta Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Growth/differentiation factor 15 Scavenger receptor class F member 2

TABLE-US-00005 TABLE 2 204 biomarker panel Acrosomal protein SP-10 PDZ domain-containing protein GIPC2 Actin, aortic smooth muscle Pancreatic secretory granule membrane major glycoprotein GP2 Adenosine deaminase Granzyme B A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 thrombospondin motifs 13 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Hemicentin-2 thrombospondin motifs 15 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Corticosteroid 11-beta-dehydrogenase thrombospondin motifs 16 isozyme 1 ADAMTS-like protein 5 Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 Adhesion G-protein coupled receptor G1 Interleukin-17D Alpha-fetoprotein Interleukin-5 receptor subunit alpha Advanced glycosylation end product- Interleukin-7 receptor subunit alpha specific receptor Agouti-related protein Insulin-like 3 Protein AHNAK2 Integrin alpha-V Angiopoietin-2 Integrin beta-5 BAG family molecular chaperone Integrin beta-like protein 1 regulator 3 Brevican core protein Kinesin-like protein KIF22 Osteocalcin Mast/stem cell growth factor receptor Kit Brother of CDO Kallikrein-14 Basigin Prostate-specific antigen Protein C19orf12 Kallikrein-4 Complement C1q-like protein 2 Kallikrein-7 Carbonic anhydrase 14 Kallikrein-8 Carbonic anhydrase 4 Killer cell lectin-like receptor subfamily F member 1 Calbindin Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 Coiled-coil domain-containing protein 80 Extracellular glycoprotein lacritin C-C motif chemokine 28 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 CCN family member 5 Protein LEG1 homolog T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1c Lutropin subunit beta Endosialin Leiomodin-1 T-cell surface glycoprotein CD8 alpha Lactoperoxidase chain Complement component C1q receptor Latent-transforming growth factor beta- binding protein 2 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein 3 Cadherin-2 Apical endosomal glycoprotein Cadherin-3 Matrilin-3 Cadherin-related family member 2 Meprin A subunit beta Cell adhesion molecule-related/down- Matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein regulated by oncogenes Cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass G-type Tyrosine-protein kinase Mer receptor 2 Complement factor H-related protein 5 Lactadherin Secretogranin-1 Promotilin Chitotriosidase-1 Macrophage metalloelastase Chordin-like protein 1 Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein Chordin-like protein 2 Matrix remodeling-associated protein 8 Cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 Neurocan core protein C-type lectin domain family 14 member A Neurofilament light polypeptide Contactin-5 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase 3 Collagen alpha-1(XV) chain Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 3 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain N-acetylneuraminate lyase Collagen alpha-1(IX) chain Neuronal pentraxin-2 Complement receptor type 2 Neurotrophin-3 Corticoliberin Neurotrophin-4 Cartilage acidic protein 1 N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide Beta-crystallin B2 Odontogenic ameloblast-associated protein Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 5 Glycodelin Cystatin-SN Inactive serine protease PAMR1 Cystatin-D phospholipase A2 inhibitor and Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein Collagen triple helix repeat-containing Polycystin-1 protein 1 Cathepsin F Tissue-type plasminogen activator Cathepsin L2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor Pro-opiomelanocortin Stromal cell-derived factor 1 Prolargin C-X-C motif chemokine 14 Prolactin C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Prion-like protein doppel C-X-C motif chemokine 9 Prokineticin-1 NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase 2 Persephin Cytokine-like protein 1 Prostaglandin-H2 D-isomerase Discoidin, CUB and LCCL domain- Pleiotrophin containing protein 2 Decorin Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase mu Divergent protein kinase domain 2B Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase N2 Dickkopf-related protein 3 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Dickkopf-like protein 1 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase zeta Protein delta homolog 1 Renin Dentin matrix acidic phosphoprotein 1 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Ret Dipeptidase 2 Repulsive guidance molecule A Dermatopontin RGM domain family member B Tumor necrosis factor receptor Prorelaxin H2 superfamily member 27 Epididymal secretory protein E3-beta Roundabout homolog 1 EGF-like repeat and discoidin I-like Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase domain-containing protein 3 subunit M2 EGF-containing fibulin-like extracellular Scavenger receptor class F member 2 matrix protein 1 EF-hand domain-containing protein D1 Secretogranin-2 Epidermal growth factor receptor Secretogranin-3 Elastin Uteroglobin Protein enabled homolog Protein sidekick-2 Endoglin Neuronal-specific septin-3 Beta-enolase Superoxide dismutase [Mn], mitochondrial Ectonucleotide VPS10 domain-containing receptor SorCS2 pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 2 Ectonucleotide Sclerostin pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 5 Receptor tyrosine-protein kinase erbB-4 Serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 Fatty acid-binding protein, adipocyte Spondin-2 Protein FAM3B Small proline-rich protein 3 Prolyl endopeptidase FAP Sushi repeat-containing protein SRPX Tumor necrosis factor receptor Sushi domain-containing protein 2 superfamily member 6 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily Sushi domain-containing protein 5 member 6 Fibulin-2 Trefoil factor 1 Fc receptor-like protein 2 Thrombospondin-2 Fibroblast growth factor 5 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 11B Follitropin subunit beta Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 13B Follistatin-related protein 1 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 13 Growth arrest-specific protein 6 Tenascin-X Growth/differentiation factor 15 Tetraspanin-1 Glial fibrillary acidic protein WAP four-disulfide core domain protein 2 GDNF family receptor alpha-like Wnt inhibitory factor 1 Appetite-regulating hormone Protein Wnt-9a Gastric inhibitory polypeptide Lymphotactin

TABLE-US-00006 TABLE 3 Table 3. 10 biomarker panel Tumor necrosis factor receptor Elastin superfamily member 27 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 Growth/differentiation factor 15 Follitropin subunit beta Neurofilament light polypeptide Latent-transforming growth factor beta- binding protein 2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Prostate-specific antigen

TABLE-US-00007 TABLE 4 Characteristics of study participants across three cohorts. CKB: China Kadoorie Biobank; COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; IHD: Ischemic heart disease; UKB: UK Biobank UKB CKB FinnGen (N = 45,441) (N = 3,977) (N = 1,990) Age Mean (SD) 57 (8.2) 57 (12) 56 (15) Range (years) 39-71 30-78 19-78 Sex Female 24,579 (54.1%) 2,137 (53.7%) 1,032 (51.9%) BMI (kg/m2) Mean (SD) 27 (4.8) 24 (3.6) 26 (4.5) Ethnicity White 42,320 (93.1%) Asian 1,016 (2.2%) Black 1,114 (2.5%) Mixed 293 (0.6%) Other 554 (1.2%) Geographic region Gansu (Rural) 397 (10.0%) Haikou (Urban) 298 (7.5%) Harbin (Urban) 598 (15.0%) Henan (Rural) 493 (12.4%) Hunan (Rural) 462 (11.6%) Liuzhou (Urban) 379 (9.5%) Qingdao (Urban) 415 (10.4%) Sichuan (Rural) 341 (8.6%) Suzhou (Urban) 252 (6.3%) Zhejiang (Rural) 342 (8.6%) Incident diabetes Yes 2,781 (6.1%) 2,781 (6.1%) Incident IHD Yes 4,546 (10.0%) 4,546 (10.0%) Incident all stroke Yes 1,362 (3.0%) 1,362 (3.0%) Incident all stroke Yes 1,182 (2.6%) 1,182 (2.6%) Incident COPD Yes 2,059 (4.5%) 2,059 (4.5%) Incident chronic liver diseases Yes 1,011 (2.2%) 1,011 (2.2%) Incident chronic kidney diseases Yes 2,626 (5.8%) 2,626 (5.8%) All-cause mortality Dead 4,828 (10.6%) 4,828 (10.6%) 22 (1.1%)

TABLE-US-00008 TABLE 5 Biomarkers significant in ProtAge model. A list of all 204 biomarkers identified in the aging model. Further included are the UniProt ID for each protein. Gene name Protein name UniProt ID ACRV1 Acrosomal protein SP-10 P26436 ACTA2 Actin, aortic smooth muscle P62736 ADA Adenosine deaminase P00813 ADAMTS13 A disintegrin and Q76LX8 metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 13 ADAMTS15 A disintegrin and Q8TE58 metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 15 ADAMTS16 A disintegrin and Q8TE57 metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 16 ADAMTSL5 ADAMTS-like protein 5 Q6ZMM2 ADGRG1 Adhesion G-protein coupled Q9Y653 receptor G1 AFP Alpha-fetoprotein P02771 AGER Advanced glycosylation end Q15109 product-specific receptor AGRP Agouti-related protein O00253 AHNAK2 Protein AHNAK2 Q8IVF2 ANGPT2 Angiopoietin-2 O15123 BAG3 BAG family molecular chaperone O95817 regulator 3 BCAN Brevican core protein Q96GW7 BGLAP Osteocalcin P02818 BOC Brother of CDO Q9BWV1 BSG Basigin P35613 C19orf12 Protein C19orf12 Q9NSK7 C1QL2 Complement C1q-like protein 2 Q7Z5L3 CA14 Carbonic anhydrase 14 Q9ULX7 CA4 Carbonic anhydrase 4 P22748 CALB1 Calbindin P05937 CCDC80 Coiled-coil domain-containing Q76M96 protein 80 CCL28 C-C motif chemokine 28 Q9NRJ3 CCN5 CCN family member 5 O76076 CD1C T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1c P29017 CD248 Endosialin Q9HCU0 CD8A T-cell surface glycoprotein CD8 P01732 alpha chain CD93 Complement component C1q Q9NPY3 receptor CDCP1 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Q9H5V8 CDH2 Cadherin-2 P19022 CDH3 Cadherin-3 P22223 CDHR2 Cadherin-related family member 2 Q9BYE9 CDON Cell adhesion molecule- Q4KMG0 related/down-regulated by oncogenes CELSR2 Cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass Q9HCU4 G-type receptor 2 CFHR5 Complement factor H-related Q9BXR6 protein 5 CHGB Secretogranin-1 P05060 CHIT1 Chitotriosidase-1 Q13231 CHRDL1 Chordin-like protein 1 Q9BU40 CHRDL2 Chordin-like protein 2 Q6WN34 CKAP4 Cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 Q07065 CLEC14A C-type lectin domain family 14 Q86T13 member A CNTN5 Contactin-5 O94779 COL15A1 Collagen alpha-1(XV) chain P39059 COL6A3 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain P12111 COL9A1 Collagen alpha-1(IX) chain P20849 CR2 Complement receptor type 2 P20023 CRH Corticoliberin P06850 CRTAC1 Cartilage acidic protein 1 Q9NQ79 CRYBB2 Beta-crystallin B2 P43320 CSPG5 Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 5 O95196 CST1 Cystatin-SN P01037 CST5 Cystatin-D P28325 CTHRC1 Collagen triple helix repeat- Q96CG8 containing protein 1 CTSF Cathepsin F Q9UBX1 CTSV Cathepsin L2 O60911 CXADR Coxsackievirus and adenovirus P78310 receptor CXCL12 Stromal cell-derived factor 1 P48061 CXCL14 C-X-C motif chemokine 14 O95715 CXCL17 C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Q6UXB2 CXCL9 C-X-C motif chemokine 9 Q07325 CYB5R2 NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase 2 Q6BCY4 CYTL1 Cytokine-like protein 1 Q9NRR1 DCBLD2 Discoidin, CUB and LCCL domain- Q96PD2 containing protein 2 DCN Decorin P07585 DIPK2B Divergent protein kinase domain Q9H7Y0 2B DKK3 Dickkopf-related protein 3 Q9UBP4 DKKL1 Dickkopf-like protein 1 Q9UK85 DLK1 Protein delta homolog 1 P80370 DMP1 Dentin matrix acidic Q13316 phosphoprotein 1 DPEP2 Dipeptidase 2 Q9H4A9 DPT Dermatopontin Q07507 EDA2R Tumor necrosis factor receptor Q9HAV5 superfamily member 27 EDDM3B Epididymal secretory protein E3- P56851 beta EDIL3 EGF-like repeat and discoidin I- O43854 like domain-containing protein 3 EFEMP1 EGF-containing fibulin-like Q12805 extracellular matrix protein 1 EFHD1 EF-hand domain-containing Q9BUP0 protein D1 EGFR Epidermal growth factor receptor P00533 ELN Elastin P15502 ENAH Protein enabled homolog Q8N8S7 ENG Endoglin P17813 ENO3 Beta-enolase P13929 ENPP2 Ectonucleotide Q13822 pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 2 ENPP5 Ectonucleotide Q9UJA9 pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 5 ERBB4 Receptor tyrosine-protein kinase Q15303 erbB-4 FABP4 Fatty acid-binding protein, P15090 adipocyte FAM3B Protein FAM3B P58499 FAP Prolyl endopeptidase FAP Q12884 FAS Tumor necrosis factor receptor P25445 superfamily member 6 FASLG Tumor necrosis factor ligand P48023 superfamily member 6 FBLN2 Fibulin-2 P98095 FCRL2 Fc receptor-like protein 2 Q96LA5 FGF5 Fibroblast growth factor 5 P12034 FSHB Follitropin subunit beta P01225 FSTL1 Follistatin-related protein 1 Q12841 GAS6 Growth arrest-specific protein 6 Q14393 GDF15 Growth/differentiation factor 15 Q99988 GFAP Glial fibrillary acidic protein P14136 GFRAL GDNF family receptor alpha-like Q6UXV0 GHRL Appetite-regulating hormone Q9UBU3 GIP Gastric inhibitory polypeptide P09681 GIPC2 PDZ domain-containing protein Q8TF65 GIPC2 GP2 Pancreatic secretory granule P55259 membrane major glycoprotein GP2 GZMB Granzyme B P10144 HAVCR1 Hepatitis A virus cellular receptor Q96D42 1 HMCN2 Hemicentin-2 Q8NDA2 HSD11B1 Corticosteroid 11-beta- dehydrogenase isozyme 1 IGDCC4 Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC Q8TDY8 subclass member 4 IL17D Interleukin-17D Q8TAD2 IL5RA Interleukin-5 receptor subunit Q01344 alpha IL7R Interleukin-7 receptor subunit P16871 alpha INSL3 Insulin-like 3 P51460 ITGAV Integrin alpha-V P06756 ITGB5 Integrin beta-5 P18084 ITGBL1 Integrin beta-like protein 1 O95965 KIF22 Kinesin-like protein KIF22 Q14807 KIT Mast/stem cell growth factor P10721 receptor Kit KLK14 Kallikrein-14 Q9P0G3 KLK3 Prostate-specific antigen P07288 KLK4 Kallikrein-4 Q9Y5K2 KLK7 Kallikrein-7 P49862 KLK8 Kallikrein-8 O60259 KLRF1 Killer cell lectin-like receptor Q9NZS2 subfamily F member 1 L1CAM Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 P32004 LACRT Extracellular glycoprotein lacritin Q9GZZ8 LECT2 Leukocyte cell-derived O14960 chemotaxin-2 LEG1 Protein LEG1 homolog Q6P5S2 LHB Lutropin subunit beta P01229 LMOD1 Leiomodin-1 P29536 LPO Lactoperoxidase P22079 LTBP2 Latent-transforming growth factor Q14767 beta-binding protein 2 LYPD3 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing O95274 protein 3 MAMDC4 Apical endosomal glycoprotein Q6UXC1 MATN3 Matrilin-3 O15232 MEP1B Meprin A subunit beta Q16820 MEPE Matrix extracellular Q9NQ76 phosphoglycoprotein MERTK Tyrosine-protein kinase Mer Q12866 MFGE8 Lactadherin Q08431 MLN Promotilin P12872 MMP12 Macrophage metalloelastase P39900 MOG Myelin-oligodendrocyte Q16653 glycoprotein MXRA8 Matrix remodeling-associated Q9BRK3 protein 8 NCAN Neurocan core protein O14594 NEFL Neurofilament light polypeptide P07196 NME3 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase 3 Q13232 NOTCH3 Neurogenic locus notch homolog Q9UM47 protein 3 NPL N-acetylneuraminate lyase Q9BXD5 NPTX2 Neuronal pentraxin-2 P47972 NTF3 Neurotrophin-3 P20783 NTF4 Neurotrophin-4 P34130 NTproBNP N-terminal prohormone of brain NT-proBNP natriuretic peptide ODAM Odontogenic ameloblast- A1E959 associated protein PAEP Glycodelin P09466 PAMR1 Inactive serine protease PAMR1 Q6UXH9 PINLYP phospholipase A2 inhibitor and A6NC86 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein PKD1 Polycystin-1 P98161 PLAT Tissue-type plasminogen activator P00750 PODXL2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Q9NZ53 POMC Pro-opiomelanocortin P01189 PRELP Prolargin P51888 PRL Prolactin P01236 PRND Prion-like protein doppel Q9UKY0 PROK1 Prokineticin-1 P58294 PSPN Persephin O60542 PTGDS Prostaglandin-H2 D-isomerase P41222 PTN Pleiotrophin P21246 PTPRM Receptor-type tyrosine-protein P28827 phosphatase mu PTPRN2 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein Q92932 phosphatase N2 PTPRR Receptor-type tyrosine-protein Q15256 phosphatase R PTPRZ1 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein P23471 phosphatase zeta REN Renin P00797 RET Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein P07949 kinase receptor Ret RGMA Repulsive guidance molecule A Q96B86 RGMB RGM domain family member B RLN2 Prorelaxin H2 P04090 ROBO1 Roundabout homolog 1 Q9Y6N7 RRM2 Ribonucleoside-diphosphate P31350 reductase subunit M2 SCARF2 Scavenger receptor class F Q96GP6 member 2 SCG2 Secretogranin-2 P13521 SCG3 Secretogranin-3 Q8WXD2 SCGB1A1 Uteroglobin P11684 SDK2 Protein sidekick-2 Q58EX2 SEPTIN3 Neuronal-specific septin-3 Q9UH03 SOD2 Superoxide dismutase [Mn], P04179 mitochondrial SORCS2 VPS10 domain-containing Q96PQ0 receptor SorCS2 SOST Sclerostin Q9BQB4 SPINK1 Serine protease inhibitor Kazal- P00995 type 1 SPON2 Spondin-2 Q9BUD6 SPRR3 Small proline-rich protein 3 Q9UBC9 SRPX Sushi repeat-containing protein P78539 SRPX SUSD2 Sushi domain-containing protein 2 Q9UGT4 SUSD5 Sushi domain-containing protein 5 O60279 TFF1 Trefoil factor 1 P04155 THBS2 Thrombospondin-2 P35442 TNFRSF11B Tumor necrosis factor receptor O00300 superfamily member 11B TNFRSF13B Tumor necrosis factor receptor O14836 superfamily member 13B TNFSF13 Tumor necrosis factor ligand O75888 superfamily member 13 TNXB Tenascin-X P22105 TSPAN1 Tetraspanin-1 O60635 WFDC2 WAP four-disulfide core domain Q14508 protein 2 WIF1 Wnt inhibitory factor 1 Q9Y5W5 WNT9A Protein Wnt-9a O14904 XCL1 Lymphotactin P47992

TABLE-US-00009 TABLE 6 Biomarkers significant in ProtAgeAccel20 model. A list of all 20 biomarkers identified in the 20-biomarker aging model. Further included are the UniProt ID for each protein. Gene name Protein name UniProt ID ACRV1 Acrosomal protein SP-10 P26436 AGRP Agouti-related protein O00253 CDCP1 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Q9H5V8 COL6A3 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain P12111 CXCL17 C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Q6UXB2 EDA2R Tumor necrosis factor receptor Q9HAV5 superfamily member 27 ELN Elastin P15502 ENG Endoglin P17813 FSHB Follitropin subunit beta P01225 GDF15 Growth/differentiation factor 15 Q99988 GFAP Glial fibrillary acidic protein P14136 IGDCC4 Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC Q8TDY8 subclass member 4 KLK3 Prostate-specific antigen P07288 KLK7 Kallikrein-7 P49862 LECT2 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 O14960 LTBP2 Latent-transforming growth factor Q14767 beta-binding protein 2 NEFL Neurofilament light polypeptide P07196 PODXL2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Q9NZ53 PTPRR Receptor-type tyrosine-protein Q15256 phosphatase R SCARF2 Scavenger receptor class F member 2 Q96GP6

TABLE-US-00010 TABLE 7 Associations between ProtAgeAccel and biological aging phenotypes in the full UK Biobank cohort (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from linear regressions between ProtAgeAccel and all aging biomarkers tested. Outcome Coefficient Low_95%_CI High_95%_CI FDR P-value Hand grip strength (right) 0.0229 0.0257 0.0200 6.32E55 Hand grip strength (left) 0.0221 0.0249 0.0193 6.31E54 Telomere length 0.0186 0.0219 0.0152 9.30E27 IGF-1 0.0136 0.0169 0.0103 2.43E15 Lung function (FEV1) 0.0135 0.0162 0.0107 2.42E21 Fluid intelligence 0.0095 0.0127 0.0063 8.06E09 Albumin 0.0087 0.0121 0.0054 5.02E07 Heel bone mineral density 0.0073 0.0106 0.0041 1.15E05 Total bilirubin 0.0023 0.0056 0.0010 1.87E01 ALT 0.0007 0.0026 0.0041 6.65E01 BMI 0.0079 0.0045 0.0113 4.64E06 GGT 0.0083 0.0049 0.0117 1.81E06 Arterial stiffness index 0.0095 0.0063 0.0127 8.06E09 AST 0.0105 0.0071 0.0139 2.71E09 C-reactive protein 0.0112 0.0078 0.0146 2.66E10 Reaction time 0.0116 0.0083 0.0148 6.42E12 Systolic blood pressure 0.0127 0.0093 0.0161 3.69E13 Diastolic blood pressure 0.0128 0.0096 0.0160 8.51E15 Creatinine 0.0158 0.0127 0.0188 7.24E24 Frequent insomnia 0.0185 0.0107 0.0262 3.64E06 Frailty index (continuous) 0.0258 0.0226 0.0291 1.89E53 Tired/lethargic every day 0.0325 0.0189 0.0461 3.56E06 Sleep 10+ hours / day 0.0404 0.0165 0.0644 1.02E03 Cystatin C 0.0418 0.0387 0.0450 2.85E145 Self-rated facial aging 0.0680 0.0482 0.0879 3.54E11 Slow walking pace 0.0886 0.0762 0.1011 1.12E43 Poor self-rated health 0.0981 0.0828 0.1135 1.94E35

TABLE-US-00011 TABLE 8 Associations between ProtAgeAccel and functional and physiological decline in the full UK Biobank cohort (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from linear/logistic regressions between ProtAgeAccel and all functional measures of physical and cognitive decline tested. Outcome Coefficient Low_95%_CI High_95%_Cl FDR P-value Hand grip strength (right) 0.0188 0.0230 0.0146 2.90E17 Hand grip strength (left) 0.0158 0.0199 0.0117 5.22E13 Telomere length 0.0158 0.0209 0.0108 3.32E09 IGF-1 0.0119 0.0167 0.0071 3.22E06 Lung function (FEV1) 0.0069 0.0109 0.0029 1.15E03 Fluid intelligence 0.0109 0.0158 0.0061 2.66E05 Albumin 0.0019 0.0069 0.0030 4.74E01 Heel bone mineral density 0.0079 0.0126 0.0031 2.11E03 Total bilirubin 0.0039 0.0090 0.0012 1.53E01 ALT 0.0052 0.0008 0.0095 2.70E02 BMI 0.0066 0.0020 0.0111 6.46E03 GGT 0.0047 0.0011 0.0084 1.55E02 Arterial stiffness index 0.0087 0.0043 0.0130 2.03E04 AST 0.0135 0.0095 0.0175 1.76E10 C-reactive protein 0.0083 0.0041 0.0126 2.26E04 Reaction time 0.0080 0.0035 0.0126 1.10E03 Systolic blood pressure 0.0177 0.0127 0.0228 3.30E11 Diastolic blood pressure 0.0156 0.0110 0.0203 1.90E10 Creatinine 0.0074 0.0045 0.0104 3.17E06 Frequent insomnia 0.0137 0.0013 0.0261 3.65E02 Frailty index (continuous) 0.0064 0.0023 0.0105 3.41E03 Tired/lethargic every day 0.0051 0.0186 0.0288 6.97E01 Sleep 10+ hours / day 0.0084 0.0386 0.0554 7.25E01 Cystatin C 0.0312 0.0280 0.0344 7.77E80 Self-rated facial aging 0.0208 0.0124 0.0539 2.47E01 Slow walking pace 0.0644 0.0377 0.0911 5.92E06 Poor self-rated health 0.0507 0.0157 0.0857 6.46E03

TABLE-US-00012 TABLE 9 Associations between ProtAgeAccel and biological aging phenotypes in the subset of UK Biobank participants with no lifetime disease diagnoses (n = 20,353). Summary statistics from linear regressions between ProtAgeAccel and all aging biomarkers tested. Outcome Coefficient Low_95%_CI High_95%_CI FDR P-value Hand grip strength (right) 0.0188 0.0211 0.0165 1.76E56 Hand grip strength (left) 0.0178 0.0200 0.0155 4.92E53 Telomere length 0.0206 0.0233 0.0179 3.91E49 IGF-1 0.0129 0.0156 0.0103 7.11E21 Lung function (FEV1) 0.0124 0.0146 0.0101 4.15E27 Fluid intelligence 0.0072 0.0098 0.0046 5.58E08 Albumin 0.0197 0.0224 0.0170 4.72E45 Heel bone mineral density 0.0077 0.0104 0.0051 1.35E08 Total bilirubin 0.0061 0.0088 0.0034 1.06E05 ALT 0.0170 0.0143 0.0197 2.96E34 BMI 0.0036 0.0009 0.0064 9.58E03 GGT 0.0169 0.0141 0.0196 2.36E33 Arterial stiffness index 0.0071 0.0045 0.0096 1.13E07 AST 0.0274 0.0246 0.0301 4.67E83 C-reactive protein 0.0213 0.0186 0.0241 8.56E51 Reaction time 0.0094 0.0068 0.0121 3.48E12 Systolic blood pressure 0.0035 0.0008 0.0063 1.23E02 Diastolic blood pressure 0.0003 0.0029 0.0023 8.26E01 Creatinine 0.0186 0.0162 0.0211 3.71E49 Frequent insomnia 0.0269 0.0206 0.0332 1.17E16 Frailty index (continuous) 0.0258 0.0232 0.0284 3.49E80 Tired/lethargic every day 0.0476 0.0365 0.0586 4.86E17 Sleep 10+ hours / day 0.0376 0.0179 0.0573 2.11E04 Cystatin C 0.0448 0.0422 0.0474 1.48E253 Self-rated facial aging 0.0613 0.0452 0.0774 1.32E13 Slow walking pace 0.0886 0.0783 0.0990 5.81E63 Poor self-rated health 0.1122 0.0996 0.1249 6.55E67

TABLE-US-00013 TABLE 10 Associations between ProtAgeAccel and functional and physiological decline in the subset of UK Biobank participants with no lifetime disease diagnoses (n = 20,353). Summary statistics from linear/logistic regressions between ProtAgeAccel and all functional measures of physical and cognitive decline tested. Outcome Coefficient Low_95%_CI High_95%_CI FDR P-value Hand grip strength (right) 0.0139 0.0173 0.0105 3.97E15 Hand grip strength (left) 0.0115 0.0148 0.0082 3.84E11 Telomere length 0.0187 0.0228 0.0147 1.16E18 IGF-1 0.0107 0.0146 0.0069 1.46E07 Lung function (FEV1) 0.0061 0.0093 0.0029 3.51E04 Fluid intelligence 0.0066 0.0105 0.0027 1.38E03 Albumin 0.0102 0.0142 0.0063 1.04E06 Heel bone mineral density 0.0069 0.0108 0.0031 6.31E04 Total bilirubin 0.0077 0.0118 0.0036 3.65E04 ALT 0.0178 0.0143 0.0213 3.85E22 BMI 0.0007 0.0029 0.0044 7.23E01 GGT 0.0079 0.0049 0.0108 4.70E07 Arterial stiffness index 0.0060 0.0025 0.0094 1.18E03 AST 0.0256 0.0224 0.0289 4.04E54 C-reactive protein 0.0154 0.0120 0.0188 2.62E18 Reaction time 0.0047 0.0011 0.0084 1.34E02 Systolic blood pressure 0.0054 0.0013 0.0094 1.22E02 Diastolic blood pressure 0.0022 0.0016 0.0059 2.78E01 Creatinine 0.0111 0.0087 0.0134 9.81E19 Frequent insomnia 0.0211 0.0112 0.0311 6.27E05 Frailty index (continuous) 0.0077 0.0044 0.0110 1.09E05 Tired/lethargic every day 0.0222 0.0031 0.0412 2.51E02 Sleep 10+ hours / day 0.0005 0.0377 0.0387 9.79E01 Cystatin C 0.0329 0.0304 0.0355 2.13E137 Self-rated facial aging 0.0344 0.0078 0.0610 1.34E02 Slow walking pace 0.0619 0.0403 0.0834 5.89E08 Poor self-rated health 0.0547 0.0266 0.0828 2.50E04

TABLE-US-00014 TABLE 11 Associations between ProtAgeAccel and mortality and incident non- cancer diseases (Model 1) in the full UK Biobank population (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from Cox proportional hazards models between ProtAgeAccel and all-cause mortality and incidence of all non-cancer illnesses using model 1 covariates (age and sex). Hazard Low High FDR Outcome Ratio 95% CI 95% CI P-value Type II diabetes 1.0349 1.0202 1.0497 3.46E06 Parkinson's disease 1.0369 0.9988 1.0764 5.78E02 Rheumatoid arthritis 1.0465 1.0206 1.0732 4.16E04 Chronic liver diseases 1.0471 1.0232 1.0715 1.06E04 Osteoarthritis 1.0477 1.0375 1.0581 5.05E20 Macular degeneration 1.0501 1.0250 1.0759 9.24E05 Ischemic heart disease 1.0570 1.0453 1.0688 7.42E22 Osteoporosis 1.0772 1.0571 1.0978 2.35E14 All stroke 1.0781 1.0558 1.1008 2.78E12 Ischemic stroke 1.0813 1.0573 1.1059 1.34E11 Emphysema, COPD 1.0886 1.0703 1.1071 3.30E22 All-cause mortality 1.1068 1.0944 1.1194 1.19E68 Chronic kidney 1.1080 1.0912 1.1251 1.40E38 diseases All-cause dementia 1.1298 1.1016 1.1587 8.43E21 Alzheimer's disease 1.1559 1.1173 1.1957 1.17E16

TABLE-US-00015 TABLE 12 Associations between ProtAgeAccel and mortality and incident non-cancer diseases (Model 2) in the full UK Biobank population (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from Cox proportional hazards models between ProtAgeAccel and all-cause mortality and incidence of all non-cancer illnesses using model 2 covariates (age, sex, ethnicity, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, IPAQ activity group, and smoking status). Hazard Low High FDR Outcome Ratio 95% CI 95% CI P-value Parkinson's disease 1.0321 0.9940 1.0716 9.98E02 Chronic liver diseases 1.0383 1.0147 1.0624 1.46E03 Type II diabetes 1.0412 1.0265 1.0560 3.26E08 Rheumatoid arthritis 1.0446 1.0187 1.0711 7.55E04 Osteoarthritis 1.0461 1.0358 1.0565 1.45E18 Macular degeneration 1.0513 1.0261 1.0772 6.75E05 Ischemic heart disease 1.0557 1.0440 1.0676 6.21E21 Osteoporosis 1.0752 1.0549 1.0959 1.71E13 All stroke 1.0817 1.0593 1.1046 3.14E13 Ischemic stroke 1.0849 1.0607 1.1097 2.08E12 Emphysema, COPD 1.0871 1.0689 1.1057 1.37E21 All-cause mortality 1.1061 1.0937 1.1188 6.03E67 Chronic kidney 1.1118 1.0949 1.1289 3.08E41 diseases All-cause dementia 1.1339 1.1055 1.1632 1.37E21 Alzheimer's disease 1.1610 1.1219 1.2015 2.94E17

TABLE-US-00016 TABLE 13 Associations between ProtAgeAccel and mortality and incident non- cancer diseases (Model 3) in the full UK Biobank population (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from Cox proportional hazards models between ProtAgeAccel and all-cause mortality and incidence of all non-cancer illnesses using model 2 covariates (age, sex, ethnicity, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, IPAQ activity group, smoking status, BMI, and prevalent hypertension). Hazard Low High FDR Outcome Ratio 95% CI 95% CI P-value Chronic liver diseases 1.0256 1.0025 1.0493 3.20E02 Type II diabetes 1.0268 1.0125 1.0413 2.63E04 Parkinson's disease 1.0319 0.9937 1.0715 1.03E01 Rheumatoid arthritis 1.0392 1.0135 1.0655 2.98E03 Osteoarthritis 1.0434 1.0331 1.0538 1.06E16 Macular degeneration 1.0479 1.0228 1.0737 2.17E04 Ischemic heart disease 1.0494 1.0378 1.0612 6.68E17 All stroke 1.0733 1.0511 1.0960 5.58E11 Osteoporosis 1.0746 1.0543 1.0954 3.15E13 Ischemic stroke 1.0755 1.0516 1.1000 3.48E10 Emphysema, COPD 1.0810 1.0628 1.0994 7.87E19 All-cause mortality 1.1008 1.0884 1.1133 1.11E60 Chronic kidney 1.1010 1.0844 1.1179 1.72E34 diseases All-cause dementia 1.1292 1.1007 1.1583 4.98E20 Alzheimer's disease 1.1570 1.1180 1.1975 1.85E16

TABLE-US-00017 TABLE 14 Associations between ProtAgeAccel20 and mortality and incident non- cancer diseases (Model 1) in the full UK Biobank population (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from Cox proportional hazards models between ProtAgeAccel and all-cause mortality and incidence of all non-cancer illnesses using model 1 covariates (age and sex). Hazard Low High FDR Outcome Ratio 95% CI 95% CI P-value Type II diabetes 1.0341 1.0222 1.0462 1.82E08 Parkinson's disease 1.0351 1.0032 1.0680 3.10E02 Rheumatoid arthritis 1.0456 1.0243 1.0673 2.25E05 Chronic liver diseases 1.0877 1.0677 1.1082 1.65E18 Osteoarthritis 1.0373 1.0290 1.0456 1.00E18 Macular degeneration 1.0462 1.0249 1.0679 1.87E05 Ischemic heart disease 1.0492 1.0397 1.0588 2.03E24 Osteoporosis 1.0772 1.0603 1.0943 6.08E20 All stroke 1.0580 1.0398 1.0765 2.56E10 Ischemic stroke 1.0617 1.0420 1.0817 4.73E10 Emphysema, COPD 1.0994 1.0839 1.1150 9.95E39 All-cause mortality 1.1125 1.1019 1.1232 9.45E105 Chronic kidney 1.1145 1.1001 1.1291 4.14E59 diseases All-cause dementia 1.1203 1.0955 1.1458 9.72E23 Alzheimer's disease 1.1344 1.1003 1.1695 8.79E16

TABLE-US-00018 TABLE 15 Associations between ProtAgeAccel20 and mortality and incident non-cancer diseases (Model 2) in the full UK Biobank population (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from Cox proportional hazards models between ProtAgeAccel20 and all-cause mortality and incidence of all non-cancer illnesses using model 2 covariates (age, sex, ethnicity, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, IPAQ activity group, and smoking status). Hazard Low High FDR Outcome Ratio 95% CI 95% CI P-value Parkinson's disease 1.0327 1.0007 1.0658 4.51E02 Chronic liver diseases 1.0767 1.0568 1.0969 1.27E14 Type II diabetes 1.0381 1.0261 1.0502 4.78E10 Rheumatoid arthritis 1.0434 1.0221 1.0652 5.73E05 Osteoarthritis 1.0348 1.0265 1.0433 2.71E16 Macular degeneration 1.0466 1.0251 1.0684 1.92E05 Ischemic heart disease 1.0446 1.0350 1.0542 4.19E20 Osteoporosis 1.0747 1.0577 1.0920 2.21E18 All stroke 1.0565 1.0383 1.0751 8.38E10 Ischemic stroke 1.0594 1.0397 1.0796 2.26E09 Emphysema, COPD 1.0833 1.0680 1.0989 2.06E27 All-cause mortality 1.1061 1.0955 1.1168 7.23E92 Chronic kidney 1.1164 1.1018 1.1311 6.51E60 diseases All-cause dementia 1.1214 1.0963 1.1471 1.44E22 Alzheimer's disease 1.1361 1.1016 1.1718 9.77E16

TABLE-US-00019 TABLE 16 Associations between ProtAgeAccel20 and mortality and incident non- cancer diseases (Model 3) in the full UK Biobank population (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from Cox proportional hazards models between ProtAgeAccel20 and all-cause mortality and incidence of all non-cancer illnesses using model 2 covariates (age, sex, ethnicity, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, IPAQ activity group, smoking status, BMI, and prevalent hypertension). Hazard Low High FDR Outcome Ratio 95% CI 95% CI P-value Chronic liver diseases 1.0678 1.0482 1.0879 7.66E12 Type II diabetes 1.0283 1.0165 1.0403 2.84E06 Parkinson's disease 1.0327 1.0006 1.0658 4.60E02 Rheumatoid arthritis 1.0409 1.0197 1.0625 1.47E04 Osteoarthritis 1.0337 1.0254 1.0422 2.09E15 Macular degeneration 1.0449 1.0235 1.0668 3.68E05 Ischemic heart disease 1.0411 1.0316 1.0507 2.24E17 All stroke 1.0516 1.0335 1.0700 2.08E08 Osteoporosis 1.0724 1.0555 1.0897 2.24E17 Ischemic stroke 1.0539 1.0343 1.0739 5.62E08 Emphysema, COPD 1.0795 1.0642 1.0950 3.88E25 All-cause mortality 1.1027 1.0921 1.1134 2.06E86 Chronic kidney 1.1106 1.0962 1.1253 9.86E55 diseases All-cause dementia 1.1183 1.0932 1.1439 1.53E21 Alzheimer's disease 1.1334 1.0989 1.1689 3.36E15

TABLE-US-00020 TABLE 17 Associations between ProtAgeAccel and mortality and incident cancers (Model 1) in the full UK Biobank population (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from Cox proportional hazards models between ProtAgeAccel and all-cause mortality and incidence of cancers using model 1 covariates (age and sex). Hazard Low High FDR Outcome Ratio 95% CI 95% CI P-value Hodgkin lymphoma 0.9666 0.8338 1.1206 7.12E01 Breast cancer 0.9897 0.9648 1.0152 5.08E01 Ovarian cancer 0.9955 0.9320 1.0634 8.94E01 Colorectal cancer 1.0184 0.9875 1.0501 3.69E01 Leukemia 1.0307 0.9690 1.0964 4.49E01 Pancreatic cancer 1.0379 0.9761 1.1035 3.69E01 Prostate cancer 1.0465 1.0230 1.0705 1.03E03 Brain cancer 1.0523 0.9740 1.1369 3.69E01 Liver cancer 1.0554 0.9730 1.1449 3.69E01 Lung cancer 1.0638 1.0282 1.1007 2.22E03 Esophageal cancer 1.0800 1.0151 1.1490 4.47E02 Non-Hodgkin lymphoma 1.0824 1.0294 1.1382 7.97E03

TABLE-US-00021 TABLE 18 Associations between ProtAgeAccel and mortality and incident cancers (Model 2) in the full UK Biobank population (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from Cox proportional hazards models between ProtAgeAccel and all-cause mortality and incidence of cancers using model 2 covariates (age, sex, ethnicity, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, IPAQ activity group, and smoking status). Hazard Low High FDR Outcome Ratio 95% CI 95% CI P-value Hodgkin lymphoma 0.9703 0.8370 1.1248 7.52E01 Breast cancer 0.9885 0.9636 1.0140 4.62E01 Ovarian cancer 0.9903 0.9272 1.0576 7.71E01 Colorectal cancer 1.0157 0.9849 1.0474 4.62E01 Leukemia 1.0277 0.9662 1.0931 4.62E01 Pancreatic cancer 1.0349 0.9736 1.1001 4.62E01 Prostate cancer 1.0475 1.0239 1.0715 3.80E04 Liver cancer 1.0492 0.9677 1.1376 4.62E01 Brain cancer 1.0528 0.9742 1.1377 4.62E01 Lung cancer 1.0725 1.0365 1.1097 3.80E04 Esophageal cancer 1.0794 1.0142 1.1488 4.88E02 Non-Hodgkin lymphoma 1.0794 1.0267 1.1349 1.12E02

TABLE-US-00022 TABLE 19 Associations between ProtAgeAccel and mortality and incident cancers (Model 3) in the full UK Biobank population (n = 45,441). Summary statistics from Cox proportional hazards models between ProtAgeAccel and all-cause mortality and incidence of cancers using model 2 covariates (age, sex, ethnicity, Townsend deprivation index, recruitment centre, IPAQ activity group, smoking status, BMI, and prevalent hypertension). Hazard Low High FDR Outcome Ratio 95% CI 95% CI P-value Hodgkin lymphoma 0.9693 0.8359 1.1241 7.02E01 Ovarian cancer 0.9872 0.9243 1.0545 7.02E01 Breast cancer 0.9886 0.9637 1.0141 4.54E01 Colorectal cancer 1.0169 0.9860 1.0488 4.54E01 Leukemia 1.0299 0.9681 1.0957 4.54E01 Pancreatic cancer 1.0354 0.9740 1.1006 4.54E01 Liver cancer 1.0432 0.9623 1.1309 4.54E01 Prostate cancer 1.0488 1.0251 1.0731 5.17E04 Brain cancer 1.0555 0.9765 1.1409 4.16E01 Lung cancer 1.0698 1.0339 1.1071 6.61E04 Esophageal cancer 1.0752 1.0102 1.1444 6.83E02 Non-Hodgkin lymphoma 1.0790 1.0261 1.1345 1.20E02

TABLE-US-00023 TABLE 20 Age-specific incidence rates in the UK Biobank for mortality and age-related diseases by ProtAgeAccel (PAA) deciles. Cumulative incidence rates are shown for those who are aged 50, 55, 60, and 65 years at recruitment in the UK Biobank (n = 45,441). Incidence rates are for the 11-16 years after recruitment in the UK Biobank. ProtAgeAccel 50 55 60 65 Outcome decile years years years years All-cause mortality Top 10% 2.78 7.34 19.07 60.02 Median 10% 0.43 1.11 2.87 12.60 Bottom 10% 0.05 0.24 0.62 3.99 Type II diabetes Top 10% 2.67 6.33 13.47 47.49 Median 10% 0.62 1.30 3.53 8.99 Bottom 10% 0.10 0.30 1.14 3.75 Ischemic heart disease Top 10% 3.26 8.76 22.04 47.60 Median 10% 1.12 2.28 5.02 14.65 Bottom 10% 0.16 0.67 1.58 5.34 All stroke Top 10% 1.27 2.57 6.24 10.53 Median 10% 0.24 0.36 0.81 4.60 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.10 0.37 1.38 Ischemic stroke Top 10% 1.09 2.12 6.12 9.50 Median 10% 0.19 0.26 0.55 3.57 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.10 0.26 0.96 Emphysema, COPD Top 10% 2.02 4.87 11.91 28.23 Median 10% 0.24 0.99 1.92 6.08 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.05 0.50 2.15 Chronic liver diseases Top 10% 1.29 2.97 6.23 10.96 Median 10% 0.20 0.48 1.23 3.12 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.05 0.10 1.02 Chronic kidney Top 10% 1.91 6.27 15.36 53.27 diseases Median 10% 0.28 0.63 2.09 9.21 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.15 0.32 2.10 All-cause dementia Top 10% 0.37 0.99 4.04 30.57 Median 10% 0.05 0.05 0.36 2.84 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.41 Alzheimer's disease Top 10% 0.13 0.90 1.70 12.49 Median 10% 0.05 0.11 0.26 1.32 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.35 Parkinson's disease Top 10% 0.07 0.18 1.68 5.70 Median 10% 0.00 0.06 0.28 1.32 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.22 Rheumatoid arthritis Top 10% 0.94 2.17 5.33 26.06 Median 10% 0.41 0.71 1.14 4.09 Bottom 10% 0.05 0.30 0.68 1.47 Macular degeneration Top 10% 0.12 0.82 4.14 14.09 Median 10% 0.05 0.51 1.63 5.69 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.10 0.26 1.35 Osteoporosis Top 10% 1.58 4.58 14.48 44.63 Median 10% 0.48 1.03 2.50 8.93 Bottom 10% 0.20 0.35 0.80 4.04 Osteoarthritis Top 10% 7.58 18.69 40.15 76.65 Median 10% 2.21 4.92 11.53 27.47 Bottom 10% 0.41 1.49 3.51 10.63

TABLE-US-00024 TABLE 21 Age-specific incidence rates in the China Kadoorie Biobank for mortality and age-related diseases by ProtAgeAccel (PAA) deciles. Cumulative incidence rates are shown for those who are aged 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, and 65 years at recruitment in the China Kadoorie Biobank (n = 2,026). Incidence rates are for the 11-14 years after recruitment in the China Kadoorie Biobank. ProtAgeAccel 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 Outcome decile years years years years years years years All-cause mortality Top 10% 0.53 2.64 4.65 7.63 19.82 32.65 32.65 Median 10% 0.00 0.00 0.57 0.57 3.39 7.57 7.57 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.24 1.93 4.94 All stroke Top 10% 0.00 1.97 3.17 12.09 22.09 34.55 47.64 Median 10% 0.00 0.52 1.85 2.78 5.42 10.65 18.74 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.06 2.18 4.29 11.00 Ischemic stroke Top 10% 0.00 1.97 3.17 8.67 19.06 32.01 45.61 Median 10% 0.00 0.52 1.85 2.78 5.42 7.67 16.03 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.06 2.18 4.29 8.94 Ischemic heart Top 10% 0.00 1.89 5.09 6.41 20.77 28.69 28.69 disease Median 10% 0.00 0.00 0.70 3.96 6.95 8.70 27.56 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.54 1.13 2.66 11.68 Type II diabetes Top 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.52 6.52 6.52 Median 10% 0.00 0.00 1.47 3.93 6.34 10.47 14.74 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.96 3.55 4.80 Emphysema, COPD Top 10% 0.00 0.86 0.86 0.86 13.49 13.49 35.12 Median 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.45 2.45 4.48 4.48 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.75 4.13 Chronic liver Top 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.04 4.04 4.04 diseases Median 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.59 0.59 Chronic kidney Top 10% 0.00 1.41 3.86 5.78 8.40 14.94 14.94 diseases Median 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Bottom 10% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

TABLE-US-00025 TABLE 22 Individual aging biomarker and frailty variables tested in the UK Biobank. Descriptions and Field IDs for variables used in aging biomarker and functional outcome analyses. Field ID Biomarkers Alanine aminotransferase 30620 Albumin 30600 Aspartate aminotransferase 30650 High sensitivity C-reactive protein 30710 Creatinine 30700 Cystatin C 30720 Total bilirubin 30840 Gamma glutamyltransferase 30730 Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) 30770 Leukocyte telomere length 22192 Physical measures Usual walking pace 924 Body mass index (BMI) 21001 Self-rated health 2178 Facial aging 1757 Hours of sleep 1160 Tiredness 2080 Insomnia 1200 Systolic blood pressure 4080 Diastolic blood pressure 4079 Arterial stiffness index 21021 Heel bone mineral density 3148 Lung function (FEV1) best measure 20150 Hand grip strength (left) 46 Hand grip strength (right) 47 Cognitive measures Reaction time 20023 Fluid intelligence score 20016

TABLE-US-00026 TABLE 23 Items used to construct the frailty index in the UK Biobank. Descriptions and Field IDs for variables used to construct the summary frailty index. Type of deficit Item Trait Field ID Categories Coding in Frailty Index Sensory 1 Glaucoma * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 2 Cataracts * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 3 Hearing 2247 no, yes, Categorized 0/1 difficulty completely deaf (combined yes/deaf groups as 1) Cranial 4 Migraine * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 5 Dental 6149 ulcers, painful Categorized 0/1 for none problems gums, bleeding vs. any gums, loose teeth, toothache, dentures Mental 6 Self-rated 2178 excellent, good, 0excellent; wellbeing health fair, poor 0.25good; 0.5fair, 1poor 7 Fatigue: 2080 not at all, 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, frequency of several days, respectively tiredness/ more than half, lethargy in nearly every last two weeks day 8 Sleep: 1200 never/rarely, Categorized 0, 0.5, 1, experience of sometimes, respectively sleeplessness/ usually insomnia 9 Depressed 2050 not at all, 0not at all, feelings: several days, 0.5several days, frequency in more than half, 0.75more than half, last two weeks nearly every 1nearly every day day 10 Self-described 1970 no, yes Categorized 0/1 nervous personality 11 Severe anxiety/ 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 panic attacks * 12 Common to feel 2020 no, yes Categorized 0/1 loneliness 13 Sense of misery 1930 no, yes Categorized 0/1 (ever/never) Infirmity 14 Infirmity: 2188 no, yes Categorized 0/1 long-standing illness or disability 15 Falls in last 2296 categorical: no 0, 0.5, 1, respectively year falls, one fall, more than one 16 Fractures/ 2463 no, yes Categorized 0/1 broken bones in last five years Cardiometabolic 17 Diabetes * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 18 Myocardial 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 infarction * 19 Angina * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 20 Stroke * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 21 High blood 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 pressure * 22 Hypothyroidism * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 23 Deep-vein 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 thrombosis * 24 High 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 cholesterol * Respiratory 25 Breathing: 2316 no, yes Categorized 0/1 wheeze in last year 26 Pneumonia * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 27 Chronic 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 bronchitis/ emphysema * 28 Asthma * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 Musculoskeletal 29 Rheumatoid 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 arthritis * 30 Osteoarthritis * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 31 Gout * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 32 Osteoporosis * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 Immunological 33 Hay fever, 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 allergic rhinitis or eczema * 34 Psoriasis * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 Cancer 35 Any cancer 2453 no, yes Categorized 0/1 diagnosis * 36 Multiple cancers 134 Range from 0 0no cancer diagnosed to 6 or single cancer, (number reported) 1multiple cancers Pain 37 Chest pain 2335 no, yes Categorized 0/1 38 Head and/or neck 6159 no, yes Categorized 0/1 pain (combining responses to pain in head and neck/ shoulders) 39 Back pain 6159 no, yes Categorized 0/1 40 Stomach/ 6159 no, yes Categorized 0/1 abdominal pain 41 Hip pain 6159 no, yes Categorized 0/1 42 Knee pain 6159 no, yes Categorized 0/1 43 Whole-body pain 6159 no, yes Categorized 0/1 44 Facial pain 6159 no, yes Categorized 0/1 45 Sciatica * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 Gastrointestinal 46 Gastric reflux * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 47 Hiatus hernia * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 48 Gall stones * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 49 Diverticulitis * 20002 no, yes Categorized 0/1 * Self-reported from the baseline verbal interview. Frailty index was developed by Williams et al. 2019 in the UK Biobank. To create the score, 49 items are coded using the table. The frailty score is calculated by summing all 49 codes and dividing by the total number of items (49).

TABLE-US-00027 TABLE 24 Variables used to calculate prevalence and incidence of chronic diseases and clinical risk factors in the UK Biobank. ICD-9/10 codes and descriptions of self-report, biochemistry, and clinical interview variables used to code prevalent and incident disease outcomes. Verbal interview diagnosis codes are contained in the non-cancer illness (field ID 20002) variables. Incident disease case were mapped to corresponding ICD codes from the cancer register data (Field IDs 20006, 400013, 40005) and the HESIN and HESIN_DIAG data tables. For all incident diseases, additional cases were retrieve using ICD-10 codes from cause of death information from linked death register data. Baseline prevalence for all diseases and clinical risk factors was calculated for all participants using baseline measures (including verbal interview diagnosis codes) + those with an ICD diagnosis before or on the date of recruitment into the UK Biobank. Incident cases are defined as those with an ICD date of diagnosis after the date of recruitment who do not have any prevalent diagnosis. Unless specific ICD subcategories are already given with dot separators, all ICD codes listed also include all subcategories (e.g., J44 includes J44, J44.0, J44.1, J44.8, J44.9). Baseline verbal Baseline interview measures diagnosis ICD-10 ICD-9 (field ID) codes codes codes Chronic diseases Colorectal cancer C18-C20 153, 154 Lung cancer C33, C34 162 Esophageal cancer C15 150 Liver cancer C22 155 Pancreatic cancer C25 157 Brain cancer C71 191 Leukemia C91-C95 204-208 Non-Hodgkin lymphoma C82-C86 200, 202 Breast cancer C50 174 Ovarian cancer C56, C57 183 Prostate cancer C61 185 Type 2 diabetes Taking insulin 1223 E11 250 medication (6153, 6177) Non-fasting blood hbA1c .sup.3 48 mmol/mol (30750) Non-fasting blood glucose .sup.3 11.1 mmol/L (30740) Ischemic heart disease 1074, 1075 I20-I25 410-414 Cerebrovascular diseases 1081, 1086, I60-I69 430-438 1491, 1583 Emphysema, COPD 1112, 1472 J43-J44 492 Chronic liver diseases 1157, 1158, K70, 571 1604 K73-K74, K75.8, K76.0 Chronic kidney diseases 1192, 1193, N18 585 1194 All-cause dementia 1263 A81.0, 331.0, F00-F03, 290.4, F05.1, 331.1, F10.6, 290.2, G30- 290.3, G31, 291.2, I67.3 294.1, 331.2, 331.5 Vascular dementia 1263 F01, 290.4 I67.3 Alzheimer's disease 1263 F00, G30 331 Parkinson's disease and 1262 G20-G22 332 parkinsonism Rheumatoid arthritis 1464 M05-M06 714 Macular degeneration 1528 H35.3 362.5 Osteoporosis 1309 M80-M81 733 Osteoarthritis 1465 M15-M19 715 Clinical risk factors Prevalent hypertension High blood 1065, 1072 I10-I15 401-405 pressure diagnosis by physician (6150) Taking medication for high blood pressure (6153, 6177)

TABLE-US-00028 TABLE 25 Variables used to calculate prevalence and incidence of chronic diseases and clinical risk factors in the China Kadoorie Biobank. ICD-10 codes used to code incident disease outcomes. Unless specific ICD subcategories are already given with dot separators, all ICD codes listed also include all subcategories (e.g., J44 includes J44, J44.0, J44.1, J44.8, J44.9). Chronic diseases ICD-10 codes Ischemic stroke I63 All stroke I60-I61, I63-I64 All ischemic heart I20-I25 disease Type II diabetes E11-E14 Chronic obstructive J41-J44 pulmonary disease Chronic liver disease K70, K74-K746 Chronic Kidney disease N02-N03, N07, N11, N18

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CLAUSES OF THE INVENTION

1. A method for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, or for providing a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0331] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 1:

TABLE-US-00029 TABLE 1 Acrosomal protein SP-10 Glial fibrillary acidic protein Agouti-related protein Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Prostate-specific antigen Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain Kallikrein-7 C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 Tumor necrosis factor receptor Latent-transforming growth factor superfamily member 27 beta-binding protein 2 Elastin Neurofilament light polypeptide Endoglin Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Follitropin subunit beta Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Growth/differentiation factor 15 Scavenger receptor class F member 2
2. A method for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, or for providing a measurement for use in determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0332] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 50 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 2:

TABLE-US-00030 TABLE 2 Acrosomal protein SP-10 PDZ domain-containing protein GIPC2 Actin, aortic smooth muscle Pancreatic secretory granule membrane major glycoprotein GP2 Adenosine deaminase Granzyme B A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 thrombospondin motifs 13 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Hemicentin-2 thrombospondin motifs 15 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Corticosteroid 11-beta-dehydrogenase thrombospondin motifs 16 isozyme 1 ADAMTS-like protein 5 Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 Adhesion G-protein coupled receptor G1 Interleukin-17D Alpha-fetoprotein Interleukin-5 receptor subunit alpha Advanced glycosylation end product- Interleukin-7 receptor subunit alpha specific receptor Agouti-related protein Insulin-like 3 Protein AHNAK2 Integrin alpha-V Angiopoietin-2 Integrin beta-5 BAG family molecular chaperone Integrin beta-like protein 1 regulator 3 Brevican core protein Kinesin-like protein KIF22 Osteocalcin Mast/stem cell growth factor receptor Kit Brother of CDO Kallikrein-14 Basigin Prostate-specific antigen Protein C19orf12 Kallikrein-4 Complement C1q-like protein 2 Kallikrein-7 Carbonic anhydrase 14 Kallikrein-8 Carbonic anhydrase 4 Killer cell lectin-like receptor subfamily F member 1 Calbindin Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 Coiled-coil domain-containing protein 80 Extracellular glycoprotein lacritin C-C motif chemokine 28 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 CCN family member 5 Protein LEG1 homolog T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1c Lutropin subunit beta Endosialin Leiomodin-1 T-cell surface glycoprotein CD8 alpha Lactoperoxidase chain Complement component C1q receptor Latent-transforming growth factor beta- binding protein 2 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein 3 Cadherin-2 Apical endosomal glycoprotein Cadherin-3 Matrilin-3 Cadherin-related family member 2 Meprin A subunit beta Cell adhesion molecule-related/down- Matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein regulated by oncogenes Cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass G-type Tyrosine-protein kinase Mer receptor 2 Complement factor H-related protein 5 Lactadherin Secretogranin-1 Promotilin Chitotriosidase-1 Macrophage metalloelastase Chordin-like protein 1 Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein Chordin-like protein 2 Matrix remodeling-associated protein 8 Cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 Neurocan core protein C-type lectin domain family 14 member Neurofilament light polypeptide A Contactin-5 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase 3 Collagen alpha-1(XV) chain Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 3 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain N-acetylneuraminate lyase Collagen alpha-1(IX) chain Neuronal pentraxin-2 Complement receptor type 2 Neurotrophin-3 Corticoliberin Neurotrophin-4 Cartilage acidic protein 1 N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide Beta-crystallin B2 Odontogenic ameloblast-associated protein Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 5 Glycodelin Cystatin-SN Inactive serine protease PAMR1 Cystatin-D phospholipase A2 inhibitor and Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein Collagen triple helix repeat-containing Polycystin-1 protein 1 Cathepsin F Tissue-type plasminogen activator Cathepsin L2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor Pro-opiomelanocortin Stromal cell-derived factor 1 Prolargin C-X-C motif chemokine 14 Prolactin C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Prion-like protein doppel C-X-C motif chemokine 9 Prokineticin-1 NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase 2 Persephin Cytokine-like protein 1 Prostaglandin-H2 D-isomerase Discoidin, CUB and LCCL domain- Pleiotrophin containing protein 2 Decorin Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase mu Divergent protein kinase domain 2B Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase N2 Dickkopf-related protein 3 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Dickkopf-like protein 1 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase zeta Protein delta homolog 1 Renin Dentin matrix acidic phosphoprotein 1 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Ret Dipeptidase 2 Repulsive guidance molecule A Dermatopontin RGM domain family member B Tumor necrosis factor receptor Prorelaxin H2 superfamily member 27 Epididymal secretory protein E3-beta Roundabout homolog 1 EGF-like repeat and discoidin I-like Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase domain-containing protein 3 subunit M2 EGF-containing fibulin-like extracellular Scavenger receptor class F member 2 matrix protein 1 EF-hand domain-containing protein D1 Secretogranin-2 Epidermal growth factor receptor Secretogranin-3 Elastin Uteroglobin Protein enabled homolog Protein sidekick-2 Endoglin Neuronal-specific septin-3 Beta-enolase Superoxide dismutase [Mn], mitochondrial Ectonucleotide VPS10 domain-containing receptor pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase SorCS2 family member 2 Ectonucleotide Sclerostin pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 5 Receptor tyrosine-protein kinase erbB-4 Serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 Fatty acid-binding protein, adipocyte Spondin-2 Protein FAM3B Small proline-rich protein 3 Prolyl endopeptidase FAP Sushi repeat-containing protein SRPX Tumor necrosis factor receptor Sushi domain-containing protein 2 superfamily member 6 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily Sushi domain-containing protein 5 member 6 Fibulin-2 Trefoil factor 1 Fc receptor-like protein 2 Thrombospondin-2 Fibroblast growth factor 5 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 11B Follitropin subunit beta Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 13B Follistatin-related protein 1 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 13 Growth arrest-specific protein 6 Tenascin-X Growth/differentiation factor 15 Tetraspanin-1 Glial fibrillary acidic protein WAP four-disulfide core domain protein 2 GDNF family receptor alpha-like Wnt inhibitory factor 1 Appetite-regulating hormone Protein Wnt-9a Gastric inhibitory polypeptide Lymphotactin
3. A method for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the severity of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the risk of a subject developing at least one disease; and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0333] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 1:

TABLE-US-00031 TABLE 1 Acrosomal protein SP-10 Glial fibrillary acidic protein Agouti-related protein Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Prostate-specific antigen Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain Kallikrein-7 C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 Tumor necrosis factor receptor Latent-transforming growth factor superfamily member 27 beta-binding protein 2 Elastin Neurofilament light polypeptide Endoglin Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Follitropin subunit beta Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Growth/differentiation factor 15 Scavenger receptor class F member 2.
4. A method for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the severity of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the risk of a subject developing at least one disease, and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0334] a) measuring, in a biological sample obtained from the subject at a first time point, the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 50 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 2:

TABLE-US-00032 TABLE 2 Acrosomal protein SP-10 PDZ domain-containing protein GIPC2 Actin, aortic smooth muscle Pancreatic secretory granule membrane major glycoprotein GP2 Adenosine deaminase Granzyme B A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 thrombospondin motifs 13 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Hemicentin-2 thrombospondin motifs 15 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Corticosteroid 11-beta-dehydrogenase thrombospondin motifs 16 isozyme 1 ADAMTS-like protein 5 Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 Adhesion G-protein coupled receptor G1 Interleukin-17D Alpha-fetoprotein Interleukin-5 receptor subunit alpha Advanced glycosylation end product- Interleukin-7 receptor subunit alpha specific receptor Agouti-related protein Insulin-like 3 Protein AHNAK2 Integrin alpha-V Angiopoietin-2 Integrin beta-5 BAG family molecular chaperone Integrin beta-like protein 1 regulator 3 Brevican core protein Kinesin-like protein KIF22 Osteocalcin Mast/stem cell growth factor receptor Kit Brother of CDO Kallikrein-14 Basigin Prostate-specific antigen Protein C19orf12 Kallikrein-4 Complement C1q-like protein 2 Kallikrein-7 Carbonic anhydrase 14 Kallikrein-8 Carbonic anhydrase 4 Killer cell lectin-like receptor subfamily F member 1 Calbindin Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 Coiled-coil domain-containing protein 80 Extracellular glycoprotein lacritin C-C motif chemokine 28 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 CCN family member 5 Protein LEG1 homolog T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1c Lutropin subunit beta Endosialin Leiomodin-1 T-cell surface glycoprotein CD8 alpha Lactoperoxidase chain Complement component C1q receptor Latent-transforming growth factor beta- binding protein 2 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein 3 Cadherin-2 Apical endosomal glycoprotein Cadherin-3 Matrilin-3 Cadherin-related family member 2 Meprin A subunit beta Cell adhesion molecule-related/down- Matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein regulated by oncogenes Cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass G-type Tyrosine-protein kinase Mer receptor 2 Complement factor H-related protein 5 Lactadherin Secretogranin-1 Promotilin Chitotriosidase-1 Macrophage metalloelastase Chordin-like protein 1 Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein Chordin-like protein 2 Matrix remodeling-associated protein 8 Cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 Neurocan core protein C-type lectin domain family 14 member Neurofilament light polypeptide A Contactin-5 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase 3 Collagen alpha-1(XV) chain Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 3 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain N-acetylneuraminate lyase Collagen alpha-1(IX) chain Neuronal pentraxin-2 Complement receptor type 2 Neurotrophin-3 Corticoliberin Neurotrophin-4 Cartilage acidic protein 1 N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide Beta-crystallin B2 Odontogenic ameloblast-associated protein Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 5 Glycodelin Cystatin-SN Inactive serine protease PAMR1 Cystatin-D phospholipase A2 inhibitor and Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein Collagen triple helix repeat-containing Polycystin-1 protein 1 Cathepsin F Tissue-type plasminogen activator Cathepsin L2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor Pro-opiomelanocortin Stromal cell-derived factor 1 Prolargin C-X-C motif chemokine 14 Prolactin C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Prion-like protein doppel C-X-C motif chemokine 9 Prokineticin-1 NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase 2 Persephin Cytokine-like protein 1 Prostaglandin-H2 D-isomerase Discoidin, CUB and LCCL domain- Pleiotrophin containing protein 2 Decorin Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase mu Divergent protein kinase domain 2B Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase N2 Dickkopf-related protein 3 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Dickkopf-like protein 1 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase zeta Protein delta homolog 1 Renin Dentin matrix acidic phosphoprotein 1 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Ret Dipeptidase 2 Repulsive guidance molecule A Dermatopontin RGM domain family member B Tumor necrosis factor receptor Prorelaxin H2 superfamily member 27 Epididymal secretory protein E3-beta Roundabout homolog 1 EGF-like repeat and discoidin I-like Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase domain-containing protein 3 subunit M2 EGF-containing fibulin-like extracellular Scavenger receptor class F member 2 matrix protein 1 EF-hand domain-containing protein D1 Secretogranin-2 Epidermal growth factor receptor Secretogranin-3 Elastin Uteroglobin Protein enabled homolog Protein sidekick-2 Endoglin Neuronal-specific septin-3 Beta-enolase Superoxide dismutase [Mn], mitochondrial Ectonucleotide VPS10 domain-containing receptor pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase SorCS2 family member 2 Ectonucleotide Sclerostin pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 5 Receptor tyrosine-protein kinase erbB-4 Serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 Fatty acid-binding protein, adipocyte Spondin-2 Protein FAM3B Small proline-rich protein 3 Prolyl endopeptidase FAP Sushi repeat-containing protein SRPX Tumor necrosis factor receptor Sushi domain-containing protein 2 superfamily member 6 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily Sushi domain-containing protein 5 member 6 Fibulin-2 Trefoil factor 1 Fc receptor-like protein 2 Thrombospondin-2 Fibroblast growth factor 5 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 11B Follitropin subunit beta Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 13B Follistatin-related protein 1 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 13 Growth arrest-specific protein 6 Tenascin-X Growth/differentiation factor 15 Tetraspanin-1 Glial fibrillary acidic protein WAP four-disulfide core domain protein 2 GDNF family receptor alpha-like Wnt inhibitory factor 1 Appetite-regulating hormone Protein Wnt-9a Gastric inhibitory polypeptide Lymphotactin
5. The method of clause 1 or 3, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 1.
6. The method of clause 2 or 4, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 2.
7. The method of any preceding clause, wherein the subject is a human.
8. The method of any preceding clause, wherein the biological sample is a blood-based sample.
9. The method of clause 8, wherein the blood based sample is plasma or serum.
10. The method of any preceding clause, wherein the method further comprises [0335] b) measuring, in a further biological sample obtained from the subject at a different time point from step a), the presence or amount of each biomarker in the set of biomarkers; [0336] c) determining the difference in the presence or amount of each biomarker in the set of biomarkers between the measurements of step a) and step b).
11. The method of any preceding clause, wherein the method further comprises; [0337] d) comparing the measurement of step a), or the determined difference of step c) with a reference measurement obtained from a subject of a known chronological age to determine, predict or estimate a biological age of the subject.
12. The method of clause 11, wherein the method further comprises; [0338] e) determining the relationship between chronological age and the biological age of the subject to determine or estimate a value of accelerated or decelerated aging of the subject.
13. The method of clause 12, wherein a greater chronological age than biological age in the subject indicates decelerated aging of the subject.
14. The method of clause 12 or 13, wherein a greater biological age than chronological age in the subject indicates accelerated aging of the subject.
15. The method of any one of clauses 12 to 14, wherein the method further comprises; [0339] f) using the value of accelerated or decelerated aging of the subject to predict: [0340] i) the presence or absence of at least one disease in the subject; [0341] ii) the severity of at least one disease in a subject [0342] iii) the risk of the subject developing at least one disease; and/or [0343] iv) the risk of mortality of the subject.
16. The method of any preceding clause, wherein the method further comprises: [0344] g) comparing the measurement of step a), or the determined difference of step c) with reference measurements from a subject with a known disease, known risk of disease, or known risk or mortality to predict; [0345] i) the presence or absence of at least one disease in the subject; [0346] ii) the severity of at least one disease in a subject; [0347] iii) the risk of the subject developing at least one disease; and/or [0348] iv) the risk of mortality of the subject.
17. The method of any one of clauses 3, 4, 15 or 16, wherein the at least one disease is an age-related disease.
18. The method of any one of clauses 3, 4 or 15 to 17, wherein the at least one disease is selected from chronic liver disease, type II diabetes, Parkinson's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, macular degeneration, ischemic heart disease, stroke, osteoporosis, ischemic stroke, emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic kidney diseases, all-cause dementia, Alzheimer's disease, oesophageal cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma or combinations thereof.
19. The method of any one of clauses 3, 4, 15, or 16, wherein mortality is selected from all-cause mortality; age-related mortality; or mortality related to; chronic liver disease, type II diabetes, Parkinson's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, macular degeneration, ischemic heart disease, stroke, osteoporosis, ischemic stroke, emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic kidney diseases, all-cause dementia, Alzheimer's disease, oesophageal cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma or combinations thereof.
20. The method of any preceding clause, wherein the method is an in vitro and/or ex vivo method.
21. The method of any preceding clause, wherein the biomarkers are proteins, or fragments of proteins.
22. A device for determining the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers; [0349] wherein the device comprises a set of probes for detection of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers, wherein the set of probes is specific for and capable of recognising the set of biomarkers in a biological sample from a subject; and [0350] wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 proteins selected from the biomarkers of Table 1:

TABLE-US-00033 TABLE 1 Acrosomal protein SP-10 Glial fibrillary acidic protein Agouti-related protein Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Prostate-specific antigen Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain Kallikrein-7 C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 Tumor necrosis factor receptor Latent-transforming growth factor superfamily member 27 beta-binding protein 2 Elastin Neurofilament light polypeptide Endoglin Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Follitropin subunit beta Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Growth/differentiation factor 15 Scavenger receptor class F member 2
23. A device for determining the presence or amount of each biomarker in a set of biomarkers, [0351] wherein the device comprises a set of probes for detection of the biomarkers in the set of biomarkers, wherein the set of probes is specific for and capable of recognising the set of biomarkers in a biological sample from a subject; and [0352] wherein the set of biomarkers further comprises at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 2:

TABLE-US-00034 TABLE 2 Acrosomal protein SP-10 PDZ domain-containing protein GIPC2 Actin, aortic smooth muscle Pancreatic secretory granule membrane major glycoprotein GP2 Adenosine deaminase Granzyme B A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 thrombospondin motifs 13 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Hemicentin-2 thrombospondin motifs 15 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Corticosteroid 11-beta-dehydrogenase thrombospondin motifs 16 isozyme 1 ADAMTS-like protein 5 Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 Adhesion G-protein coupled receptor G1 Interleukin-17D Alpha-fetoprotein Interleukin-5 receptor subunit alpha Advanced glycosylation end product- Interleukin-7 receptor subunit alpha specific receptor Agouti-related protein Insulin-like 3 Protein AHNAK2 Integrin alpha-V Angiopoietin-2 Integrin beta-5 BAG family molecular chaperone Integrin beta-like protein 1 regulator 3 Brevican core protein Kinesin-like protein KIF22 Osteocalcin Mast/stem cell growth factor receptor Kit Brother of CDO Kallikrein-14 Basigin Prostate-specific antigen Protein C19orf12 Kallikrein-4 Complement C1q-like protein 2 Kallikrein-7 Carbonic anhydrase 14 Kallikrein-8 Carbonic anhydrase 4 Killer cell lectin-like receptor subfamily F member 1 Calbindin Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 Coiled-coil domain-containing protein 80 Extracellular glycoprotein lacritin C-C motif chemokine 28 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 CCN family member 5 Protein LEG1 homolog T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1c Lutropin subunit beta Endosialin Leiomodin-1 T-cell surface glycoprotein CD8 alpha Lactoperoxidase chain Complement component C1q receptor Latent-transforming growth factor beta- binding protein 2 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein 3 Cadherin-2 Apical endosomal glycoprotein Cadherin-3 Matrilin-3 Cadherin-related family member 2 Meprin A subunit beta Cell adhesion molecule-related/down- Matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein regulated by oncogenes Cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass G-type Tyrosine-protein kinase Mer receptor 2 Complement factor H-related protein 5 Lactadherin Secretogranin-1 Promotilin Chitotriosidase-1 Macrophage metalloelastase Chordin-like protein 1 Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein Chordin-like protein 2 Matrix remodeling-associated protein 8 Cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 Neurocan core protein C-type lectin domain family 14 member Neurofilament light polypeptide A Contactin-5 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase 3 Collagen alpha-1(XV) chain Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 3 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain N-acetylneuraminate lyase Collagen alpha-1(IX) chain Neuronal pentraxin-2 Complement receptor type 2 Neurotrophin-3 Corticoliberin Neurotrophin-4 Cartilage acidic protein 1 N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide Beta-crystallin B2 Odontogenic ameloblast-associated protein Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 5 Glycodelin Cystatin-SN Inactive serine protease PAMR1 Cystatin-D phospholipase A2 inhibitor and Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein Collagen triple helix repeat-containing Polycystin-1 protein 1 Cathepsin F Tissue-type plasminogen activator Cathepsin L2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor Pro-opiomelanocortin Stromal cell-derived factor 1 Prolargin C-X-C motif chemokine 14 Prolactin C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Prion-like protein doppel C-X-C motif chemokine 9 Prokineticin-1 NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase 2 Persephin Cytokine-like protein 1 Prostaglandin-H2 D-isomerase Discoidin, CUB and LCCL domain- Pleiotrophin containing protein 2 Decorin Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase mu Divergent protein kinase domain 2B Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase N2 Dickkopf-related protein 3 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Dickkopf-like protein 1 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase zeta Protein delta homolog 1 Renin Dentin matrix acidic phosphoprotein 1 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Ret Dipeptidase 2 Repulsive guidance molecule A Dermatopontin RGM domain family member B Tumor necrosis factor receptor Prorelaxin H2 superfamily member 27 Epididymal secretory protein E3-beta Roundabout homolog 1 EGF-like repeat and discoidin I-like Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase domain-containing protein 3 subunit M2 EGF-containing fibulin-like extracellular Scavenger receptor class F member 2 matrix protein 1 EF-hand domain-containing protein D1 Secretogranin-2 Epidermal growth factor receptor Secretogranin-3 Elastin Uteroglobin Protein enabled homolog Protein sidekick-2 Endoglin Neuronal-specific septin-3 Beta-enolase Superoxide dismutase [Mn], mitochondrial Ectonucleotide VPS10 domain-containing receptor pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase SorCS2 family member 2 Ectonucleotide Sclerostin pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 5 Receptor tyrosine-protein kinase erbB-4 Serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 Fatty acid-binding protein, adipocyte Spondin-2 Protein FAM3B Small proline-rich protein 3 Prolyl endopeptidase FAP Sushi repeat-containing protein SRPX Tumor necrosis factor receptor Sushi domain-containing protein 2 superfamily member 6 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily Sushi domain-containing protein 5 member 6 Fibulin-2 Trefoil factor 1 Fc receptor-like protein 2 Thrombospondin-2 Fibroblast growth factor 5 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 11B Follitropin subunit beta Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 13B Follistatin-related protein 1 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 13 Growth arrest-specific protein 6 Tenascin-X Growth/differentiation factor 15 Tetraspanin-1 Glial fibrillary acidic protein WAP four-disulfide core domain protein 2 GDNF family receptor alpha-like Wnt inhibitory factor 1 Appetite-regulating hormone Protein Wnt-9a Gastric inhibitory polypeptide Lymphotactin
24. The device of clause 22 or 23, wherein the subject is a human.
25. The device of any one of clauses 22 to 24, wherein biological sample is a blood-based sample.
26. The device of clause 25, wherein the blood-based sample is plasma or serum.
27. The device of any one of clauses 22 to 26, wherein each probe is selected from an antibody, antibody fragment, oligonucleotide, protein, biotin-binding protein, enzyme, fluorophore or combinations thereof.
28. The device of any one of clauses 22 to 27, wherein the biomarkers are proteins, or a fragment of proteins.
29. A set of probes for determining the presence or amount of a set of biomarkers, wherein each probe in the set of probes specifically recognises at least one biomarker in the set of biomarkers; and [0353] wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 1:

TABLE-US-00035 TABLE 1 Acrosomal protein SP-10 Glial fibrillary acidic protein Agouti-related protein Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Prostate-specific antigen Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain Kallikrein-7 C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 Tumor necrosis factor receptor Latent-transforming growth factor superfamily member 27 beta-binding protein 2 Elastin Neurofilament light polypeptide Endoglin Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Follitropin subunit beta Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Growth/differentiation factor 15 Scavenger receptor class F member 2
30. A set of probes for determining the presence or amount of a set of biomarkers, wherein each probe in the set of probes specifically recognises at least one biomarker in the set of biomarkers; and [0354] wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200 or 204 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 2:

TABLE-US-00036 TABLE 2 Acrosomal protein SP-10 PDZ domain-containing protein GIPC2 Actin, aortic smooth muscle Pancreatic secretory granule membrane major glycoprotein GP2 Adenosine deaminase Granzyme B A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 thrombospondin motifs 13 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Hemicentin-2 thrombospondin motifs 15 A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with Corticosteroid 11-beta-dehydrogenase thrombospondin motifs 16 isozyme 1 ADAMTS-like protein 5 Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 Adhesion G-protein coupled receptor G1 Interleukin-17D Alpha-fetoprotein Interleukin-5 receptor subunit alpha Advanced glycosylation end product- Interleukin-7 receptor subunit alpha specific receptor Agouti-related protein Insulin-like 3 Protein AHNAK2 Integrin alpha-V Angiopoietin-2 Integrin beta-5 BAG family molecular chaperone Integrin beta-like protein 1 regulator 3 Brevican core protein Kinesin-like protein KIF22 Osteocalcin Mast/stem cell growth factor receptor Kit Brother of CDO Kallikrein-14 Basigin Prostate-specific antigen Protein C19orf12 Kallikrein-4 Complement C1q-like protein 2 Kallikrein-7 Carbonic anhydrase 14 Kallikrein-8 Carbonic anhydrase 4 Killer cell lectin-like receptor subfamily F member 1 Calbindin Neural cell adhesion molecule L1 Coiled-coil domain-containing protein 80 Extracellular glycoprotein lacritin C-C motif chemokine 28 Leukocyte cell-derived chemotaxin-2 CCN family member 5 Protein LEG1 homolog T-cell surface glycoprotein CD1c Lutropin subunit beta Endosialin Leiomodin-1 T-cell surface glycoprotein CD8 alpha Lactoperoxidase chain Complement component C1q receptor Latent-transforming growth factor beta- binding protein 2 CUB domain-containing protein 1 Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein 3 Cadherin-2 Apical endosomal glycoprotein Cadherin-3 Matrilin-3 Cadherin-related family member 2 Meprin A subunit beta Cell adhesion molecule-related/down- Matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein regulated by oncogenes Cadherin EGF LAG seven-pass G-type Tyrosine-protein kinase Mer receptor 2 Complement factor H-related protein 5 Lactadherin Secretogranin-1 Promotilin Chitotriosidase-1 Macrophage metalloelastase Chordin-like protein 1 Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein Chordin-like protein 2 Matrix remodeling-associated protein 8 Cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 Neurocan core protein C-type lectin domain family 14 member Neurofilament light polypeptide A Contactin-5 Nucleoside diphosphate kinase 3 Collagen alpha-1(XV) chain Neurogenic locus notch homolog protein 3 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain N-acetylneuraminate lyase Collagen alpha-1(IX) chain Neuronal pentraxin-2 Complement receptor type 2 Neurotrophin-3 Corticoliberin Neurotrophin-4 Cartilage acidic protein 1 N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide Beta-crystallin B2 Odontogenic ameloblast-associated protein Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 5 Glycodelin Cystatin-SN Inactive serine protease PAMR1 Cystatin-D phospholipase A2 inhibitor and Ly6/PLAUR domain-containing protein Collagen triple helix repeat-containing Polycystin-1 protein 1 Cathepsin F Tissue-type plasminogen activator Cathepsin L2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor Pro-opiomelanocortin Stromal cell-derived factor 1 Prolargin C-X-C motif chemokine 14 Prolactin C-X-C motif chemokine 17 Prion-like protein doppel C-X-C motif chemokine 9 Prokineticin-1 NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase 2 Persephin Cytokine-like protein 1 Prostaglandin-H2 D-isomerase Discoidin, CUB and LCCL domain- Pleiotrophin containing protein 2 Decorin Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase mu Divergent protein kinase domain 2B Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase N2 Dickkopf-related protein 3 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase R Dickkopf-like protein 1 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase zeta Protein delta homolog 1 Renin Dentin matrix acidic phosphoprotein 1 Proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase receptor Ret Dipeptidase 2 Repulsive guidance molecule A Dermatopontin RGM domain family member B Tumor necrosis factor receptor Prorelaxin H2 superfamily member 27 Epididymal secretory protein E3-beta Roundabout homolog 1 EGF-like repeat and discoidin I-like Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase domain-containing protein 3 subunit M2 EGF-containing fibulin-like extracellular Scavenger receptor class F member 2 matrix protein 1 EF-hand domain-containing protein D1 Secretogranin-2 Epidermal growth factor receptor Secretogranin-3 Elastin Uteroglobin Protein enabled homolog Protein sidekick-2 Endoglin Neuronal-specific septin-3 Beta-enolase Superoxide dismutase [Mn], mitochondrial Ectonucleotide VPS10 domain-containing receptor pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase SorCS2 family member 2 Ectonucleotide Sclerostin pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 5 Receptor tyrosine-protein kinase erbB-4 Serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 1 Fatty acid-binding protein, adipocyte Spondin-2 Protein FAM3B Small proline-rich protein 3 Prolyl endopeptidase FAP Sushi repeat-containing protein SRPX Tumor necrosis factor receptor Sushi domain-containing protein 2 superfamily member 6 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily Sushi domain-containing protein 5 member 6 Fibulin-2 Trefoil factor 1 Fc receptor-like protein 2 Thrombospondin-2 Fibroblast growth factor 5 Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 11B Follitropin subunit beta Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 13B Follistatin-related protein 1 Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 13 Growth arrest-specific protein 6 Tenascin-X Growth/differentiation factor 15 Tetraspanin-1 Glial fibrillary acidic protein WAP four-disulfide core domain protein 2 GDNF family receptor alpha-like Wnt inhibitory factor 1 Appetite-regulating hormone Protein Wnt-9a Gastric inhibitory polypeptide Lymphotactin
31. The set of probes of clause 29 or 30, wherein each probe in the set is selected from an antibody, antibody fragment, oligonucleotide, protein, biotin-binding protein, enzyme, fluorophore or combination thereof.
32. The set of probes of any one of clauses 29 to 31, wherein the biomarkers a proteins, or a fragment of proteins.
33. The method of any one of clauses 1, 3, 5, or 7 to 21, the device of any one of clauses 22, or 24 to 27 or the set of probes of clauses 29 or 32, wherein the set of biomarkers comprises at least 7, 8, 9 or 10 biomarkers selected from the biomarkers of Table 3:

TABLE-US-00037 TABLE 3 Tumor necrosis factor receptor Elastin superfamily member 27 Collagen alpha-3(VI) chain Immunoglobulin superfamily DCC subclass member 4 Growth/differentiation factor 15 Follitropin subunit beta Neurofilament light polypeptide Latent-transforming growth factor beta- binding protein 2 Podocalyxin-like protein 2 Prostate-specific antigen
34. A biomarker testing kit comprising a blood sampling device and the set of probes of any one of clauses 29 to 33.
35. The biomarker testing kit of clause 34, wherein the blood sampling device is a patch-based blood sampling device or a finger prick blood sampling device.
36. The use of the device as disclosed in of any one of clauses 23 to 28, the probes as disclosed in any one of clauses 29 to 32 or the biomarker testing kit of clause 34 or 35; in the method as discloses in any one of clauses 1 to 21.
37. A computer-implemented method for determining, predicting or estimating the biological age of a subject comprising the steps of: [0355] a) Obtaining data of the measured levels of: i) at least 7 biomarkers in Table 1; or ii) at least 50 biomarkers in Table 2; [0356] b) Inputting the measured levels in step a) to a predictive model which relates the measured levels with biological age or chronological age; and [0357] c) Outputting a determined, predicted or estimated biological age.
38. A computer-implemented method for predicting the presence or absence of at least one disease in a subject, predicting the risk of a subject developing at least one disease, and/or predicting the risk of mortality of a subject, wherein the method comprises: [0358] a) Obtaining data of the measured levels of: i) at least 7 biomarkers in Table 1; or ii) at least 50 biomarkers in Table 2; [0359] b) Inputting the measured levels in step a) to a predictive model which relates the measured levels with disease and/or mortality; and [0360] c) Outputting at least one of: [0361] i) the presence or absence of at least one disease in the subject; [0362] ii) the severity of at least one disease in a subject; [0363] iii) the risk of the subject developing at least one disease; and/or [0364] iv) the risk of mortality of the subject.
39. A computer-readable storage medium or a computer program comprising computer-executable instructions, which when executed by a computing system, are capable of causing the computing system to perform the method according to clauses 37-38.