DYNAMIC SURFACE TENSION SUPPORTED 3-D CELL CULTURE TECHNOLOGY (FLOAT LAYER CELL CULTURE DEVICES)

Abstract

The subject invention pertains to a novel gas exchanger system and methods for culturing spheroids, comprising a substrate exhibiting hierarchical high aspect ratio surface features, where the surface geometry incorporates small dimple indentations in the surface and even smaller vent holes or channels that penetrate through the surface, and coated with a superhydrophobic material that forms a contiguous stabilized plastronic air-liquid interface from surface tension that resists the culture medium volume's pressure and guides cells to form spheroids, where the interface serves as an oxygen source and does not slow down nutrient diffusion giving better control over the culture environment.

Claims

1. A gas exchanger system for culturing spheroids, the system comprising: (a) a substrate 100 having an exterior surface 110 an inter-layer 120, and an interior surface 125 wherein the interior surface 125 adheres to a flat bottom multi-well plate 130 forming a monolayer, wherein the exterior surface 110 comprises a superhydrophobic material; and (b) a plurality of surface features 140 decorating the exterior surface 110 of the substrate 100 wherein a surface feature 140 is optionally shaped as cylinder or cone, wherein the surface features 140 have a diameter ranging from about 100 microns to about 1 millimeter; (c) a plurality of channels 150, wherein the channels 150 are in the inter-layer 120, wherein each channel 150 is in continuous communication with a plurality of vents 160, wherein the channels 150 remain unwetted during submersion in a liquid, wherein each vent 160 is in continuous communication with the exterior surface 110, wherein the exterior surface 110 is overlaid by a stable air layer 170, wherein the stable air layer 170 is in continuous communication with the plurality of vents 160, wherein the vents 160 allow the passage of air and/or oxygen from the channels 150 to the stable air layer, wherein an axis of a surface feature 140 is oriented in a direction tangential to the exterior surface 110, wherein one or more layers of surface features 140 are stacked on the exterior surface 110 of the substrate 110, wherein a multitude of small channels 200 connect a surface of each surface feature 140 to the exterior surface 110 of the substrate 100, wherein the small channels 200 allow the passage of gases and resist liquid incursion, wherein a tangent line 210 formed between any part of the surface feature positioned within a distance half the size of the cylinder or rounded cone forms an acute angle with a local normal direction of the exterior surface, wherein the surface of the surface feature 140 and the exterior surface 110 are functionalized with a hierarchical surface roughness having low energy chemical makeup and a water contact angle greater than 130 degrees, wherein the exterior surface 110 comprises a multitude of hierarchical structures, wherein the hierarchical structures comprise a multitude of concavities or dimples 300, wherein the hierarchical structures comprises at least two levels of hierarchy, wherein the first level comprises nanometer sized hydrophobic small channels 200 or particles ranging from about 5 to about 20 nm, contacting the second level comprises a surface of micron sized hydrophobic particles or channels 150, ranging from about 1 to about 10 m, arranged on a flat hydrophobic surface, wherein a third level of hierarchy comprises the surface features 140, wherein the stable air layer 170 contacts an aqueous solution 180, forming an air-liquid interface 190, wherein the stable air layer 170 is in diffusive contact with an overlaying atmosphere 310 allowing diffusive transport of gas components to occur without interruption along an entire length of the stable air layer 170, wherein the system is configured such that a position of a spheroid 400 comprising cultured cells 500 is limited by a surface tension produced by the air-liquid interface 190 to a concavity 300, wherein the spheroid 400 floats within the concavity 300, and wherein the air-liquid interface 190 is configured to provide oxygen to the cultured cells 500.

2. The system of claim 1, wherein the surface feature 140 comprises a platonic shape.

3. The system of claim 2, wherein the edges of the platonic shape are rounded.

4. The system of claim 1, wherein the water contact angle is greater than 150 degrees.

5. The system of claim 1, wherein the gas mixture atmosphere comprises oxygen and nitrogen at a relative concentration of about 21% and about 78%, respectively.

6. The system of claim 1, wherein the aqueous solution 180 comprises a hydrogel.

7. The system of claim 1, wherein the substrate 100 and the aqueous solution 180 are contained within a plate, wherein an inner surface of the plate provides solid support for the substrate 100 and the aqueous liquid, wherein the stable air layer 170 contacts the aqueous solution 180 allowing the passage of air through the air-liquid interface 190 from the stable air layer 170 to the aqueous solution.

8. The system of claim 1, wherein the external surface comprises a superhydrophobic surface comprising hierarchical structures, wherein the material of the superhydrophobic surface comprises polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) with microtexturing, polypropylene with nanotexturing, and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with silica nanoparticles.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0019] FIGS. 1A-1D shows a diagram of the process of cell attachment to a cell culture surface. FIG. 1A shows the cell before adhesion not in contact with the culture vessel. FIG. 1B shows first contact and initial adhesion of the cell to the vessel surface. FIG. 1C shows the cell forming bonds and flattening to the culture surface. FIG. 1D shows the cell after completing the attachment and spreading to conform to the vessel surface.

[0020] FIG. 2 shows a diagram of hanging droplet 3D cell culture.

[0021] FIG. 3 shows a micrograph of StemCell Technologies' AggreWell 400 Microwell Plate showing the inverted pyramid microfeature and cultured cell clusters at the centers.

[0022] FIG. 4 shows a micrograph of Corning Elplasia plates (left) round bottom type plates with Corning Ultra-Low Attachment (ULA) surface, (right) Corning Elplasia square bottom type plates, both with cell spheroids.

[0023] FIGS. 5A-5C illustrate three examples of spheroid formation techniques. FIG. 5A shows cells suspended in droplets attached to hanging drop plates. FIG. 5B shows Ultra-low attachment (ULA) plates that inhibit cells from adhering to the surface of the wells forcing them to aggregate and form spheroids. FIG. 5C shows a Spinner Flask agitating a suspension of spheroids to keep them in suspension.

[0024] FIGS. 6A-6C show cells growing in a hydrogel. FIG. 6A shows single cells distributed in a hydrogel after cell seeding. FIG. 6B shows small groups of cells that formed from the single cells. FIG. 6C shows spheroids formed from the groups of cells in the same positions as the single cells in FIG. 5A.

[0025] FIGS. 7A-7D illustrate the proposed hierarchical structure of the device with sub millimeter sized dimple and spheroid containment. FIG. 7A shows the liquid air boundary interaction at the nanometer scale. FIG. 7B shows the liquid air boundary interaction at the micron scale. FIG. 7C shows the liquid air boundary at the millimeter scale and FIG. 7D shows the vents and channel beneath the outer surface that provides connection between pockets of air layer in the dimples.

[0026] FIG. 8 shows spheroids of different sizes in a dimple being laterally confined and supported by the air layer.

[0027] FIGS. 9A-9F show a comparison of the oxygen concentration gradient formed by a spheroid growing in a microwell geometry with a traditional solid bottom device and one with a float layer device. FIG. 9A shows the location of the spheroid in the traditional setup with the spheroid in a microwell beneath a depth of growth media in a culture vessel. FIG. 9B shows the simulated oxygen concentration gradient formed during growth of a spheroid in a traditional setup. The oxygen concentration near the spheroid is low and increases in the direction away from the bottom of the vessel. FIG. 9C shows a closeup of the spheroid positioned in the microwell of the traditional setup. The microwell dimension is twice the spheroid dimension. The spheroid lies on the bottom surface of the microwell. FIG. 9D shows the location of the spheroid in the float layer device setup with the spheroid held in a curvature of surface tension formed by the dimple and beneath a depth of growth media in a culture vessel. FIG. 9E shows the simulated concentration gradient formed during growth of a spheroid in a float layer device of the subject invention. The oxygen concentration near the spheroid is high in the direction of the dimple surface and dips very little in the direction of the overhead surface of the growth media. FIG. 9F shows a closeup of the spheroid positioned in the microwell of the Float layer setup of the subject invention. The dimple dimension is twice the spheroid dimension. The spheroid lies on the surface tension above the dimple. The gas layer above the dimple is in contact with the gas volume in the channel below the dimple.

[0028] FIGS. 10A-10C show a very simple design that is capable of forming a float layer. FIG. 10A shows a pillar with a triangular cross section that has channels down each of the sides of the triangle. The arrows point to a channel on one face of the pillar and the contact surface at the point of the triangle, which supports the span of the surface tension across the channel. FIG. 10B shows a cross section of the pillar with arrows pointing to a geometric cut into one side of the triangle that forms a channel on the pillar and a point of the triangle that forms the contact surface on the pillar. FIG. 10C shows the cross section of the pillar with a dotted line, which represents the liquid gas interface that forms from the interaction of the surface tension with the superhydrophobic surface of the pillar. The interface contours closely the points of the triangle that form the contact surface, and forms a circular curved surface within the cavity of the shape that forms the channel. The cross sectional area of the gas phase near the surface of the channel is much greater than the cross sectional area of the gas phase near the surface of the points. The curved surface tension within the cavity is not supported by the underlying surface and its shape is not perturbed from circular in that region.

[0029] FIGS. 11(i)-11(iv). FIG. 11(i) shows a cad rendering of the base of a prototype float layer device with multiple hexagonal shaped dimples and centering prongs around them. FIG. 11(ii) shows a prototype that has been 3D printed and coated with superhydrophobic coating, containing cell culture media with cells, with a magnified portion of the photo pointing out the reflection of the plastron formed between ridges. FIG. 11(iii) shows a micrograph of the cell culture in the prototype pre-aggregation without any cells having accumulated near the plastron. FIG. 11(iv) shows a micrograph of the cell culture in the prototype post-aggregation with an accumulation of cells near each plastron reflection.

[0030] FIG. 12 shows a fluorescence micrograph of a distribution of spheroids grown in the design prototype float layer device from HT-29 colorectal cancer cells. Live cells are stained in green (calcien AM) and dead cells are stained in red (Ethidium-III). All spheroids show substantial green staining and only the larger spheroids show red staining at their centers.

DETAILED DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION

Selected Definitions

[0031] As used herein, the singular forms a, an and the are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. Furthermore, to the extent that the terms including, includes, having, has, with, or variants thereof are used in either the detailed description and/or the claims, such terms are intended to be inclusive in a manner similar to the term comprising. The transitional terms/phrases (and any grammatical variations thereof) comprising, comprises, comprise, consisting essentially of, consists essentially of, consisting and consists can be used interchangeably.

[0032] The phrases consisting essentially of or consists essentially of indicate that the claim encompasses embodiments containing the specified materials or steps and those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s) of the claim.

[0033] The term about means within an acceptable error range for the particular value as determined by one of ordinary skill in the art, which depends in part on how the value is measured, i.e., the limitations of the measurement system. In the context of compositions containing amounts of ingredients where the term about is used, these compositions contain the stated amount of the ingredient with a variation (error range) of 0-10% around the value (X10%). In other contexts, the term about is providing a variation (error range) of 0-10% around a given value (X10%). As is apparent, this variation represents a range that is up to 10% above or below a given value, for example, X1%, X2%, X3%, X4%, X5%, X6%, X7%, X8%, X9%, or X10%.

[0034] In the present disclosure, ranges are stated in shorthand to avoid having to set out at length and describe each and every value within the range. Any appropriate value within the range can be selected, where appropriate, as the upper value, lower value, or the terminus of the range. For example, a range of 0.1-1.0 represents the terminal values of 0.1 and 1.0, as well as the intermediate values of 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, and all intermediate ranges encompassed within 0.1-1.0, such as 0.2-0.5, 0.2-0.8, 0.7-1.0, etc. Values having at least two significant digits within a range are envisioned, for example, a range of 5-10 indicates all the values between 5.0 and 10.0 as well as between 5.00 and 10.00 including the terminal values. When ranges are used herein, combinations and subcombinations of ranges (e.g., subranges within the disclosed range) and specific embodiments therein are explicitly included.

[0035] As used herein, the terms gas-liquid interface and air-liquid interface are used interchangeably.

[0036] By reduces is meant a negative alteration of at least 1%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, or 100%.

[0037] By increases is meant as a positive alteration of at least 1%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, or 100%.

[0038] As used herein, the terms determining, measuring, and assessing, and assaying are used interchangeably and include both quantitative and qualitative determinations.

[0039] The recitation of a listing of chemical groups in any definition of a variable herein includes definitions of that variable as any single group or combination of listed groups. The recitation of an embodiment for a variable or aspect herein includes that embodiment as any single embodiment or in combination with any other embodiments or portions thereof.

[0040] Any compositions or methods provided herein can be combined with one or more of any of the other compositions and methods provided herein.

[0041] Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments thereof, and from the claims.

[0042] All references cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

Description and Practical Uses of the Invention

[0043] For the most part, cells in an organism are not floating around as single cells or required to grow on an inert surface as a monolayer, but are found in a volume surrounded by extracellular matrix interstitial fluid and other cells. There have been several successful techniques and technologies that approximate this environment to varying degrees.

[0044] The subject invention pertains to a system and methods for culturing spheroids. In embodiments, the subject invention discloses a novel technology for culturing spheroids, named Float Layer Cell Culture, that replaces low-attachment surface coatings on traditional spheroid culture vessels. The invention utilizes hierarchical high aspect ratio surface features 140 to culture spheroids above a liquid-gas boundary. This removes the concern from seeding to the interaction of cells with a ridged non-dynamic surface, which is required in most other 3D culture systems, and increases the flux rate of gasses to and from the 3D culture. In embodiments, the Float Layer Cell Culture system reduces hypoxic stress on the cells and decreases necrotic core formation due to lack of oxygen.

[0045] In embodiments, the subject invention utilizes a hierarchical structure from a nanometer to micrometer range, which represents the minimal requirement for the emergence of a superhydrophobic behavior, into the millimeter range, which provides an additional behavior, i.e., the exclusion of liquids from a volumetric layer (volume exclusion) having a surface contacting the surface geometry of the hierarchical structure and air-liquid interfaces formed by surface tension spanning between the surface geometries, which can be utilized in a submerged structure to generate functional mechanical surfaces, formed by the surface tension, that dynamically interact with cells and gas exchange volumes in close contact with the liquid volume that provides a source/sink for dissolved gasses in a cell culture. In embodiments, to improve culture environment control, the bottom of the culture device is replaced with an engineered surface where the surface geometry incorporates small dimple indentations in the surface and smaller vent holes or channels 150 that penetrate through the surface. This surface geometry is coated with a superhydrophobic low energy surface treatment that inhibits surface wetting. In preferred embodiments, the superhydrophobic surface extends the air-liquid boundary across a much larger surface permitting a density of spheroid 400 forming feature per culture area and a shared continuous liquid volume. In more preferred embodiments, when culture media is added, an air layer forms across the bottom surface of the vessel and remains during culturing. This air layer conforms to the shape of the small indentations while being in continuous communication with the smaller vents 160, where the vents 160 are in continuous communication with the channels 150. In more preferred embodiments, this configuration produces a dynamic air-liquid interface 190 from surface tension that supports the culture medium's volume and guides cells to form spheroids. This interface serves as an oxygen source and does not slow down nutrient diffusion, giving better control over the culture environment.

[0046] In embodiments, the float layer interface puts the oxygen source immediately adjacent to the microenvironment, removing its dependence on diffusion over large distances, i.e., from the air diffusing from the surface of the growth medium. Replacing the solid surface with dynamic air-liquid surface tension eliminates the boundary layer associated with a solid surface and allows for better movement of soluble nutrients, thus providing more direct, predictable control of the spheroid culture environment, yielding more reproducible models for research.

[0047] In embodiments, the thin blue lines and the rounded cones shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B represent the surface coating allowing the surface to create a superhydrophobic behavior generated by two levels of hierarchy, i.e., nanometer sized hydrophobic particles, including, but not limited to, small channels 200, ranging from about 5 to about 20 nm, contacting the surface of micron sized hydrophobic particles, ranging from about 1 to about 10 m, arranged on a flat hydrophobic surface. In embodiments, this hierarchical structure produces a greater than 150 degrees contact angle and superhydrophobic hysteresis of droplets. In preferred embodiments, the subject invention extends the hierarchical structure into the millimeter range, where additional behaviors, i.e., liquid volume exclusion and surface tension spanning structures that can be utilized in a submerged structure to generate functional mechanical surfaces formed from surface tension and gas exchange volumes in close contact with the liquid volume.

[0048] In embodiments, the small channels 200 have a diameter in the nanoscale (D.sub.n), the surface features 140 have a size in the micrometer scale (Du), and up to the millimeter scale, and the concavities are in the millimeter scale (D.sub.m) (FIG. 7).

[0049] In preferred embodiments, the thin blue lines (FIG. 7A-7C) are small channels 200 or particles on the nanometer scale that represent the lowest level of the hierarchical surface structure or roughness that enables superhydrophobic behavior.

[0050] In embodiments, the float layer air volume within a dimple is in gas phase volumetric contact with the air volume in other dimples, as well as with an air reservoir or with atmosphere (FIG. 7).

[0051] In preferred embodiments, the air-liquid interface 190 creates a surface tension support layer that keeps a spheroid 400 floating within a dimple and provides oxygen directly to the surface of the spheroid, thus optimizing diffusive flux. This dynamic support layer eliminates the boundary layer associated with solid surfaces and improves lateral diffusion of nutrients and metabolites between the cell formation and the culture medium. With improved control over oxygen and nutrient availability, spheroids can be grown with greater reproducibility resulting in more accurate and reliable in vitro models.

[0052] Increasing the surface area of the air-liquid interface 190 is routinely achieved in nature and in the lab. However, without further control of the surface geometry on the millimeter/sub-millimeter scale, cells settle and clump randomly on a flat surface. While cells need vertical support provided with a fluid-fluid surface tension boundary, they also need lateral confinement. In embodiments, incorporating sub millimeter concave features, or dimples, into the surface configuration allows for a droplet like geometry, thus providing a mechanism for the cells to collect at a central position and lateral confinement of the individual spheroids while maintaining separation between spheroids once formed (FIG. 8).

[0053] In certain embodiments, the dimple geometry utilized in the subject invention acts as a funnel when the cells are settling, collecting at the bottom of the concave shape of the dimple. After settling, the cells form a spheroid 400. Then, as the spheroid 400 grows, it remains within the dimple due to gravity. This keeps individual spheroids 400 separated while sharing the same main volume of growth medium. In preferred embodiments, medium exchanges can be performed by replacing most of the overlying volume without disturbing the settled spheroids 400.

[0054] In embodiments, a spheroid 400 floating in a concavity or dimple is not in continuous contact with the surface of the substrate 100. Occasional contact may happen, especially during media exchange.

[0055] In certain embodiments, the configuration described above offers an improvement on current technologies by allowing the self-assembly of the seed cell clusters without the need to rely on extra cellular matrix (ECM) contractile forces after the dispersed seeding of cells on a surface, or centrifugation to force a central collection of cells.

[0056] In preferred embodiments, the advantage of creating an air-liquid interface 190 directly adjacent to the spheroid 400 volume is providing a higher oxygen flux to the growing spheroid 400 (FIG. 7). In a configuration where the area of the air-liquid interface 190 is expanded, the diffusion distance to the spheroid 400 within the liquid is very short, but the distance the oxygen must diffuse within the gas layer to get to a spheroid 400 in the center of the area increases by the square root of the area. In a continuous hydrophobic surface with a liquid pancake overlay, oxygen can only diffuse in from the edge of the liquid layer and through the height of the liquid layer, and is limited by the cross sectional area of the gas volume orthogonal to the shortest path of diffusion. In embodiments, to take advantage of improved oxygen flux, the surface configuration decreases the in gas diffusion distance to a convectively mixed volume of air (FIG. 8). In embodiments, this applies also to the flux of carbon dioxide away from the spheroid 400 and the maintenance of pH.

[0057] In preferred embodiments, access channels 150 are provided through the superhydrophobic substrate 100 to decrease the distance from the air-liquid interface 190 to the bulk atmosphere. Once adequate access to the bulk atmosphere is provided to the float layer, the primary source of oxygen for cellular metabolism is no longer the air diffusing from the surface of the growth medium.

[0058] In certain embodiments, the culture system can provide oxygen at a rate comparable to in vivo conditions. In preferred embodiments, the system is scalable to high volumes with high throughput.

[0059] In some examples, the height of the growth medium volume is not a limiting factor in cell growth kinetics. This increases the reproducibility between protocols that have different standard media volume requirements. Accordingly, the length of time between media exchange for feeding the culture can be decreased and a greater volume of media can be present per surface area at any time.

[0060] In certain embodiments, the aqueous solution comprises a hydrogel, where the hydrogel comprises a Corning Matrigel or comparable substitute.

[0061] In embodiments, the material utilized for creating a superhydrophobic surface with microcavities includes, but is not limited to, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) with microtexturing, polypropylene with nanotexturing, and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with silica nanoparticles.

[0062] The above-described system and methods are described herein for the purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting. Alternative and additional variations may be apparent to those skilled in the art.

Materials and Methods

[0063] Many materials in nature use a combination of material chemistry and submicron geometry to achieve very low wetting angles. The lotus effect is one example, which was discovered in 1964 by Dettre and Johnson, and refers to the superhydrophobic behavior of lotus leaves to form high surface contact angles with water droplets that allows for self-cleaning of dirt from the leaves.

[0064] In practice, when the volume of the water droplet is increased, the air layer between the liquid and the solid surface is maintained. This can be seen when a larger amount of water pools at the center of the lotus leaf. A silvering optical illusion occurs when viewed from some angles. This is due to the liquid gas interface beneath the liquid volume. When going from water to air as optical media, there is a large negative change in refractive index. This results in total internal reflection of some rays of light and looks like a silvering or mirroring effect.

[0065] There are several factors that we considered critical design elements for the design of the 3D cell culture device of the subject invention. Thes factors comprise (a) a superhydrophobic contact surface that provides mechanical support of the volume through surface tension between a liquid gas interface, (b) confinement geometry that provides dynamic cell collection at seeding and lateral confinement during spheroid growth, c) air exchange channels that maintain gas mix concentration equilibrium with the environment, (d) rapid design and material strength, because the material and design must withstand mechanical stress, wear, and environmental conditions without degrading, (c) contamination resistance, because the surface should be resistant to contamination from dust, biofilm, or other particles to maintain functionality, (f) chemical stability, because the surface coating must resist chemical degradation from exposure to cell culture media and other chemicals used in the process, (g) thermal stability, because the surface should remain stable and maintain its properties under expected temperature fluctuations, (h) uniformity, because the microcavities must be uniformly distributed and consistent in size to ensure reproducibility and uniform spheroid formation, (i) biocompatibility, because materials used must be biocompatible, ensuring no adverse effects on cell growth and viability, (j) scalability, because the design should allow for scaling up to larger areas to accommodate multiple spheroids and larger culture volumes, (k) cost effectiveness, because the manufacturing process and materials should be cost-effective for practical implementation and widespread use, and (1) user-friendly design, because the device should be easy to set up, operate, and integrate into existing laboratory workflows.

[0066] Additive manufacturing in the form of resin LCD 3D printing has been used to prototype the form of multiple designs. Using biocompatible resins this method can produce 3D solids that meet all of the structural and non-surface related constraints mentioned above. Although this method can be refined and validated for mass production of devices, it is not the most cost effective method for mass production. Some designs lend themselves to injection molding or cast molding, both of which are methods capable of producing the required features with sufficient dimensional size and precision to produce forms capable of being processed with a surface coating that meets the additional surface wetting requirements for making a fully functional float layer device.

[0067] The low wetting angle surface coating has been applied with multi step dip coating and spray coating. The application sequence is: (1) surface priming, (2) adhesive course texture coating, and (3) top fine texture coating. The final cured materials resulting from resin 3D printing, mostly acrylate variants, require priming to add functional groups that allow for spray coated layers to sufficiently adhere to the surface of the devices. Lye at about 0.5N or about 10% aminopropyl trimethoxysiloxane in dry isopropanol is applied by submersion coating. After removal from the priming solution the work in progress device is allowed to dry at ambient conditions for about 1 h, rinsed with about 99% isopropanol, and cured in a drying oven at 80 C. for 30 min.

[0068] The adhesive layer is a commercially available mixture of polyurethane based adhesive silica particles in the range of about 1 um to about 100 nm. It is applied evenly to the surface of the device in either a can or air aerosol mist in two light coats with about 2 min of drying time between the coatings. The surface is allowed to dry for about 30 min at standard conditions before the final coating is applied.

[0069] The top coat comprises a commercially available PDMS based material with silica nanoparticles in the range of 10-20 nm with fluorene functionalization. This material is also applied evenly to the device surface via an aerosol applying 3 light coats with about 2 min dry time between coats. Application of the top coat is followed by about 1 h incubation in a drying oven at about 60 C. to fully dry any volatiles and anneal the layers to the surface of the device.

[0070] After the device is cooled from the incubation step it is submerged in deionized water and agitated for about 30 s to remove any residual free powder from the top coat step. After removal from the water the device is allowed to dry at standard conditions for 1 h before use or sterilization.

[0071] The devices are sterilized using a steam autoclave. Devices are loaded into the autoclave and processed on a dry cycle, 30 min at 121 C. and at a pressure of 15 bar. The devices must be allowed to dry completely before they regain their hydrophobic properties.

Suitable Material Technologies

[0072] Materials that meet the requirement for use in the production of a device having the correct macrostructure, microstructure and surface chemistry, include, but are not limited to:

[0073] Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with Silica Nanoparticles: PDMS is widely used in microfabrication for its flexibility and biocompatibility. When combined with silica nanoparticles, it can achieve superhydrophobic properties.

[0074] Fluorinated Silanes Coated on Silicon or Glass: Fluorinated silanes can create a superhydrophobic layer when coated on silicon or glass substrates. They provide excellent chemical resistance and stability.

[0075] Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) Nanostructures: TiO2 can be structured to create microcavities and, when treated with a hydrophobic coating, can provide superhydrophobicity and resistance to contamination.

[0076] Perfluoropolyether (PFPE) Coatings: PFPE is a highly stable and chemically resistant material that can be used to coat microstructure surfaces to achieve superhydrophobicity.

[0077] Polypropylene with Nanotexturing: Polypropylene is a chemically resistant polymer that can be nanotextured to create microcavities and achieve superhydrophobic properties.

[0078] Graphene Oxide Coated Polymers: Polymers like polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate (PET) coated with graphene oxide can provide a combination of superhydrophobicity and mechanical robustness.

[0079] Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) with Microtexturing: PVDF is a durable polymer with excellent chemical resistance. Microtexturing can enhance its hydrophobic properties.

[0080] Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Composites: Embedding CNTs in a polymer matrix can create a superhydrophobic surface with microcavities and high chemical stability.

[0081] Polyurethane (PU) with Fluorinated Additives: PU is versatile and can be combined with fluorinated additives to enhance its hydrophobic and chemical-resistant properties.

[0082] Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) Aerogels: SiO2 aerogels have a highly porous structure that can be modified to create microcavities and coated for superhydrophobicity and chemical resistance.

[0083] All patents, patent applications, provisional applications, and publications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety, including all figures and tables, to the extent they are not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of this specification.

[0084] Following are examples that illustrate procedures for practicing the invention. These examples should not be construed as limiting. All percentages are by weight and all solvent mixture proportions are by volume unless otherwise noted.

Example 1

[0085] An acrylic 3D print of the prototype (FIG. 11(i)) was printed with a resin 3D printer and coated with the three step coating process to yield a superhydrophobic surface on the device. The device was seeded with 3 mL of 10.sup.5 cells per mL of HT-29 cells, a colorectal cancer cell line (FIG. 11(ii)) A micrograph of the dimples in the device immediately after seeding showed no cells accumulated near the plastrons (FIG. 11(iii)). After 2 h another micrograph was taken that showed cells had started to accumulate near the plastrons within the dimples of the device (FIG. 11(iv)). The cell culture in the device was incubated for 2 days at 37 C and 5% CO2, as prescribed by the normal culturing protocol for HT-29 cells. After incubation the media and cells were harvested from the device and stained for live/dead fluorescence. A two population distribution of cells was observed (FIG. 12). A distribution of spheroids was observed with a majority of the cells staining green revealing that they were living (FIG. 12). There was an occurrence of red/dead stain but it was only minimal and in the center of larger spheroids (FIG. 12). This demonstrates the ability to cultivate spheroids on a surface tension boundary that is in contact with an atmosphere connected gas volume.

[0086] It should be understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and the scope of the appended claims. In addition, any elements or limitations of any invention or embodiment thereof disclosed herein can be combined with any and/or all other elements or limitations (individually or in any combination) or any other invention or embodiment thereof disclosed herein, and all such combinations are contemplated with the scope of the invention without limitation thereto.

EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

[0087] Embodiment 1. A gas exchanger system for culturing spheroids, the system comprising: [0088] (a) a substrate 100 having an exterior surface 110 an inter-layer 120, and an interior surface 125 wherein the interior surface 125 adheres to a flat bottom multi-well plate 130 forming a monolayer, wherein the exterior surface 110 comprises a superhydrophobic material; and [0089] (b) a plurality of surface features 140 decorating the exterior surface 110 of the substrate 100 wherein a surface feature 140 is optionally shaped as cylinder or cone, wherein the surface features 140 have a diameter ranging from about 100 microns to about 1 millimeter; [0090] (c) a plurality of channels 150, wherein the channels 150 are in the inter-layer 120, wherein each channel 150 is in continuous communication with a plurality of vents 160, wherein the channels 150 remain unwetted during submersion in a liquid, [0091] wherein each vent 160 is in continuous communication with the exterior surface 110, [0092] wherein the exterior surface 110 is overlaid by a stable air layer 170, wherein the stable air layer 170 is in continuous communication with the plurality of vents 160, wherein the vents 160 allow the passage of air and/or oxygen from the channels 150 to the stable air layer, [0093] wherein an axis of a surface feature 140 is oriented in a direction tangential to the exterior surface 110, [0094] wherein one or more layers of surface features 140 are stacked on the exterior surface 110 of the substrate 110, [0095] wherein a multitude of small channels 200 connect a surface of each surface feature 140 to the exterior surface 110 of the substrate 100, wherein the small channels 200 allow the passage of gases and resist liquid incursion, [0096] wherein a tangent line 210 formed between any part of the surface feature positioned within a distance half the size of the cylinder or rounded cone forms an acute angle with a local normal direction of the exterior surface, [0097] wherein the surface of the surface feature 140 and the exterior surface 110 are functionalized with a hierarchical surface roughness having low energy chemical makeup and a water contact angle greater than 130 degrees, [0098] wherein the exterior surface 110 comprises a multitude of hierarchical structures, wherein the hierarchical structures comprise a multitude of concavities or dimples 300, [0099] wherein the hierarchical structures comprises at least two levels of hierarchy, wherein the first level comprises nanometer sized hydrophobic small channels 200 or particles ranging from about 5 to about 20 nm, contacting the second level comprises a surface of micron sized hydrophobic particles or channels 150, ranging from about 1 to about 10 m, arranged on a flat hydrophobic surface, wherein a third level of hierarchy comprises the surface features 140, [0100] wherein the stable air layer 170 contacts an aqueous solution 180, forming an air-liquid interface 190, wherein the stable air layer 170 is in diffusive contact with an overlaying atmosphere 310 allowing diffusive transport of gas components to occur without interruption along an entire length of the stable air layer 170, [0101] wherein the system is configured such that a position of a spheroid 400 comprising cultured cells 500 is limited by a surface tension produced by the air-liquid interface 190 to a concavity 300, wherein the spheroid 400 floats within the concavity 300, and [0102] wherein the air-liquid interface 190 is configured to provide oxygen to the cultured cells 500. [0103] Embodiment 2. The system of embodiment 1, wherein the surface feature 140 comprises a platonic shape. [0104] Embodiment 3. The system of embodiment 2, wherein the edges of the platonic shape are rounded. [0105] Embodiment 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the water contact angle is greater than 150 degrees. [0106] Embodiment 5. The system of any preceding embodiments, wherein the gas mixture atmosphere comprises oxygen and nitrogen at a relative concentration of about 21% and about 78%, respectively. [0107] Embodiment 6. The system of any preceding embodiments, wherein the aqueous solution 180 comprises a hydrogel. [0108] Embodiment 7. The system of any preceding embodiments, wherein the substrate 100 and the aqueous solution 180 are contained within a plate, wherein an inner surface of the plate provides solid support for the substrate 100 and the aqueous liquid, wherein the stable air layer 170 contacts the aqueous solution 180 allowing the passage of air through the air-liquid interface 190 from the stable air layer 170 to the aqueous solution. [0109] Embodiment 8. The system of any preceding embodiments, wherein the external surface comprises a superhydrophobic surface comprising hierarchical structures, wherein the material of the superhydrophobic surface comprises polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) with microtexturing, polypropylene with nanotexturing, and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with silica nanoparticles.

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