STRAIN ENGINEERING AND EPITAXIAL STABILIZATION OF HALIDE PEROVSKITES

Abstract

In accordance with a method of forming a halide perovskite thin film, a first halide perovskite material is chosen from which a halide perovskite thin film is to be formed. An epitaxial substrate formed from a second halide perovskite material is also chosen. The halide perovskite thin film is epitaxially formed on the substrate from the first halide perovskite material. The substrate is chosen such that the halide perovskite thin film formed on the substrate has a selected value of at least one property. The property is selected from the group including crystal structure stability, charge carrier mobility and band gap.

Claims

1. A method of forming a halide perovskite thin film, comprising: choosing a first halide perovskite material from which a halide perovskite thin film is to be formed; choosing an epitaxial substrate formed from a second halide perovskite material; and epitaxially forming the halide perovskite thin film on the substrate from the first halide perovskite material, wherein the substrate is chosen such that the halide perovskite thin film formed on the substrate has a selected value of at least one property, the property being selected from the group including crystal structure stability, charge carrier mobility and band gap.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the first halide perovskite material is α-FAPbI.sub.3, where FA is formamidinium.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the second halide perovskite material is MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3-x, wherein MA is methyl ammonium and x is between 0 and 1.5.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the halide perovskite thin film has a compressive strain up to 2.4%.

5. The method of claim 1, further comprising adjusting the compressive strain of the halide perovskite thin film to a particular value so that the halide perovskite thin film has the selected value of the at least one property.

6. The method of claim 3, wherein the halide perovskite thin film has a pseudo-cubic lattice structure.

7. The method of claim 1, further comprising forming the thin film from solution.

8. The method of claim 7, wherein forming the thin film from solution includes depositing the solution onto a preheated substrate.

9. The method of claim 7, wherein depositing the solution onto a preheated substrate depositing the solution using an inverse temperature growth method.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein the first and/or second halide perovskite materials are selected from the group consisting of a halide perovskite material having the formula ABX.sub.3; wherein: A is at least one monovalent or divalent organic cation, inorganic cation or a combination thereof; X is at least one halide anion, a pseudohalide anion or a combination thereof; and B is at least one metal cation wherein, when combined with A and X, forms a perovskite material; wherein the inorganic cation of A is different from the metal cation of B.

11. A thin film structure formed in accordance with the method of claim 1.

12. A method of tuning at least one property of a halide perovskite thin film, comprising: choosing an epitaxial substrate formed from a second halide perovskite material based on a selection of a first halide perovskite material from which the halide perovskite thin film is to be formed; and epitaxially forming the halide perovskite thin film on the substrate from the first halide perovskite material, wherein the substrate is chosen such that the halide perovskite thin film formed on the substrate has a compressive or tensile strain with a specified value.

13. A method of forming a halide perovskite thin film, comprising: choosing a first halide perovskite material from which a halide perovskite thin film is to be formed and a single crystal halide perovskite substrate from a second halide perovskite material on which the halide perovskite thin film is to be formed to tune a property of the halide perovskite thin film using strain modulation to thereby impose a compressive or tensile strain on the halide perovskite thin film; and epitaxially forming the halide perovskite thin film on the chosen halide perovskite substrate from the first halide perovskite material.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the first and second halide perovskite materials have a lattice parameter mismatch that gives rise to the compressive or tensile strain.

15. The method of claim 14, where the lattice parameter mismatch gives rise to a compressive strain of up to 2.4%.

16. The method of claim 13, wherein the first and/or second halide perovskite materials are selected from the group consisting of a halide perovskite material having the formula ABX.sub.3; wherein: A is at least one monovalent or divalent organic cation, inorganic cation or a combination thereof; X is at least one halide anion, a pseudohalide anion or a combination thereof; and B is at least one metal cation wherein, when combined with A and X, forms a perovskite material; wherein the inorganic cation of A is different from the metal cation of B.

17. The method of claim 13, further comprising adjusting the compressive strain of the halide perovskite thin film to a particular value so that the halide perovskite thin film has a selected value of the at least one property.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein the property of halide perovskite thin film is selected from the group consisting of crystal structure stability, charge carrier mobility and band gap.

19. The method of claim 16, further comprising forming the thin film from solution, wherein forming the thin film from solution includes depositing the solution onto a preheated substrate.

20. The method of claim 1, wherein the first halide perovskite material is α-FAPbI.sub.3, where FA is formamidinium and the second halide perovskite material is MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3-x, wherein MA is methyl ammonium and x is between 0 and 1.5.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0010] FIG. 1a shows optical images of a series of MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3, substrates with a layer of epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin film on top; FIG. 1B shows A cross-sectional Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image of the epitaxial thin film shown in FIG. 1a with controlled uniform thickness; FIG. 1c shows a high resolution XRD ω-2θ scan of the (001) peaks of the epitaxial thin film samples on different substrates showing the increase of tetragonality with increasing lattice mismatch. FIG. 1d shows reciprocal spacing mapping with (104) asymmetric reflection of the α-FAPbI.sub.3 for different lattice mismatches with the substrate; FIG. 1e shows confocal Raman spectra of the epitaxial layer at different strains; and FIG. 1f shows a fitting analysis of the Raman peaks in the confocal Raman spectra.

[0011] FIG. 2a shows the photoluminescence spectra of α-FAPbI.sub.3 at different strains; FIG. 2b shows focal point dependent confocal PL spectra of a 3 μm thick film; FIG. 2c shows the temperature-dependent PL spectra of a strained and a strain-free sample; and FIG. 2d shows UPS spectra of a −2.4% strained and a strain-free sample.

[0012] FIG. 3a shows the calculated carrier effective masses at different strains, and electronic band structures under three strain levels (3%, 0%, and −3%); FIG. 3b shows hole mobilities by Hall effect measurements showing that a −1.2% strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 has the highest hole mobility; FIG. 3c shows transient photocurrent curves of the epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 under different strains; and FIG. 3d shows plots of calculated carrier mobilities as a function of the strain magnitudes.

[0013] FIG. 4a shows a phase stability comparison of thin (˜100 nm, strained) and thick (˜10 μm, strain-free) epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 on MAPbCl.sub.1.50Br.sub.1.50 substrates by XRD, where α0 represents α-FAPbI.sub.3, δ represents δ-FAPbI.sub.3, and S represents the substrates; FIG. 4b Phase stability study by photoluminescence spectroscopy; and FIG. 4c shows a phase stability study by Raman spectroscopy.

[0014] FIG. 5a shows the I-V characteristics of Au/α-FAPbI3/indium tin oxide (ITO) photoconductor structured photodetectors; FIG. 5b shows a comparison of responsivity of the strained and strain-free photodetectors; FIG. 5c shows external quantum efficiency (EQE) spectra of the strained and strain-free photodetectors showing that the strained photodetector yields a higher EQE as well as a broader absorption spectrum due to enhanced carrier mobility and bandgap reduction; FIG. 5d shows the response times of the photodetectors, with faster rise and fall times for the strained (9 μs and 34 μs) than the strain-free (14 μs and 50 μs) device due to the enhanced carrier mobility and transport.

[0015] FIGS. 6a to 6f show the rocking curve measurements of substrates grown by the inverse temperature crystallization (ITC) and slow solvent evaporation (SSE) methods; and FIG. 6g shows the XRD patterns of strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 on a substrate with higher crystal quality (red curve) and relaxed α-FAPbI.sub.3 on a substrate with lower crystal quality (gray curve).

[0016] FIG. 7a shows a topography image of a strained epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin film; FIG. 7b shows the corresponding height scanning curve of the strained epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin film of FIG. 7a; FIG. 7c shows a topography image of a strain-relaxed epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thick film and FIG. 7d shows the corresponding height scanning curve of the strain-relaxed epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thick film.

[0017] FIG. 8a shows a powder x-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of α-FAPbI.sub.3 that is used of a reference of strain-free α-FAPbI.sub.3; FIG. 8b shows powder XRD patterns of substrates with different ratios of their composition; FIG. 8c shows the XRD peak positions of α-FAPbI.sub.3 at different growth temperatures; FIG. 8d shows XRD (100) peak positions of α-FAPbI.sub.3 at different growth solution concentrations; FIG. 8e shows an optical image of FAPbI.sub.3 grown on a MAPbCl2.00Br1.00 substrate.

[0018] FIG. 9 shows the evolution of lattice volume and bandgap as a function of strain for three α-FAPbI.sub.3 lattices with different FA+ organic cation orientations.

[0019] FIG. 10a shows the temperature-dependent photoluminescence of strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 before normalization; FIG. 10b shows the temperature-dependent photoluminescence of strain-free α-FAPbI.sub.3 before normalization; FIG. 10c shows the temperature dependent photoluminescence of strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 after normalization; FIG. 10d shows the temperature dependent photoluminescence of strain-freeα-FAPbI.sub.3 after normalization; FIG. 10e shows the temperature dependent photoluminescence (PL) FWHM of strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 with fitting; and FIG. 10f shows the temperature dependent photoluminescence (PL) FWHM of strain-freeα-FAPbI.sub.3 with fitting.

[0020] FIG. 11 shows the PL redshift in a strain-free α-FAPbI.sub.3 film on a MAPbCl.sub.1.50Br.sub.1.50 substrate.

[0021] FIG. 12a shows the planar strain distribution of the α-FAPbI.sub.3 with −1.2% strain; FIG. 12b shows the planar strain distribution of the α-FAPbI.sub.3 with −2.4% strain; FIG. 12c shows the vertical strain distribution of the α-FAPbI.sub.3 with −1.2% strain; FIG. 12d shows the vertical strain distribution of the α-FAPbI.sub.3 with −2.4% strain; FIG. 12e shows the thickness-dependent strain distribution of the α-FAPbI.sub.3 with −1.2% strain; and FIG. 12f shows the thickness-dependent strain distribution of the α-FAPbI.sub.3 with −2.4% strain.

[0022] FIG. 13a shows thickness-dependent in-plane x-ray diffraction (XRD) of −1.2% strainedα-FAPbI.sub.3 thin films; FIG. 13b shows thickness-dependent in-plane XRD of −2.4% strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin films; FIG. 13c shows the thickness-dependent relaxation constant R of the epitaxialα-FAPbI.sub.3 thin films with different strains; and FIG. 13d shows the fitting of the experimental critical thicknesses with the People and Bean and the Matthew and Blakeslee models.

[0023] FIG. 14a shows ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) spectra of α-FAPbI.sub.3 under different strains, where the intersects of the curves with the baseline in the high-binding-energy region give the Fermi level position of corresponding strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 films; and FIG. 14b shows UPS spectra of α-FAPbI.sub.3 under different strains, where the intersects of the curves with the baseline in the low-binding-energy region give the energy difference between the Fermi level and the valance band maximum (VBM).

[0024] FIG. 15a shows a schematic diagram of the photodetector device, where parylene-C is used as an insulating layer to prevent the injection of carriers from the Au electrode to the substrate; FIG. 15b shows the bandgap diagram of the heterostructure; FIG. 15c shows current density distribution by FEA simulation, where the upper panel shows the current mapping where the current density in the epitaxial layer is much higher than that of the substrate and the lower panel shows the zoomed-in current distribution image around the electrode; FIG. 15d shows the current density distribution along the vertical line in e where the current in the substrate takes 0.8% of the total current.

[0025] FIGS. 16a-16d shows I-V characteristic curves for the space-charge-limited-current measurement of the epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 film with different strains.

[0026] FIG. 17a shows the C-ω spectra of the epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin films with different strain magnitudes; FIG. 17b shows the trap density distribution extracted from the C-ω spectra.

[0027] FIG. 18 shows XPS spectra of: I 3d (FIG. 18a); Pb 4f (FIG. 18b); Br 4p (FIG. 18c); and Cl 2p photoelectrons (FIG. 18d) from a strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 film.

[0028] FIG. 19 shows the flat band diagram of the photodetector (left panel) and the strained and strain-free band diagrams illustrating the alignment of the valance band maximum (VBM) to the Au Fermi level under compressive strain (right panel).

[0029] FIG. 20a shows the responsivity as a function of strain level in α-FAPbI.sub.3 photodetector devices under −0.8%, −1.2% and −1.4% compressive strain; FIG. 20b shows the detectivity of the photodetector based on α-FAPbI.sub.3 under −1.2% strain; FIG. 20c shows the gain of the photodetector based on α-FAPbI.sub.3 under −1.2% strain; and FIG. 20d shows the normalized external quantum efficiency (EQE) of the photodetector based on α-FAPbI.sub.3 under −1.2% strain.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0030] In one aspect of the subject matter described herein, α-FAPbI.sub.3 is epitaxially grown on a series of mixed methylammonium lead chloride/bromide (MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3-x) single crystalline substrates by the reverse temperature growth method. The MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3-x substrates with different compositional ratios and thus lattice parameters are grown by solutions with different Cl/Br precursor molar ratios (see Table 1).

TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Summary of the substrate growth precursor ratios, the resulting substrate compositional Br ratios, and lattice parameters. Cl/Br Solution Compositional Br Lattice Parameter Ratio Ratio (%) Formula (Å) Cl Only 0 MAPbCl.sub.3.00Br.sub.0.00 5.70 1/2 50.0 MAPbCl.sub.1.50Br.sub.1.50 5.83 1/2.5 58.0 MAPbCl.sub.1.25Br.sub.1.75 5.86 1/3 62.1 MAPbCl.sub.1.15Br.sub.1.85 5.87 1/4 64.3 MAPbCl.sub.1.05Br.sub.1.95 5.88 1/6 76.8 MAPbCl.sub.0.70Br.sub.2.30 5.89 1/8 80.6 MAPbCl.sub.0.60Br.sub.2.40 5.90 1/19 85.2 MAPbCl.sub.0.45Br.sub.2.55 5.92 Br Only 100 MAPbCl.sub.0.00Br.sub.3.00 5.95

[0031] Note that the strain in the epilayer is not only determined by the lattice mismatch, but also the relaxation mechanisms. Lattice distortion relaxes the strain, so the region near the heteroepitaxy interface has the highest strain, which gradually drops at regions distant from the interface. The total elastic strain energy increases as the film grows thicker, until it eventually crosses the threshold energy for structural defect generation, and dislocations will form to partially relieve the misfit. A slow growth rate of the epilayer is chosen as it also impacts the defect concentration in the epilayer. The crystalline quality of the substrates is carefully optimized as the defects in the substrates can propagate into the epilayer.

[0032] FIGS. 6a to 6f show the rocking curve measurements of substrates grown by the inverse temperature crystallization (ITC) and slow solvent evaporation (SSE) methods. Lower full width at half maximum (FWHM) values by the SSE indicates a better crystal quality. FIG. 6g shows the XRD patterns of strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 on a substrate with higher crystal quality and relaxed α-FAPbI.sub.3 on a substrate with lower crystal quality. Dislocations in the substrates can propagate into and relax the strain in the epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3. The vertical dashed line labels the (001) peak position of strain-free α-FAPbI.sub.3. The peak position from the strain-relaxed FAPbI.sub.3 shifts back to that of strain-free a α-FAPbI.sub.3.

[0033] Heteroepitaxial growth leads to controllable film thickness, preferential growth sites/orientations, compatible fabrication protocols with existing infrastructures, and scalable large-area device applications. FIG. 1a shows optical images of a series of MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3-x substrates with a layer of epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 film on the top. The epilayer has a uniform thickness with a well-defined film-substrate interface (FIG. 1b). The film topography can reveal the growth mechanism and sometimes defects for strain relaxation. A sub-100 nm α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin film shows a clear interface (FIG. 1b), and a well-defined terrain morphology, with a step height close to one layer of α-FAPbI.sub.3 unit cell, indicating a layer-by-layer growth behavior of the epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 (FIGS. 7a and 7b). A 10 μm film, on the other hand, shows non-conformal growth, indicating strain relaxation by dislocation formation (FIGS. 7c and 7d).

[0034] The crystallographic relationships between the MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3-x substrates and the epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin films are illustrated by High-resolution X-ray Diffraction (HRXRD) (FIG. 1c). In their freestanding form, both α-FAPbI.sub.3 and MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3-x have a cubic structure. The lattice parameters of freestanding α-FAPbI.sub.3 (Pm3m space group) and MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3-x substrates (Pm3m space group) are calculated to be 6.35 Å (FIGS. 8a and 8b) and 5.83-5.95 Å, respectively. The ratio x for each composition is then calculated to be 0- 1.50, according to the Vegard's Law (Table 1). As x increases, the MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3-x (001) peaks shift to a higher 2θ angle, indicating a decrease of the substrates' lattice parameters and therefore an increase of the lattice mismatch (FIG. 1c and Table 2). Meanwhile, the α-FAPbI.sub.3 (001) peak shifts to a lower 2θ angle, indicating an increase of the out-of-plane lattice parameter as the in-plain compressive strain increases.

TABLE-US-00002 TABLE 2 Summary of epitaxial growth substrates and the corresponding strain measured in α-FAPbI.sub.3. Substrate Composition α-FAPbI.sub.3 (001) Peak (degree) Strain (%) MAPbCl.sub.1.50Br.sub.1.50 13.82 −2.4 MAPbCl.sub.1.05Br.sub.1.95 13.84 −1.9 MAPbCl.sub.0.70Br.sub.2.30 13.86 −1.4 MAPbCl.sub.0.60Br.sub.2.40 13.87 −1.2 MAPbCl.sub.0.00Br.sub.3.00 13.89 −0.8

[0035] The growth conditions are systematically studied. FIG. 8c shows the XRD (100) peak positions of α-FAPbI.sub.3 at different growth temperatures. The temperature to grow α-FAPbI.sub.3 with the highest strain is found to be ˜180° C. Further increasing the growth temperature results in a high growth rate and a thick epitaxial layer of α-FAPbI.sub.3 and therefore low crystal quality that relaxes the strain. Decreasing the growth temperature below 180° C. can lead to slow crystallization and thus a mixed epitaxial alloy layer at the interface, which shifts the XRD peak position to higher angles. FIG. 8d shows the XRD (100) peak positions of α-FAPbI.sub.3 at different growth solution concentrations. Concentrations above 1.2 mol L.sup.−1 result in high defect concentration and therefore strain relaxation, due to the fast crystallization rate and the thick epitaxial layer. Concentrations below 1.0 mol L.sup.−1 will slow down the crystallization process and lead to a mixed epitaxial alloy layer at the interface. The vertical dash lines show the peak position of a strain-free powder sample.

[0036] When x exceeds 1.50, the strain energy dramatically increases, and epitaxial growth becomes less thermodynamically favorable. α-FAPbI.sub.3 then randomly crystalizes on the substrate (FIG. 8e). Peak broadening of the epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 is induced by the epitaxial strain and reduction in film thickness rather than the strain-induced dislocations or strain relaxation. FIG. 1d shows the reciprocal space mapping (RSM) of strain-free as well as strained α-FAPbI3 thin films with different lattice mismatch with the substrate. An increase of tetragonality of the lattice is evident as the compressive strain increases. The corresponding strain levels of the α-FAPbI.sub.3 in those three cases are calculated to be 0%, −1.2% and −2.4%, respectively, based on lattice distortion (the negative sign denotes compressive strain).

[0037] The structure of α-FAPbI.sub.3 at different strain (0%-−2.4%, on different substrates) is also studied by Raman spectroscopy (FIG. 1e). The peak at around 136 cm.sup.−1 in FIG. 1d, originated from the stretching of the Pb—I bond.sup.21, increases in intensity and broadens in width as the strain increases. The cubic structure of strain-free α-FAPbI.sub.3 is less Raman-active, and the detectable signal is usually broad and weak. When in-plane compressive strain increases, the inorganic framework gradually gains tetragonality and produces a stronger Raman signal with a well-distinguishable shape. What is more interesting is that at ˜−1.4% strain, the peak at 136 cm.sup.−1 starts to split into two: a main peak at ˜140 cm.sup.−1 and a shoulder at ˜133 cm.sup.−1 (FIG. 1f). When the strain is further increased to −2.4%, these two peaks shift to 143 cm.sup.−1 and 130 cm.sup.−1, respectively. We attribute the blueshift of the main peak to the compression of the in-plane Pb—I bond, and the redshift of the shoulder peak to the stretching of the out-of-plane Pb—I bond.

[0038] Photoluminescence (PL) spectra (FIG. 2a) reveal changes in the bandgap of a sub-100 nm epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin films under different strain (0%-−2.4%, on different substrates). The PL peak of α-FAPbI.sub.3 gradually shifts from ˜1.523 eV at 0% strain to ˜1.488 eV at −2.4% strain, corresponding to a ˜35 meV reduction in the bandgap. We exclude the possible contributions to this PL redshift from thickness-dependent bandgap, reabsorption, or halide migration. The bandgap change is consistent with the first-principles calculations and absorption measurements. FIG. 9 shows the evolution of lattice volume and bandgap as a function of strain for three α-FAPbI.sub.3 lattices with different FA.sup.+ organic cation orientations. For the bandgap calculations, spin-orbit coupling is incorporated due to the heavy element Pb, and the hybrid functionals within Heyd-Scuseria-Ernzerhof (HSE) formalism with 25% Hartree-Fock (HF) exchange are employed. The PL peak in FIG. 2a also broadens with increasing strain, which is not due to the possible charge transfer between the epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 and the substrate because of the straddling band alignment with a prohibited carrier transfer direction and a large energy barrier. Temperature-dependent PL studies suggest that the emission peak broadening originates from the reduced crystalline quality and the enhanced carrier-phonon coupling under the strain due to the fact that the strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 has a higher Γ.sub.0 and Γ.sub.L0 than that of strain-free α-FAPbI.sub.3 (FIG. 10).

[0039] Additionally, we studied confocal PL spectra at different locations in a ˜3 μm α-FAPbI.sub.3 film on MAPbCl.sub.1.50Br.sub.1.50 (FIG. 2b). The PL peak shifts from ˜1.479 eV when the laser is focused at the interface where the local strain is high, to ˜1.523 eV at 3 μm from the interface where the strain is relaxed. As a control, the PL redshift in a strain-free sample is less obvious (from ˜1.516 eV to ˜1.523 eV, FIG. 11), which is attributed to reabsorption. In the strained sample, we exclude elastic relaxation although halide perovskites are much softer than conventional semiconductors. Our finite element analysis (FEA) simulation results show the elastic relaxation for a 3 μm thick α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin film is negligible, only ˜0.09% (FIG. 12). Thickness-dependent in-plane XRD is used to study the critical thickness at which the strain will start to be plastically relaxed (FIG. 13). The results show that the relaxation can be attributed to the plastic relaxation by forming dislocations. Temperature-dependent PL studies show the bandgap of α-FAPbI.sub.3 under both 0% and −2.4% strain shows a strong temperature dependence due to the soft nature of α-FAPbI.sub.3 (FIG. 2c). The strained sample bandgap is less temperature-dependent compared to the strain-free sample, because of the constraint from the substrate that has a smaller thermal expansion coefficient than that of the epitaxial layer.

[0040] Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) reveals the band structure evolution of the α-FAPbI.sub.3 under strain (FIG. 2d for 0% and −2.4% strain; FIG. 14 for other strain levels). All samples exhibit p-type behavior. The Fermi level and the valence band maximum (VBM) of the samples can be extracted from the UPS data. The results show that −2.4% strain lifts the VBM upward by ˜50 meV compared to the strain-free scenario. Considering the change in the bandgap (˜35 meV), the −2.4% strain pushes the conduction band minimum (CBM) position upward by ˜15 meV compared to the strain-free scenario. The VBM mainly consists of Pb 6s and I 5p orbitals, and the enhanced coupling between these orbitals under compressive strain pushes the VBM upward. The CBM, which consists mostly of nonbonding localized states of Pb p orbitals, is less sensitive to the deformation of PbI.sub.6 octahedrons. Therefore, the in-plane compressive strain pushes up the VBM more than the CBM.

[0041] The lattice deformation can alter the electronic band structure and, therefore, the carrier dynamics. The effective mass of charge carriers can be assessed by the band curvature extracted from first-principles calculations. FIG. 3a shows calculated results of electron effective mass, m*.sub.e, and hole effective mass, m*.sub.h (top panel) and three typical electronic band structures (bottom panels) under different strain. The E-k dispersion of the conduction band remains relatively unaltered, and m*.sub.e only shows a slight variation from 3% to −3% strain. On the other hand, compressive strain can modulate the E-k dispersion of the valence band and reduce m*.sub.h considerably.

[0042] To validate these calculations, Hall effect carrier mobilities of the α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin films under 0-−2.4% strain are measured (FIG. 3b). FEA simulation results show that potential carrier transfer from the substrate to the epitaxial layer is negligible due to the insulating Parylene-C layer and the energy barrier between the epitaxial layer and the substrate (FIG. 15). All samples measured by the Hall effect show p-type character, which is consistent with the UPS results. Of all strain levels tested, films under −1.2% strain on MAPbCl.sub.0.60Br.sub.2.40 have the highest hole mobility (FIG. 3b). Further increasing the strain will result in a drastic drop in the hole mobility, because of higher dislocation densities that arise at higher strain levels. Note that the devices for Hall effect measurements have an epitaxial layer thickness larger than the critical thickness to ensure a sufficient contact area between the halide perovskite and the bottom electrode. Therefore, a high strain level will induce a high concentration of dislocations that degrade the hole mobility.

[0043] To validate the Hall mobility, time-of-flight (ToF) measurements are carried out. The transient photocurrents after single excitation are plotted logarithmically in FIG. 3c. The carrier transit time shows the smallest value of the film under −1.2% strain. The calculated carrier mobility is plotted as a function of the strain applied (FIG. 3d), which shows a similar trend to that by the Hall effect. Note that the absolute mobility values from the ToF and Hall effect measurements differ, due to experimental uncertainties in the type and quality of electronic contacts made during the fabrication processes.sup.30. The space charge limited current (SCLC) method can quantify trap density. Results show that a higher strain level leads to a higher trap density (FIG. 16), which explains the observed decrease in mobility under a higher strain magnitude. Capacitance-frequency (C-ω) spectroscopy is also used to cross-check the trap density (FIG. 17), whose results correspond well with those by the SCLC method.

[0044] FIG. 17a shows the C-ω spectra of the epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin films with different strain magnitudes. The low-frequency capacitance originates from the carrier trapping/detrapping processes. The larger capacitance at a higher strain magnitude suggests a higher density of traps. The high-frequency capacitance is attributed to the geometrical capacitance and the depletion capacitance; FIG. 17b shows the trap density distribution extracted from the C-ω spectra. An obvious trap density increment is evident with increasing the strain magnitude. The fitted trap densities (n.sub.t) by the Gaussian distribution equation indicate a higher trap density at a higher strain magnitude.

[0045] It has been widely accepted that α-FAPbI.sub.3 crystals are metastable at room temperature and can quickly phase transform to photo-inactive δ-FAPbI.sub.3 within ˜24 hours because of its internal lattice strain and low entropy. Existing strategies for α-FAPbI.sub.3 stabilization including alloying and surface passivation to either enlarge the bandgap or raise the carrier transport barrier by introducing nonconductive ligands. Surprisingly, the epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin film exhibits long-lasting phase stability at room temperature.

[0046] FIG. 4a shows XRD results of a sub-100 nm epitaxial α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin film that is stable for at least 360 days after growth. In the 10 μm epitaxial thick film, which is far beyond the threshold thickness at which the strain is fully relaxed, the stabilization effect disappears: after 24 hours, XRD peaks from δ-FAPbI.sub.3 can be detected. The phase stability of the strained α-FAPbI.sub.3 is also verified by PL (FIG. 4b) and Raman spectroscopy (FIG. 4c). Possible stabilization effect by incorporating Br or Cl into the α-FAPbI.sub.3 is excluded because those foreign ions will stabilize the α-phase regardless of the epilayer thickness. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements showing the absence of Br and Cl provide more evidence (FIG. 18).

[0047] The mechanism of the stable thin α-FAPbI.sub.3 can be explained by two reasons. First, the interfacial energy of cubic α-FAPbI.sub.3/cubic substrate is much lower than that of hexagonal δ-FAPbI.sub.3/cubic substrate, which is the most critical factor for the stabilization effect. The epitaxial lattice will be constrained to the substrate due to the strong covalent bonds between them and, therefore, restricted from the phase transition. Second, the driving force of the a to δ phase transition is believed to be the internal tensile strain in the α-FAPbI.sub.3 unit cell, which can induce the formation of vacancies and subsequent phase transition.sup.34. In this study, the epitaxial film is under compressive strain, which can neutralize the effect of the internal tensile strain. Therefore, the synergistic effect of the low-energy coherent epitaxial interface and the neutralizing compressive strain are the key to α-FAPbI.sub.3 stabilization.

[0048] High responsivity photodetectors are demonstrated as an illustrative use case of the strain engineered α-FAPbI.sub.3 thin film. FIG. 5a shows the I-V characteristics of a strain-free device and a device under −1.2% strain. The dark current at -1 V of the strained device is ˜15% higher than that of the strain-free one, indicating its higher defect density of the strained device. However, the photocurrent of the strained device shows a ˜180% increase compared to the strain-free one. We attribute the photocurrent enhancement to the higher carrier mobility and the better alignment of VBM to the Au Fermi level under compressive strain (FIG. 19).

[0049] Responsivity of the two photodetectors, defined as the change in photocurrent per unit illumination intensity, is measured at various illumination intensities (FIG. 5b). The responsivity of the strained device, with a maximum of 1.3×10.sup.6 A/W at an incident power density of 1.1×10.sup.−7 W/cm.sup.2, is almost twice of that of the strain-free device. This is again attributed to the enhanced carrier mobility and the better band alignment of the strained device. Similar to the trend in Hall effect carrier mobility, the measured responsivity peaks at −1.2% strain (FIG. 20a). Compressive strain also improves the detectivity and the gain of the photodetector (FIGS. 20b and 20c).

[0050] The strained device shows a much-enhanced external quantum efficiency (EQE) over the visible range (FIG. 5c) due to the enhanced carrier mobility as well as better carrier transport across the Au/perovskite interface. Additionally, after normalizing the spectra, a distinct response in the short-wave infrared region can be identified for the strained device (FIG. 20d), consistent with the PL measurements showing bandgap reduction under compressive strain. The rise and fall times of the strained device are ˜30% shorter than those of the strain-free device, indicating an improvement in carrier dynamics.

ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS

[0051] The following discussion presents illustrative methods and techniques that were used to fabricate the thin films and other devices described herein. Of course, more generally, a wide variety of other methods and techniques may be used to fabricate the various thin films and other devices described herein.

[0052] As part of the substrate fabrication process, methylammonium bromine (MABr) was synthesized as the precursor for the substrate growth. First, 20 mL methylamine (40% in methanol, Tokyo Chemical Industry Co.) and 21.2 mL hydrobromic acid (48 wt % in water, Sigma Aldrich) are mixed in an ice bath and the temperature is maintained for the reaction to continue for 2 hours. The mixture was heated up to 80° C. to evaporate the solvent. The precipitate was dissolved in anhydrous ethanol (Sigma Aldrich) at 80° C. and cooled down for recrystallization. The crystals were then centrifuged with diethyl ether and dried at 80° C. for overnight.

[0053] Methylammonium lead chloride (MAPbCl.sub.3) solution was prepared by mixing 0.6752 g methylammonium chloride (MACl, 98%, Tokyo Chemical Industry Co.) and 2.781 g lead chloride (PbCl.sub.2, 99%, Alfa Aesar) in a mixed solution of 5 mL anhydrous dimethylformamide (DMF, 99.8%, Aldrich) and 5 mL anhydrous dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, 99.8%, Aldrich). Methylammonium lead bromine (MAPbBr.sub.3) solution was prepared by mixing 1.120 g MABr and 3.670 g lead bromine (PbBr.sub.2, 98%, Acros) in 10 mL DMF. MAPbCl.sub.3 and MAPbBr.sub.3 solutions were mixed with different ratios. The mixed solutions were kept at room temperature to slowly evaporate the solvent, and single crystals can be collected to be used as substrates. FAPbI.sub.3 solutions were prepared by mixing formamidinium iodide (FAI, 99.9%, Greatcell Solar) and lead iodide (PbI.sub.2, 99.99%, Tokyo Chemical Industry Co.) at a molar ratio of 1:1 in anhydrous gamma-Butyrolactone (GBL, Sigma Aldrich) with different concentrations. Strain-free α-FAPbI.sub.3 single crystals were obtained by heating the FAPbI.sub.3 solutions to 120° C.

[0054] To epitaxially grow the α-FAPbI.sub.3 on the substrates, the substrates were heated to different temperatures, and the preheated FAPbI.sub.3 solutions (100° C.) were then deposited onto the substrates for epitaxial growth.

[0055] As part of the structural and optical characterizations process, SEM images were taken with a Zeiss Sigma 500 SEM operated at 3 kV. The 2θ/ω XRD patterns, the rocking curve (ω scan), and the asymmetrical RSM around the (104) reflection of the substrate were measured by a Rigaku Smartlab diffractometer equipped with a Cu Kα1 radiation source (λ=0.15406 nm) and a Ge (220×2) monochromator. The (a,c) for (104) reflection RSM is converted from (Q.sub.x, Q.sub.z) by a=1/Q.sub.x, c=4/Q.sub.z. Raman and PL spectra were measured by a Renishaw inVia Raman spectrometer. AFM was carried out by a Veeco Scanning Probe Microscope under a tapping mode. XPS and UPS were carried out by Kratos AXIS Supra with an Al Kα anode source and a He I (21.22 eV) source, respectively. Measurements were operated under 10.sup.−8 Torr chamber pressure. XPS data were calibrated with the C1s peak (284.8 eV). Note that bulk α-FAPbI.sub.3 single crystals were used as the strain-free samples during structural and optical characterizations if not specified.

[0056] Devices described herein with a vertical structure were fabricated based on a lithography based method. Parylene-C (50 nm) and Au (50 nm) were sequentially deposited on the substrates, followed by a photolithography process with AZ-1512 as the photoresist. The pattern was composed of an array of 2 μm diameter circles (exposed) with 1 μtm interdistance (covered by photoresist). Au was chemically etched with wet etchants while Parylene-C was precisely etched by reactive ion etching. The etched substrates underwent secondary growth in their corresponding growth solutions so that the substrate surface reaches the same height as the electrode. Epitaxial growth on the patterned substrate allows the α-FAPbI.sub.3 crystals to start from the exposed patterns and gradually merge into a thin film with a controllable thickness. Note that MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.(3-x) substrates were used for strained (heteroepitaxy) while α-FAPbI.sub.3 substrates were used for strain-free devices (homoepitaxy). Top electrodes were then deposited by sputtering (for ITO, 200 nm). For vertical devices, the area of the top electrode was controlled to be 1×1 mm.sup.2 using a shadow mask. For planar devices, Parylene-C (50 nm) and the electrode (Au 50 nm) were deposited using a shadow mask with designed electrode layouts.

[0057] SCLC measurements were carried out by a Keithley 2400 source meter and a customized probe station in a dark environment. Devices with an Au/Perovskite/Au structure were used. C-ω measurements were carried out by an Agilent Parameter Analyzer B1500 in a dark environment. Devices with an Au/Perovskite/ITO structure were used. The α-FAPbI.sub.3 thickness of all devices for SCLC and C-w measurements was controlled to be 500 nm. Hall effect measurements were carried out with a Lake Shore Hall measurement system (HM 3000) using the van der Pauw method. Note that the Parylene-C layer prevented direct contact between the substrate and electrodes, eliminating possible carriers extracted from the substrates. The α-FAPbI.sub.3 thickness of all devices for Hall effect measurement was controlled to be 500 nm. For the ToF measurement, a 685 nm pulse laser (10 mW/cm.sup.2) with <10.sup.−10 s pulse width was used as the light source. The photoresponse was measured with an oscilloscope (Agilent MS06104A Channel Mixed Signal). An external bias of 1 V was applied to drive the carriers in the device while a 1 MΩ resistor was connected in series to simulate the open-circuit condition so that the carriers were effectively blocked in the devices. The measurement was carried out in dark while the bias and the laser power were kept at constant. The experiment setup followed the reported ToF measurement of halide perovskite single crystals. The α-FAPbI.sub.3 thickness of all devices for ToF measurements was controlled to be 500 nm.

[0058] Photodetector characterization was conducted using a 685 nm laser as the light source. The I-V characteristics were collected on a probe station with an Agilent B2912A source meter.

[0059] First-principles DFT calculations were performed using the Vienna ab Initio Simulation Package. Electron-ion interactions were described using the Projector Augmented Wave pseudopotential. Electron-electron exchange-correlation functional was treated using the Generalized Gradient Approximation parametrized by Perdew, Burke, and Ernzerhof. For band gap calculations, spin-orbit coupling (SOC) was incorporated due to the heavy element Pb, and the hybrid functionals within Heyd-Scuseria-Ernzerhof (HSE) formalism with 25% Hartree—Fock (HF) exchange were employed. A cutoff energy of 400 eV for the plane-wave basis set was used. All structures were fully optimized until all components of the residual forces were smaller than 0.01 eV/Å. The convergence threshold for self-consistent-field iteration was set at 10.sup.−5 eV. For optimization of the cubic lattice parameter, a Γ-centered 3×3×3 k-point mesh was used. A denser k-point mesh of 4×4×4 was used to get accurate energies and electronic structures for strained cells. For optimization and static calculations of the heterostructural models, Γ-centered 4×4×1 and 5×5×1 k-point meshes were used, respectively. Raman intensities were calculated by the CASTEP module in Materials Studios with a 3×3×3 k-point mesh and a 400 eV cutoff energy.

[0060] Finite element analysis simulations of the current density was done by the multiphysics analysis in COMSOL. Simulation of the elastic strain relaxation was done by the ABAQUS.

Other Halide Perovskite Material Systems

[0061] While the discussion above has presented one particular pair of halide perovskite material systems (i.e., α-FAPbI.sub.3 and MAPbCl.sub.xBr.sub.3-x) to illustrate the methods and techniques described herein, more generally these methods and techniques are applicable to a wide variety of alternative combinations of halide perovskites. For instance, in some implementations, the halide perovskite material chosen for the thin film and/or the substrate may be, for example, MAPbI.sub.3, MAPbBr.sub.3, MAPb(I,Br).sub.3, FAPbI.sub.3, FAPbBr.sub.3, FAPb(I,Br).sub.3, CsPbI.sub.3, CsPbBr.sub.3, CsPb(I,Br).sub.3, (Cs,FA)Pb(I,Br).sub.3, MAPbCl.sub.3, MAPb(BrCl).sub.3, MAPb(I,Cl).sub.3, FAPbCl.sub.3, FAPb(BrCl).sub.3, or FAPb(I,Cl).sub.3 where MA is methyl ammonium and FA is formamidinium.

[0062] More generally still, the halide perovskite material chosen for the thin film and/or the substrate may have the formula ABX.sub.3; wherein: A is at least one monovalent or divalent organic cation, inorganic cation or a combination thereof; X is at least one halide anion, a pseudohalide anion or a combination thereof; and B is at least one metal cation wherein, when combined with A and X, forms a perovskite material; wherein the inorganic cation of A is different from the metal cation of B.

[0063] While particular embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that, based upon the teachings herein, changes and modifications may be made without departing from this invention and its broader aspects and, therefore, the appended claims are to encompass within their scope all such changes and modifications as are within the true spirit and scope of this invention. Furthermore, it is to be understood that the invention is solely defined by the appended claims.