HEAT TRANSFER SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR OPERATING A HEAT TRANSFER SYSTEM

Abstract

The invention provides a heat transfer system and a method for operating a heat transfer system in which a heat transfer fluid comprising or consisting of a phase change material (PCM) circulates in a cooling circuit. A combined state of phase value of the heat transfer fluid is determined based on information obtained from a sensor system including a temperature sensor and an electrical resistance sensor realized as two separate sensors or as one combined temperature-and-electrical-resistance sensor. The system and method can securely and effectively prevent a possible blocking of the channels of an indoor heat exchanger of the system by solidified PCM and an unwanted deposition of solid PCM (crystals) on heat transfer surfaces of the indoor heat exchanger.

Claims

1. Heat transfer system, comprising a) a refrigeration circuit comprising a first heat transfer fluid, a compressor, a condenser, an expansion device and an outdoor heat exchanger; b) a cooling circuit comprising a second heat transfer fluid, which comprises or consists of a phase change material, a pump for circulating the second heat transfer fluid around the cooling circuit, a heat exchanger for transferring heat from the second heat transfer fluid to the first heat transfer fluid, and at least one indoor heat exchanger for transferring heat from a space to be cooled to the second heat transfer fluid; c) in the cooling circuit, a sensor system comprising or consisting of a temperature sensor and an electrical resistance sensor, wherein the temperature sensor and the electrical resistance sensor are realized as two separate sensors or as one combined temperature-and-electrical-resistance sensor; d) a controller configured to obtain temperature information and electrical resistance information from the sensor system; wherein the controller is configured to determine a combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow) based on the obtained temperature information and obtained electrical resistance information, and control the operation of the heat transfer system based on the determined combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow).

2. System according to claim 1, wherein, to determine the combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow), the controller is configured to i) obtain a temperature (T.sub.me) of the heat transfer fluid from the sensor system; ii) obtain an electrical resistance (R.sub.me) of the heat transfer fluid from the sensor system; iii) determine a temperature component (SOP.sub.T) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the temperature (T.sub.me); iv) determine an electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the electrical resistance (R.sub.me); v) determine a weighted temperature component by calculating a product of the temperature component (SOP.sub.T) and a temperature coefficient (β); vi) determine a weighted electrical resistance component by calculating a product of the first electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) and a difference between 1 and the temperature coefficient (β); vii) determine the combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow) by calculating the sum of the first weighted temperature component and the first weighted electrical resistance component.

3. System according to claim 1, wherein the sensor system is located upstream of the at least one indoor heat exchanger, wherein the system comprises a second sensor system located downstream of the at least one indoor heat exchanger, wherein the second sensor system comprises or consists of a temperature sensor and an electrical resistance sensor realized as two separate sensors or as one combined temperature-and-electrical-resistance sensor, wherein the controller is configured to i) obtain temperature information from the sensor system and second sensor system and obtaining electrical resistance information from the sensor system and second sensor system; ii) determine a state of phase difference (ΔSOP) of the heat transfer fluid across the at least one indoor heat exchanger based on the obtained temperature information and obtained electrical resistance information, and iii) control the operation of the heat transfer system based on the determined state of phase difference (ΔSOP), wherein, to determine a state of phase difference (ΔSOP) of the heat transfer fluid across the at least one indoor heat exchanger, the controller is preferably configured to i) obtain a first temperature (T.sub.me) of the heat transfer fluid from the sensor system and obtain a second temperature (T.sub.me) of the heat transfer fluid from the second sensor system; ii) obtain a first electrical resistance (R.sub.me) of the heat transfer fluid from the sensor system and obtain a second electrical resistance (R.sub.me) from the second sensor system; iii) determine a first temperature component (SOP.sub.T) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the first temperature (T.sub.me) and determine a second temperature component (SOP.sub.T) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the second temperature (T.sub.me); iv) determine a first electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the first electrical resistance (R.sub.me) and determine a second electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the second electrical resistance (R.sub.me); v) determine a first weighted temperature component by calculating a product of the first temperature component (SOP.sub.T) and a temperature coefficient (β) and determining a second weighted temperature component by calculating a product of the second temperature component (SOP.sub.T) and the temperature coefficient (β); vi) determine a first weighted electrical resistance component by calculating a product of the first electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) and a difference between 1 and the temperature coefficient (β), and determining a second weighted electrical resistance component by calculating a product of the second electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) and a difference between 1 and the temperature coefficient (β); vii) determine the first combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow) by calculating the sum of the first weighted temperature component and the first weighted electrical resistance component and determining a second combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.return) by calculating the sum of the second weighted temperature component and the second weighted electrical resistance component; viii) determine the state of phase difference (ΔSOP) of the heat transfer fluid across the at least one indoor heat exchanger by calculating the difference between the second state of phase value (SOP.sub.return) and the first state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow).

4. System according to claim 2, wherein the controller is configured to determine the temperature component (SOP.sub.T) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid as follows: If T.sub.me>(T.sub.eq+u(+)), SOP.sub.T=0; If T.sub.me<(T.sub.eq−u(−)), SOP.sub.T=1; If T.sub.me≥((T.sub.eq−u(−)) and ≤(T.sub.eq+u(+)), SOP.sub.T is in the range of >0 and <1, preferably in the range of 0.1 to 0.9, more preferably in the range of 0.2 to 0.8, even more preferably in the range of 0.3 to 0.7, particularly preferably in the range of 0.4 to 0.6, especially 0.5; wherein T.sub.me is the value of the measured temperature, T.sub.eq is the phase change temperature of the phase change material, u(+) is a temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the upper limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. melting, u(−) is the temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the lower limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. crystallization.

5. System according to claim 2, wherein the controller is configured to determine the electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid are determined as follows:
SOP.sub.E=SOP.sub.0+α.Math.(R.sub.me−R.sub.0) wherein SOP.sub.0 is a reference state of phase value, wherein, when the heat transfer fluid is a liquid without solid crystals present, SOP.sub.0 is preferably 0, α is a coefficient for converting the measured change in electrical resistance, relative to the reference resistance value R.sub.0, to a state of phase, R.sub.me is the value of the measured electrical resistance, R.sub.0 is a reference resistance value.

6. System according to claim 2, wherein the controller is configured to determine the combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow, SOP.sub.return) as follows:
SOP.sub.flow,SOP.sub.return=β.Math.SOP.sub.T+(1−β).Math.SOP.sub.E wherein β is a coefficient representing a weighting value for a specific phase change material which provides the most accurate prediction of an enthalpy-based state of phase measurement, wherein β is preferably determined as follows: If T.sub.me>(T.sub.eq+u(+)), β=1, If T.sub.me<(T.sub.eq−u(−)), β=1, If T.sub.me≥((T.sub.eq−u(−)) and ≤(T.sub.eq+u(+)), β is in the range of >0 and <1, preferably in the range of 0.01 to 0.8, more preferably in the range of 0.05 to 0.6, even more preferably in the range of 0.10 to 0.4, particularly preferably in the range of 0.15 to 0.3, especially 0.2, wherein T.sub.me is the value of the measured temperature, T.sub.eq is the phase change temperature of the phase change material, u(+) is a temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the upper limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. melting, u(−) is the temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the lower limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. crystallization.

7. System according to claim 1, wherein the controller is configured to control the operation of the heat transfer system based on i) the determined combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow) by controlling a speed of the compressor, preferably in dependence of the highest cooling load of an indoor heat exchanger in the system; and/or ii) a determined state of phase difference (ΔSOP) across the at least one heat exchanger by controlling a rotation speed of a fan of the at least one indoor heat exchanger and/or by controlling a flow rate of the heat transfer fluid through the at least one indoor heat exchanger, preferably by controlling a pump rate of the pump and/or an opening degree of a valve in fluid connection to said indoor heat exchanger.

8. System according to claim 1, wherein the cooling circuit comprises at least one further indoor heat exchanger, wherein a third sensor system is disposed downstream of said further indoor heat exchanger in the cooling circuit, wherein the third sensor system comprises or consists of a temperature sensor and an electrical resistance sensor realized as two separate sensors or as one combined temperature-and-electrical-resistance sensor, wherein the controller is configured to control the operation of the heat transfer system based on i) the determined combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow) by controlling a speed of the compressor, preferably in dependence of the highest cooling load of an indoor heat exchanger in the system; and/or ii) a determined state of phase difference (ΔSOP) across the at least one further heat exchanger by controlling a fan of the at least one further indoor heat exchanger to be switched on or off and/or by controlling a flow rate of the heat transfer fluid through the at least one further indoor heat exchanger, preferably by controlling a pump rate of the pump and/or an opening degree of a valve in fluid connection to said at least one further indoor heat exchanger.

9. A method for operating a heat transfer system in which a heat transfer fluid comprising or consisting of a phase change material circulates in a cooling circuit, the method comprising obtaining temperature information and electrical resistance information from a sensor system located in a cooling circuit of a heat transfer system in which a heat transfer fluid comprising or consisting of a phase change material circulates, wherein the sensor system comprises or consists of a temperature sensor and the electrical resistance sensor which are realized as two separate sensors or as one combined temperature-and-electrical-resistance sensor; wherein the method further comprises determining a combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow) based on the obtained temperature information and obtained electrical resistance information, and controlling the operation of the heat transfer system based on the determined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow).

10. Method according to claim 9, wherein, for determining the combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow), the method comprises i) obtaining a temperature (T.sub.me) of the heat transfer fluid from the sensor system; ii) obtaining an electrical resistance (R.sub.me) of the heat transfer fluid from the sensor system; iii) determining a temperature component (SOP.sub.T) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the temperature (T.sub.me); iv) determining an electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the electrical resistance (R.sub.me); v) determining a weighted temperature component by calculating a product of the temperature component (SOP.sub.T) and a temperature coefficient (β); vi) determining a weighted electrical resistance component by calculating a product of the first electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) an a difference between 1 and the temperature coefficient (β); vii) determining the combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow) by calculating the sum of the first weighted temperature component and the first weighted electrical resistance component.

11. Method according to claim 9, wherein the sensor system is located upstream of the at least one heat exchanger, wherein the system comprises a second sensor system located downstream of the at least one indoor heat exchanger, wherein the second sensor system comprises or consists of a temperature sensor and an electrical resistance sensor realized as two separate sensors or as one combined temperature-and-electrical-resistance sensor, wherein the method comprises i) obtaining temperature information from the sensor system and second sensor system and obtaining electrical resistance information from the sensor system and second sensor system; ii) determining a state of phase difference (ΔSOP) of the heat transfer fluid across the at least one indoor heat exchanger based on the obtained temperature information and obtained electrical resistance information, and iii) controlling the operation of the heat transfer system based on the determined state of phase difference (ΔSOP), wherein, for determining a state of phase difference (ΔSOP), the method preferably comprises a) obtaining a first temperature (T.sub.me) of the heat transfer fluid from the sensor system and obtaining a second temperature (T.sub.me) of the heat transfer fluid from the second sensor system; b) obtaining a first electrical resistance (R.sub.me) of the heat transfer fluid from the sensor system and obtaining a second electrical resistance (R.sub.me) from the second sensor system; c) determining a first temperature component (SOP.sub.T) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the first temperature (T.sub.me) and determining a second temperature component (SOP.sub.T) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the second temperature (T.sub.me); d) determining a first electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the first electrical resistance (R.sub.me) and determining a second electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid from the second electrical resistance (R.sub.me); e) determining a first weighted temperature component by calculating a product of the first temperature component (SOP.sub.T) and a temperature coefficient (β) and determining a second weighted temperature component by calculating a product of the second temperature component (SOP.sub.T) and the temperature coefficient (β); f) determining a first weighted electrical resistance component by calculating a product of the first electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) and a difference between 1 and the temperature coefficient (β), and determining a second weighted electrical resistance component by calculating a product of the second electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) and a difference between 1 and the temperature coefficient (β); g) determining the first combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow) by calculating the sum of the first weighted temperature component and the first weighted electrical resistance component and determining a second combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.return) by calculating the sum of the second weighted temperature component and the second weighted electrical resistance component; h) determining the state of phase difference (ΔSOP) of the heat transfer fluid across the at least one indoor heat exchanger by calculating the difference between the second state of phase value (SOP.sub.return) and the first state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow).

12. Method according to claim 10, wherein the temperature component (SOP.sub.T) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid is determined as follows: If T.sub.me>(T.sub.eq+u(+)), SOP.sub.T=0; If T.sub.me<(T.sub.eq−u(−)), SOP.sub.T=1; If T.sub.me≥((T.sub.eq−u(−)) and ≤(T.sub.eq+u(+)), SOP.sub.T is in the range of >0 and <1, preferably in the range of 0.1 to 0.9, more preferably in the range of 0.2 to 0.8, even more preferably in the range of 0.3 to 0.7, particularly preferably in the range of 0.4 to 0.6, especially 0.5; wherein T.sub.me is the value of the measured temperature, T.sub.eq is the phase change temperature of the phase change material, u(+) is a temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the upper limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. melting, u(−) is the temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the lower limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. crystallization.

13. Method according to claim 10, wherein the electrical resistance component (SOP.sub.E) of the state of phase (SOP) of the heat transfer fluid are determined as follows:
SOP.sub.E=SOP.sub.0+α.Math.(R.sub.me−R.sub.0) wherein SOP.sub.0 is a reference state of phase value, wherein, when the heat transfer fluid is a liquid without solid crystals present, SOP.sub.0 is preferably 0, α is a coefficient for converting the measured change in electrical resistance, relative to the reference resistance value R.sub.0, to a state of phase R.sub.me is the value of the measured electrical resistance, R.sub.0 is a reference resistance value.

14. Method according to claim 10, wherein the combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow, SOP.sub.return) are determined as follows:
SOP.sub.flow,SOP.sub.return=β.Math.SOP.sub.T+(1−β).Math.SOP.sub.E wherein β is a coefficient relating to a weighting value for a specific phase change material which provides the most accurate prediction of an enthalpy-based state of phase measurement, wherein β is preferably determined as follows: If T.sub.me>(T.sub.eq+u(+)), β=1, If T.sub.me<(T.sub.eq−u(−)), β=1, If T.sub.me≥((T.sub.eq−u(−)) and ≤(T.sub.eq+u(+)), β is in the range of >0 and <1, preferably in the range of 0.01 to 0.8, more preferably in the range of 0.05 to 0.6, even more preferably in the range of 0.10 to 0.4, particularly preferably in the range of 0.15 to 0.3, especially 0.2, wherein T.sub.me is the value of the measured temperature, T.sub.eq is the phase change temperature of the phase change material, u(+) is a temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the upper limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. melting, u(−) is the temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the lower limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. crystallization.

15. Method according to claim 9, wherein the operation of the heat transfer system is controlled based on i) the determined combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow) by controlling a speed of the compressor, preferably in dependence of the highest cooling load of an indoor heat exchanger in the system; and/or ii) a determined state of phase difference (ΔSOP) across the at least one heat exchanger by controlling a fan of the at least one indoor heat exchanger to be switched on or off and/or by controlling a flow rate of the heat transfer fluid through the at least one indoor heat exchanger, preferably by controlling a pump rate of the pump and/or an opening degree of a valve in fluid connection to said indoor heat exchanger.

16. Method according to claim 9, wherein the cooling circuit comprises at least one further indoor heat exchanger, wherein a third sensor system is disposed downstream of said further indoor heat exchanger in the cooling circuit, wherein the third sensor system comprises or consists of a temperature sensor and an electrical resistance sensor realized as two separate sensors or as one combined temperature-and-electrical-resistance sensor, wherein the controller is configured to control the operation of the heat transfer system based on i) the determined combined state of phase value (SOP.sub.flow) by controlling a speed of the compressor, preferably in dependence of the highest cooling load of an indoor heat exchanger in the system; and/or ii) a determined state of phase difference (ΔSOP) across the at least one further heat exchanger by controlling a fan of the at least one further indoor heat exchanger to be switched on or off and/or by controlling a flow rate of the heat transfer fluid through the at least one further indoor heat exchanger, preferably by controlling a pump rate of the pump and/or an opening degree of a valve in fluid connection to said at least one further indoor heat exchanger.

Description

[0142] FIG. 1 shows a phase diagram of the PCM TBAB.

[0143] FIG. 2 shows a heat flow curve of the PCM TBAB determined by DSC.

[0144] FIG. 3 shows the results of an electrical conductance measurement and temperature measurement with the PCM TBAB at various points in time over time. The x-axis of the plots of FIG. 3 represents the time (in minutes) and gives the time points at which measurement points were taken.

[0145] FIG. 4 shows a plot of the electrical conductance (y-axis) vs. the temperature (x-axis) which resulted from an electrical conductance measurement and temperature measurement with the PCM TBAB over time.

[0146] FIG. 5 shows a heat transfer system without a storage device.

[0147] FIG. 6 shows a heat transfer system with a storage device.

[0148] FIG. 7 shows a heat transfer system with different zones.

[0149] FIG. 8 shows a control diagram for the zone of the system with the highest cooling load.

[0150] FIG. 9 shows a control diagram for zones of the system with a lower cooling load than the highest cooling load.

[0151] FIG. 10 shows a control diagram for a rest of the system (outdoor unit/hydronic box) of the system.

EXAMPLE 1—DETERMINATION OF PROPERTIES OF THE PCM TBAB

[0152] A traditional Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) was used to determine the phase change temperature of the PCM TBAB. The result is illustrated in FIG. 2.

[0153] An electrical conductance measurement and temperature measurement was performed to determine SOC/P. To this end, a 20 wt.-% TBAB in water solution was held in a thermostatic bath for regulating the temperature and a conductivity probe was used to measure electrical conductance. The measurement results are shown in FIG. 3 and were used to draw an electric conductance vs. temperature plot which is shown in FIG. 4. It is worth noting that the electrical conductance vs. temperature plot shown in FIG. 4 indicates the relationship between both parameters are not clear. It could suggest the temperature has limitation to interpret the state of phase in the phase change transition period.

EXAMPLE 2—DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENTS α AND β

[0154] α is a coefficient for converting the measured change in electrical resistance, relative to the reference resistance value R.sub.0, to a state of phase.

[0155] β is a coefficient representing a weighting value for a specific phase change material which provides the most accurate prediction of an enthalpy-based state of phase measurement. β can be determined as follows:

[0156] If T.sub.me>(T.sub.eq+u(+)), β=1,

[0157] If T.sub.me<(T.sub.eq−u(−)), β=1,

[0158] If T.sub.me≥((T.sub.eq−u(−)) and ≤(T.sub.eq+u(+)), β is in the range of >0 and <1, preferably in the range of 0.01 to 0.8, more preferably in the range of 0.05 to 0.6, even more preferably in the range of 0.10 to 0.4, particularly preferably in the range of 0.15 to 0.3, especially 0.2,

[0159] wherein

[0160] T.sub.me is the value of the measured temperature,

[0161] T.sub.eq is the phase change temperature of the phase change material,

[0162] u(+) is a temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the upper limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. melting,

[0163] u(−) is the temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the lower limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. crystallization.

[0164] In order to fit the coefficients α and β for a heat transfer fluid with a specific PCM, a state of phase based on enthalpy can be plotted as a function of bulk temperature and electrical resistance. To this end, a series of tests can be performed to measure the heating curve of the heat transfer fluid with a specific PCM in the phase change region.

EXAMPLE 3—METHOD FOR OPERATING A HEAT TRANSFER SYSTEM

[0165] For operating a heat transfer system, control algorithms can be defined based on following assumptions for the example of the heat transfer system illustrated in the FIG. 7: [0166] 1. There are two or more indoor unit (fan coil units), each one serves its own thermal zone (i.e. room) which has its own thermostat measuring the room temperature; [0167] 2. The main components which are available for system control are the indoor unit fan, branch valves, compressor speed and slurry pump speed; [0168] 3. The state of phase (SOP) of the slurry is determined as a function of measured electrical resistance (R) and temperature (T); [0169] 4. For each room/zone, roughly the same target ΔSOP across each indoor unit is required. This means that the cooling delivered to each zone varies (linearly) with the mass flow rate of slurry to each zone.

[0170] For the zone with highest cooling load, the main algorithm can be explained as follows (see also FIG. 8 using PI as the example control mechanism): [0171] Indoor unit fan is always on at a fixed speed (selected by occupant); [0172] Compressor speed is adjusted automatically to achieve target SOP.sub.flow. Target SOP.sub.flow is set according to ΔT between room set point and actual room temperature; [0173] Valve position on indoor unit branch (either diverting/bypass valve or regulated ball valve) set according to the branch's target flow-rate. Target flow-rate to indoor unit set to achieve target ΔSOP.

[0174] For zones with lower cooling load, the main algorithm can be explained as follows (see also FIG. 9): [0175] Indoor unit fan switches on or off according to thermostat to maintain room temperature with deadband; [0176] SOP.sub.flow to indoor unit is fixed according to the zone with the highest cooling load; [0177] Valve position on indoor unit branch set according to the branch's target flow-rate. Target flow-rate to indoor unit set to achieve target ΔSOP.

[0178] For the rest of the system (outdoor unit/hydronic box), the main control algorithm can be explained as follows (see also FIG. 10): [0179] Pump speed set to achieve target slurry flow-rate in indoor heat exchanger (PH EX); [0180] Valve (LEV) openness set to achieve target superheat on refrigerant side.

LIST OF REFERENCE SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS

[0181] PCM: phase change material; [0182] SOP: state of phase of the heat transfer fluid with the PCM; [0183] SOP.sub.flow: first combined state of phase value of SOP upstream of an indoor heat exchanger; [0184] SOP.sub.return: second combined state of phase value of SOP downstream of an indoor heat exchanger; [0185] ΔSOP: SOP.sub.return−SOP.sub.flow; [0186] T.sub.me: temperature of the heat transfer fluid; [0187] T.sub.eq: phase change temperature of the PCM; [0188] R.sub.me: measured electrical resistance of the heat transfer fluid; [0189] R.sub.0: a reference resistance value; [0190] SOP.sub.T: temperature component of the SOP; [0191] SOP.sub.E: electrical resistance component of the SOP; [0192] SOP.sub.0: a reference state of phase value, wherein, when the heat transfer fluid is a liquid without solid crystals present; [0193] α: an electrical coefficient, for converting the measured change in electrical resistance, relative to the reference resistance value R.sub.0, to a state of phase; [0194] β: a temperature coefficient; [0195] u(+): temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the upper limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. melting; [0196] u(−): temperature deviation from the equilibrium temperature at the lower limit of phase change regime during the phase change process, e.g. crystallization; [0197] TBAB: tetrabutylammonium bromide; [0198] TME: trimethylolethane; [0199] R: SOP sensor, i.e. both a temperature and an electrical resistance sensor; [0200] T: thermocouple; [0201] P: pressure sensor; [0202] PHEX: plate heat exchanger; [0203] FCU: fan coil unit; [0204] T.sub.indoor: indoor temperature; [0205] LEV: linear expansion valve; [0206] RTD: resistance temperature detector; [0207] SP: set-point; [0208] e(t): error value as the difference between a desired setpoint and a measured process variable; [0209] PI: proportional-integral controller; [0210] V_flow: volumetric flow rate; [0211] Super_Heat: Superheat is measured as the difference between the actual temperature of refrigerant vapour and the saturation temperature of the refrigerant.