SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION OF GAS

Abstract

Valves used for reciprocating gas compression and expansion and methods for operating them are provided. In some embodiments, these systems and methods can be used to recover energy in heat pumps, compressed gas systems, and pumped heat energy storage systems. In other embodiments, they may be used for gas compression or both gas compression and expansion.

Claims

1. A valve system operable for use with a reciprocating machine, the valve system comprising: a first valve provided in a first valve housing and a second valve provided in a second valve housing; the first valve housing comprising a first conduit, and the second valve housing comprises a second conduit; the first valve comprising a valve plunger comprising a valve head and a stem and a ferromagnetic member provided on the stem; the second valve comprising a valve plunger comprising a valve head and a stem and a ferromagnetic member provided on the stem; wherein each of the valves comprise a first magnetic pole and a second magnetic pole and wherein the ferromagnetic member is moveable relative to the magnetic poles; wherein the first valve housing and the second valve housing comprise separate housings that are in fluid communication via at least one of the first conduit, the second conduit, and a piston cylinder.

2. The system of claim 1, wherein the first magnetic pole is provided a vertical position that is greater than a vertical position of the second magnetic pole.

3. The system of claim 1, wherein the first valve housing and the second valve housing each comprise a portion of a fluid flow path and wherein first valve and the second valve are in the fluid flow path.

4. The system of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first valve and the second valve comprise a solenoid and wherein the solenoid is provided with forced convective cooling in the fluid flow path.

5. The system of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first magnetic pole and the second magnetic pole are secured by a frame.

6. The system of claim 1, wherein the first and second conduits comprise portions of a bifurcated conduit in communication with a piston cylinder.

7. The system of claim 1, wherein a piston provided in the piston cylinder is operable to perform work on a working fluid, and wherein the system is reversible such that work can be performed on the piston.

8. A valve system operable for use with a reciprocating machine, the valve system comprising: a valve housing comprising a pressure vessel housing a valve; the valve comprising a valve plunger with a valve head and a stem and a ferromagnetic member provided on the stem; a first solenoid operable to receive an electric current and provide a magnetic force to the ferromagnetic member; a second solenoid operable to receive an electric current and provide a magnetic force to the ferromagnetic member; a first magnetic pole and a second magnetic pole and wherein the ferromagnetic member is moveable relative to the magnetic poles and the magnetic poles are operable to selectively control a vertical position of the valve head; a first conduit and a second conduit in communication with the valve housing, wherein the valve is in selective communication with a seat provided between the valve housing and the second conduit; and wherein a fluid flow path is provided that extends from the first conduit to the pressure vessel and to the second conduit, and wherein the first and second solenoids are provided in the fluid flow path.

9. The valve system of claim 8, wherein the first magnetic pole is provided a vertical position that is greater than a vertical position of the second magnetic pole.

10. The valve system of claim 8, wherein the fluid flow path is reversible.

11. The valve system of claim 8, wherein at least one of the first magnetic pole and the second magnetic pole are secured by a frame.

12. The valve system of claim 8, wherein the second conduit is provided in fluid communication with a piston cylinder at least when the valve is provided in an open position.

13. The valve system of claim 8, further comprising a second valve housing comprising a second valve.

14. The valve system of claim 13, further comprising a piston cylinder and wherein the piston cylinder is in fluid communication with the first valve housing and the second valve housing.

15. A method of gas compression and expansion, the method comprising: providing a first chamber and a second chamber, the first chamber comprising a first valve operable to control fluid flow to and from the first chamber and the second chamber comprising a second valve operable to control fluid flow to and from the second chamber; each of the first valve and the second valve being in communication with a solenoid and a magnetic pole; providing a controller in communication with at least one of the first valve and the second valve; determining, based on a measured reluctance of a magnetic circuit of at least one of the first valve and the second valve, a valve plunger position; and adjusting with the controller at least one of timing and position of at least one of the first valve and the second valve.

16. The method of claim 15 wherein the valve plunger position between open and closed states is measured and controlled in sequential time intervals of an operating cycle.

17. The method of claim 15, wherein an effective voltage across the solenoid is controlled by applying pulses having an intended duty cycle.

18. The method of claim 15, wherein valve plunger position is determined using electrical measurements on the valves and a valve plunger position is controlled in a proportional-integral-derivative control feedback loop.

19. The method of claim 17, wherein a preferred effective voltage is calculated based on a preferred target current and a length of the subsequent interval.

20. The method of claim 19, further comprising a step of detecting a pressure reversal across a valve, and wherein the system is devoid of pressure sensors.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0038] The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention and together with the Summary given above and the Detailed Description of the drawings given below, serve to explain the principles of these embodiments. In certain instances, details that are not necessary for an understanding of the invention or that render other details difficult to perceive may have been omitted. It should be understood, of course, that the invention is not necessarily limited to the particular embodiments illustrated herein. Additionally, it should be understood that the drawings are not necessarily to scale.

[0039] FIG. 1 is a partially cut-away perspective view of a valve set according to one embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0040] FIG. 2A is a top view of the valve set of FIG. 1.

[0041] FIG. 2B is front elevation view of the valve set of FIG. 1.

[0042] FIG. 2C is a right-side view of the valve set of FIG. 1.

[0043] FIG. 2D is a top view of a dual-purpose valve according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0044] FIG. 3 is a right side cut-away view of the valve set of FIG. 1.

[0045] FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a plunger according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0046] FIG. 5A is a sectional view of a plunger and surrounding components according to an embodiment of the present disclosure in a first position.

[0047] FIG. 5B is a sectional view of a plunger and surrounding components according to the embodiment of FIG. 5A of the present disclosure in a second position.

[0048] FIG. 6 is a perspective view of an electromagnet and plunger according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0049] FIG. 7A is a perspective view of a linear motor according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0050] FIG. 7B is an exploded view of the linear motor of FIG. 7A.

[0051] FIG. 8 is a perspective view of a linear motor frame according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0052] FIG. 9 is a diagram of an electronics system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0053] FIG. 10 is an illustration of the PWM pulses used for voltage control according to embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0054] FIG. 11 is an illustrative idealized path of vertical plunger position versus time according to various embodiments of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0055] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a valve set 1 according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 1 shows the valve set fastened by bolts to an external piston-cylinder 2 that is contemplated as housing a moveable and reciprocating piston. A low pressure port 3 is provided. The low pressure port 3 comprises a port wherein low pressure gas is drawn during compression and expelled during expansion. A high pressure port 4 is provided. The high pressure port 4 comprises a port through which high pressure gas is drawn during expansion and expelled during compression. A cylinder head 5 is provided that comprises internal flow pathways and interconnects low pressure port 3, high pressure port 4, and piston-cylinder 2. Low side cover 6 and high side cover 7 contain the gas under pressure and provide housing for internal components.

[0056] Covers 6, 7 are fastened around their periphery by bolts to cylinder head 5. Gaskets are contemplated as being provided in some embodiments between the covers 6, 7 and cylinder head 5 and between cylinder head 5 and piston-cylinder 2 to help prevent gas leakage. The valve set 1 includes electronic auxiliaries (not shown in FIG. 1) connected electrically via high pressure conductor feedthrough 8.

[0057] FIGS. 2A, 2B, and 2C are the top view, front view, and right side view, respectively, of valve set 1. In FIG. 2A, conductor feedthroughs 8 are shown to indicate separate internal electrical components under the two covers 6, 7. In FIG. 2C, the cylinder head is shown with distinct functional elements. Specifically, a low side motor base 9 and a high side motor base 10 are provided. A low side external pipe 11, a high side external pipe 12, a low side conduit 13, a high side conduit 14, and a cylinder port 15 are provided. Other embodiments are contemplated that distribute these elements among multiple parts and/or arrangements. A manifold may be present in some embodiments with multiple cylinder ports 15 allowing connecting cylinder head 5 to connect to multiple cylinders operating in parallel.

[0058] The referenced Norris Application discloses a system of energy storage and management. Systems and methods of the present disclosure, including valve systems, are contemplated for use with (but are not limited to) the systems of the Norris Application. For example, various embodiments of the present disclosure contemplate cylinders that are provided to perform compression and/or expansion of a working fluid of the kind referred to in the Norris Application as “dual-purpose” cylinders.

[0059] One embodiment of a valve set intended for use with a dual purpose cylinder is shown in FIG. 2D. This valve set comprises two low side ports 3, 3′. In some embodiments, these two ports are at approximately the same pressure. For example, in a pumped heat energy storage system, the two low side ports may connect to conduits providing fluid communication to either side of a thermal energy storage reservoir. Low side port 3 may in this case be used to deliver low pressure gas to one side of a heat exchanger with the return flow entering at low side port 3′ or vice versa. In this embodiment, low side port 3 is connected to a low side valve comprising cover 6, with flow path including low side conduit 13. A separate flow path is defined by low side port 3′, a low side valve comprising cover 6′, and low side conduit 13′. These two flow paths share a common cylinder port 15. Similarly, there are two high side flow paths. The first comprises high side conduit 14, the high side valve comprising cover 7, and high side port 4. The second comprises high side conduit 14′, the high side valve comprising cover 7′, and high side port 4′. The two high side ports 4, 4′ may similarly function in some embodiments as entry and exit points on a common pathway comprising a high pressure heat exchanger.

[0060] A cylinder head 5 may be manufactured as a single cast metal part, such as cast iron, using sand casting methods or similar methods known in the art. The parting plane between cope and drag may be the vertical centerline of FIG. 2B, and a core may be used to produce all internal gas flow pathways. Covers 6 and 7 may also be cast with the parting plane defined by the bottom of the covers. All walls in the covers and cylinder head must be made thick enough to withstand the pressures and of the enclosed gas and to account for fatigue from fluctuating pressures and, in some applications, high temperatures.

[0061] The elements of FIG. 2C are shown in cut-away format in FIG. 3 to illustrate flow pathways. For purposes of describing these pathways, a gas expansion operating mode is assumed. To begin the expansion, the piston 20a of the piston-cylinder moves downward, drawing gas into the cylinder. The high side plunger 16 is provided in the open position, i.e., with its head raised above its valve seat, permitting gas to flow freely from the high side pressure vessel 18 into the high side conduit 14. The low side plunger 17 is provided in a closed position, impeding flow from the low side pressure vessel 19 into low side external pipe 11. In this initial state, there is an uninterrupted flow path from high pressure port 4, through high side external pipe 12, into the high side pressure vessel 18, down the high side conduit 14, through cylinder port 15 and into the cylinder volume 20, upwards through low side conduit 13, and into low side pressure vessel 19. The low side conduit 13 and high side conduit 14 are contemplated as being two portions of a bifurcated conduit in some embodiments and as shown in FIG. 2C. This series of pathways are provided at substantially the same pressure (i.e., the high side pressure at the high side port 4 minus frictional pressure drops). Similarly, the low side conduit 11 shares the same low pressure as the low side port 3 through which there is no flow in this state. The low side plunger 17 therefore separates high pressure above the plunger from low pressure below, forcing it downward and providing a seal.

[0062] At a predetermined point, as the piston 20a continues its downward motion, the high side plunger 16 is lowered to a closed position against its seal, preventing further flow from high side pressure vessel or chamber 18 into high side conduit 14. Flow through the high side port 4 stops. The gas below the high side plunger 16 expands because the variable cylinder volume 20 increases. In this state, the system contains three separate pressure regions: the high side pressure, the low side pressure, and an intermediate pressure found in the volume made up of high side conduit 14, cylinder port 15, cylinder volume 20, low side conduit 13, and low side pressure vessel or chamber 19. The intermediate pressure is lower than the high side pressure, so a downward force develops on high side plunger 16, forcing its seal and preventing flow past the high side plunger 16.

[0063] The intermediate pressure drops until such time as it reaches equilibrium with the low side pressure, i.e., when the pressure in the low side pressure vessel 19 equals the low pressure in the low side external pipe 11. As there is no longer any pressure differential across the head of low side plunger 17, it can move freely. In this state low side plunger 17 is opened, and the system again contains only two pressure regions: a low-pressure region contained in all elements between low pressure port 3 and the high side plunger 16, and a high pressure region between high side plunger 16 and the high side port 4.

[0064] For a short period of time near the end of the piston's 20a downward motion, low pressure gas is drawn into the system through the low pressure port 3, into the low side external pipe 11, into low side pressure vessel 19, through low side conduit 13, through cylinder port 15, and into cylinder volume 20. However, once the piston is fully drawn or expanded, the piston reverses its course and starts moving in the upward (i.e., compression) direction. The flow reverses, and a large volume of low-pressure gas is expelled via low pressure port 3.

[0065] At a predetermined point, the low side plunger 17 closes while the piston 20a continues its upward motion. This action again separates the system into three separate pressure regions. The intermediate pressure rises, forcing low side plunger 17 against its seal. The intermediate pressure rises until the point when it is in equilibrium with the high-pressure source gas. At this point, high side plunger 16 is free to move. The high side plunger 16 is opened, and the system is again returned to two pressure regions. For a short period at the end of the piston's upward motion, high pressure gas is forced out of the high-pressure port 4, but then the piston then reaches a fully compressed position, begins its downward motion, gas is draw in through high pressure port 4, and the cycle repeats.

[0066] During the expansion cycle just described, the gas is drawn into the cylinder at high pressure and expanded in the cylinder at intermediate pressure. During these two processes, work is done by the gas on the piston 20a. Gas is then expelled at low pressure, requiring a small amount of work to overcome internal friction, and then the piston must compress a small amount of residual cylinder gas to reach high pressure, also requiring work. In all, net work is done on the piston, and this may be employed for useful purposes including, for example, energy recovery.

[0067] The valve set may also be operated as a compressor. In this case, and again with reference to FIG. 3, the low side plunger 17 is initially provided in the open position and the high side plunger 16 begins in the closed position. The piston's 20a downward motion draws gas into the cylinder from low pressure port 3. At full draw, the piston reverses and begins traveling upward. At a predetermined point, low side plunger 17 closes. Intermediate pressure rises, forcing the head of low side plunger 17 against its seat. When the intermediate pressure reaches equilibrium with the high pressure in the high side vessel 18, high side plunger 16 is moved to its open position, and high-pressure gas is expelled through the high pressure port 4. The piston then reverses its motion to the downward direction, and at a predetermined point high side plunger 16 is closed. The small amount of residual gas is expanded, the intermediate pressure drops, and the low side plunger 17 is opened when the intermediate pressure reaches equilibrium with the low-pressure source, and the cycle repeats. During this compression cycle, net work is done by the piston on the gas.

[0068] Dimensions of high side flow channels, plungers, and ports may be smaller than their low side counterparts because they contain higher pressure gas with lower specific volume. In the figures and description of this disclosure, they are shown to have identical dimensions for simplicity.

[0069] Other geometries are contemplated including those having plungers that open in the downward direction, those with plungers moving in a direction other than vertical, those moving in a rotational motion, and those with plunger heads and mating valve seats having a geometry other than flat.

[0070] FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a plunger according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. The plunger 17 includes a disk-shaped head 21, which preferably comprises metal and is fastened by welding or brazing to a stem 22. In other embodiments, the plunger head and stem comprise a single component. A non-magnetic cylindrical bushing 23 is provided and a ferromagnetic cylindrical ring 24 is provided around the bushing 23. The bushing 23 separates the ring from stem to reduce magnetic flux from passing from the ring 24 to the stem 22. The bushing and ring are fastened tightly to the stem, such as by press fitting or shrink fitting. It is contemplated that the high side and low side plunger comprise substantially the same construction (i.e., that shown in FIG. 4).

[0071] In some embodiments, plungers are moved in one direction by an electromagnet and in the opposite direction by a spring. For example, the plunger(s) is/are contemplated as being raised by an electromagnetic force and biased closed by a spring. In a preferred embodiment, described in detail below, plungers are moved in both directions by electromagnets. Collectively, two fixed electromagnets and the moving plunger comprise a variation of the linear switched reluctance motor with only two stator poles, the poles being placed on opposite sides of the mover (or rotor), and with continuous or near-continuous overlap of the ring and all poles. The linear motor offers several advantages over the spring alternative: it avoids wear and failure of the spring and improves reliability. It avoids the materials uncertainty of fatigue strength in high temperature environments. It avoids the need to overdesign the spring so that it provides sufficient force at partial compression, while providing excessive force at full compression, thereby requiring overdesign of the compressing electromagnet.

[0072] In some embodiments, the ring comprises a permanent magnet. In some embodiments the ring comprises a permanent magnet and the valve comprises a single electromagnet and a spring. In some embodiments, additional poles are added to the stator and/or mover.

[0073] FIGS. 5A-5B is a cross-sectional elevation view of linear motor components. In FIG. 5A, the plunger is in its closed position with head 21 contacting the valve seat 27. The valve seat 27 as illustrated is integral to the cylinder head. Alternatively, the seat is provided as a separate part and reparable and/or replaceable after wear. A plunger is constrained to move only in the vertical direction by guide holes in lower frame 25 and upper frame 26 through which the plunger stem 22 is provided. In some embodiments, the stem and/or the inside surface of the guide holes are contemplated as being coated with a dry lubricant such as tungsten disulfide to reduce friction. Preferably, there are no transverse forces acting to push the plunger against the guide surfaces. The plunger is pulled upward by magnetic force from the upper magnetic poles 29, 30 acting upon plunger ring 24 and pulled downward by magnetic force from the lower magnetic poles 31, 32. The upper magnetic poles 29, 30 are provided with a vertical position or height that is greater than a vertical position or height of the lower magnetic poles 31, 32, at least when the device is positioned as shown in FIGS. 5A and 5B. The plunger stem 22 and head 21, bushing 23, and ring 24 all move in unison as a single unit, bound together by internal static frictional forces (for example). The motion of the plunger is preferably constrained between two vertical limits. The lower limit is reached when the bottom of plunger head 21 contacts valve seat 27. The upper limit is when the top of plunger head 21 contacts stops 28 as illustrated in FIG. 5B. Upper stops 28 are contemplated as being integral to lower frame 25 as shown. The motion of the plunger may be controlled by varying the magnetic forces produced by the upper magnetic poles 29, 30 and the lower magnetic poles 31, 32. The motion may be controlled such that the open position is defined at a point slightly below the physical upper limit imposed by stops 28. This prevents the head 21 from contacting stops 28, resulting in quieter and more efficient operation while still providing sufficient passage for gas flow between plunger head 21 and valve seat 27. The vertical heights of bushing 23 and ring 24 and their placement on stem 22 are such that they never contact the lower frame 25 or upper frame 26. High side plunger 16 is constructed, moved, and constrained in the same fashion.

[0074] A lower electromagnet is provided that comprises lower magnetic poles 31, 32. As shown in FIG. 6, the lower electromagnet 33 includes a solenoid 34 comprising wire windings around a lower magnetic core 35. In some applications, specialty magnet wire is required to survive high temperatures of surrounding gas and joule heating produced by electrical current in the windings. In some embodiments, a commercially available high temperature magnet wire may be used. These may be insulated with a fully cured vitreous enamel film bonded to the wire conductor. Special care is needed when winding the solenoids, however, to avoid damaging the insulation. In addition, the bending radius of the turns must not be smaller than a specified amount, typically seven times wire diameter. These limitations may be overcome in other embodiments as follows. Embodiments of the present disclosure contemplate providing solid bare wire pre-wound into the desired shape, holding its form by its own strength, taking care that individual wires are separated by at least the distance that will result in required dielectric strength in the final, formed solenoid. To assist with winding, jigs may be used to guide the wire separation within each layer and between layers. Then, the formed coil is dipped or brushed with a commercial high temperature electrical coating, such as a ceramic inorganic coating, cured, and fastened around the core 35 with additional coating and curing and/or high temperature adhesive.

[0075] The magnetic core 35 and the magnetic poles 31, 32 are made from a ferromagnetic material. In some embodiments, the poles comprise pressed iron powder. The powder, used in the manufacture of some inductors, is made from discrete insulated high-permeability ferromagnetic particles, and is selected with a suitably high Curie temperature. The magnetic core 35 is mechanically clamped or similarly secured to poles 31 and 32, which are shaped and arranged geometrically to approach the plunger from either side and surround the plunger ring in a close, non-contact, proximal relationship at terminals 37a, 37b. Poles may be made of the same material and in the same manner as the core. The terminals 37a, 37b preferably comprise curvilinear or C-shaped terminals to increase surface area, but no limitation with respect to the shape of the terminals 37a, 37b are provided.

[0076] The electromagnet and plunger together form a magnetic circuit as follows. The solenoid 34 produces magnetomotive force (MMF). This produces magnetic flux which passes through the core 35, through the first pole 32, crosses a first gap between the pole and the plunger ring 24, continues around the ring, crosses a second gap, and returns via the second pole 31 to the core and solenoid. These components are designed such that the magnetic force will be sufficient to move the plunger along its intended path of motion. The poles are contemplated as comprising curved terminals 37a, 37b to follow the shape of the ring while maintaining a constant gap, as shown. The system comprises a solenoid that is operable to produce a magnetic flux and operate as a switched reluctance motor.

[0077] Current to and from solenoid 34 is provided by wires (not shown) from the high pressure conductor feedthrough 8 shown in FIG. 1. In some embodiments, this wire is contemplated as being high temperature wire, such as ceramic coated wire, electrically connected to the terminals of the solenoid wires. In other embodiments, this wire is contemplated as being extensions of the same wire used in the solenoid but not wound around the core. In either case, the wires are electrically connected to the inside terminals of the conductor feedthrough 8. External to the conductor feedthrough 8, other wires complete the electrical circuit at the electronics system described later. In some embodiments, ceramic feedthroughs 8 are used, capable of withstanding the high temperatures and pressures internal to pressure vessels 19 and 18 shown in FIG. 3.

[0078] The reluctance of the magnetic circuit derives primarily from the two gaps of the magnetic circuit. Reluctance depends upon the size of the gap, i.e., the distance between the ring and terminals 37a, 37b, and the area of overlap between the ring and terminals. The gap size is fixed, but the area of overlap varies by plunger position. When the plunger is in a position having high overlap, the reluctance is small, and this corresponds to high magnetic flux. When the plunger is in a position with small overlap, the reluctance is high, and this corresponds to low magnetic flux. The relationship between plunger position and reluctance is central to the position detection method described later.

[0079] The height of the poles and the vertical spacing between upper magnet poles 29, 30 and lower magnet poles 31, 32 are sized based on considerations of the ring height and the maximum vertical distance of plunger travel. These dimensions may be such that there is always some minimum amount of overlap, regardless of plunger position.

[0080] FIG. 7A is a perspective view of the low side linear motor 36 comprising a lower electromagnet 33 containing poles 31 and 32 as described above and shown in FIG. 6 and FIG. 5A. The motor 36 further comprises an upper electromagnet 37 containing poles 29 and 30 shown in FIG. 5A. The upper electromagnet is preferably identical except for orientation and placement. The low side linear motor 36 includes movable low side plunger (not shown in FIG. 7A). The low side linear motor 36 is contained within the low side cover 6 as shown in FIG. 1. A preferably identical high side linear motor is contained within the high side cover 7.

[0081] The low side linear motor 36 is shown in exploded view in FIG. 7B. A plunger bushing 23 is fit onto stem 22 after passing the stem through the guide hole of the lower frame 25. The plunger ring 24 is fit over the bushing 23. The lower electromagnet 33 and upper electromagnet 37 are mechanically clamped between the lower frame 25 and upper frame 26. The entire assembly, including support legs 39 are held together by tightening bolts 38 against the cylinder head 5. This positions the plunger head 21 directly above its seat on the low side external pipe 11 (not shown in FIG. 7B). The high side linear motor is similarly bolted into place above the high side conduit 14.

[0082] Additional features of the lower frame 25 are shown in FIG. 8. The frame is made of non-magnetic material, such as brass, fabricated by milling or casting. It includes support grooves 39 into which are fit the lower magnetic poles 31, 32 and the lower magnetic core 35. A clamp 40 is provided that presses upward against the upper magnetic poles and upper magnetic core to hold them tightly in place against the upper frame 26 of FIG. 7B. The clamp may also be designed with grooves for additional support. Poles and cores may be fitted directly against the frame as shown. Alternatively, to reduce operating noise of vibration, poles and cores may be affixed to the frame with adhesive rated for the anticipated operating temperatures or may be set into a temperature-rated compressive packing material, such as graphite foil, shaped and fit into the grooves prior to assembly. External clamps may also be used. On the bottom of the frame, shown in the inverted view, are the stops 28 that limit plunger motion as described previously. As shown in FIG. 7B, the upper frame 26 may be identical to the lower frame 25 but placed in an inverted position during assembly. Thus, the clamp of the upper frame holds in position the lower poles and core, while the clamp of the lower frame holds in position the upper poles and core. The four integral spacers 41 are made to the precise length to ensure that the magnetic parts are clamped tightly but not damaged. It is important to note that the clamp 40 and other clamps, if used, are designed so that they do not touch the opposite frame, thereby forming an electrically conductive path around the poles. This will prevent induction of electrical currents in the metallic frames as magnetic flux moves through the electromagnets. The frames do touch at the spacers 41, but there is no net flux passing through any contiguous conductive pathway in the frames via the contacting spacers. The frames of FIG. 8 comprise substantially the same structure and may be inverted to convert a “lower” frame to an “upper” frame. In various embodiments, frames are provided that are operable for use as an upper or lower frame portion, thus providing for a simpler design and fabrication process. Joule heating produced by current in the windings of solenoid 34 is preferably removed to prevent damage to the wire insulation, and embodiments of the present disclosure provide integral forced convective cooling for this purpose by two mechanisms. First, linear motor 36, which includes the windings, can be cooled by gas circulating within pressure vessel 19. This is illustrated in FIG. 3 where the gas in pressure vessel 19 is able to mix with the main flow path of gas through low side conduit 13 and low side external pipe 11 when plunger 17 is open. A portion of the flowing gas is redirected by viscous forces from the main flow into the pressure vessel 19, where it is able to circulate and deliver flow across the solenoid surfaces. Second, additional circulation is generated by the rapidly oscillating head 21 and other surfaces of plunger 17. Joule heating is thus removed from the solenoid surfaces by forced convection developed from these two mechanisms, after which it mixes with the larger gas stream and is transported away. Transport may be in either direction, with the generated heat ultimately exiting the valve set via the low-pressure port 3 or high pressure port 4. The above mechanisms of heat removal are similarly valid for the other three solenoids of the valve set.

[0083] FIG. 9 is a schematic of an electronics system 42 according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. The electronics system 42 is contemplated as and operable to produce required solenoid currents throughout a valve set(s) according to embodiments of the present disclosure. A first electronic circuit 44 is operable for motor control. A second electronic circuit 45 is operable to control a second motor (e.g., a high side linear motor). The second electronic circuit 45 is contemplated as being identical to the first, differing only in the timing of operation, so only the first will be described here. A valve controller 43 is provided that receives data and controls both electronic circuits 44, 45. A power supply 46 provides a stable DC voltage source to the positive rail containing nodes a, b, c, d, and e. The negative rail, containing nodes k, m, n, p, and q, is the negative return to the power supply. The power supply is designed to source and sink current as needed to ensure stable rail voltages and may include a capacitor to help provide stabilization. Both the positive and negative rails extend into the second electronic circuit 45. A system controller 47 is contemplated to be in communication with valve controller 43 and provide timing-related information, such as system status, external pressures, temperatures, and piston position. The system controller 47 also controls higher-level functions of a system, such as setting charging or discharging modes in a pumped heat energy storage system, not required by the functions of the valve controller 43. The valve controller 43 is also capable of delivering valve status information to the system controller 47. In some embodiments, the system controller 47 and valve controller 43 may be combined into a single controller.

[0084] The solenoid 34 of the lower electromagnet 33 is represented in FIG. 9 as S.sub.1. The solenoid in the upper electromagnet 37 is represented in FIG. 9 as S.sub.2. Current i.sub.1 passes through solenoid S.sub.1, and this is measured using a sensor, such as a Hall sensor, located between node f and S.sub.1, and measurements are made available to valve controller 43. Similarly, current i.sub.2 passes through solenoid S.sub.2, measured using a sensor located between node h and S.sub.2. Transistor T.sub.1 can switch between its ON (closed) state, providing a conductive path between node b and f, and its OFF (open) state, breaking that path. Transistors T.sub.2, T.sub.3, and T.sub.4 provide similar functions at their locations shown. Diode D.sub.1 prevents current from passing from node f to node m but allows current to pass from m to f Diodes D.sub.2, D.sub.3, and D.sub.4 perform similar functions at their locations shown. The voltage between the positive rail and the negative rail is also measured and the result is made available to the controller. The potential at node a relative to node k is the full positive rail voltage, referred to as v.sub.r.

[0085] Current i.sub.1 is manipulated by valve controller 43 by switching transistors T.sub.1 and T.sub.2 ON and OFF in four possible configurations. In the first configuration, both T.sub.1 and T.sub.2 are ON, allowing current to flow from the positive rail at node b, through T.sub.1 to node f, through S.sub.1 to node g, and through T.sub.2 to the negative rail at node n. This configuration applies driving voltage v.sub.r across S.sub.1 such that the potential at node f relative to node g is v.sub.r. This will cause a change in current i.sub.1. If the plunger were immobile in its closed position, for example, this configuration would cause current i.sub.1 to increase at a rate inversely proportional to the inductance of S.sub.1. In the second configuration, both T.sub.1 and T.sub.2 are OFF, preventing current from flowing between b and f and between g and n. However, current is allowed to flow through S.sub.1 along the path m-f-g-c, in which case the negative driving voltage is applied, that is, the potential at node f relative to node g is −v.sub.r. This configuration would cause current i.sub.1 to decrease. In the third configuration, T.sub.1 is ON and T.sub.2 is OFF. This permits circulation of current along the path b-f-g-c-b, although no driving voltage is applied: the potential at f relative to g is zero. Finally, in the fourth configuration, T.sub.1 is OFF and T.sub.2 is ON. This permits circulation of current along the path m-f-g-n-m, with no voltage applied. Current i.sub.2 through solenoid S.sub.2 may be similarly manipulated using the same four transistor configurations applied to T.sub.3 and T.sub.4.

[0086] In some embodiments, pulse width modulation (PWM) is contemplated as being used to approximate a time-varying analog voltage profile applied across the terminals of each solenoid. This is illustrated in FIG. 10 in which an effective voltage v(t) is approximated by applying pulses of positive or negative rail voltage. The interval T.sub.S is made up of period T.sub.P, during which a pulse of v.sub.r is applied, and T.sub.Z during which zero volts are applied. The duty cycle is defined as the ratio of the period T.sub.P to T.sub.S. The pulse may be applied during T.sub.P by switching the transistors as described in the first configuration, with both T.sub.1 and T.sub.2 closed. The zero voltage may be applied during T.sub.Z by switching the transistors to the third configuration by opening T.sub.2 while keeping T.sub.1 closed. The effective voltage is then the average voltage over T.sub.S, i.e., the duty cycle times v.sub.r. Similarly, v(t) may be made negative by alternately applying the second transistor configuration, with both T.sub.1 and T.sub.2 open (providing the negative rail voltage) and the fourth configuration, by closing T.sub.2 while keeping T.sub.1 open (providing zero volts).

[0087] Switching transistors as described above results indirectly in the control of electric currents through the solenoids, magnetic fluxes in the cores and poles, magnetic forces on the plungers, and plunger motion. These methods may be used to match a predefined kinematic behavior of the plungers, such as path s(t) shown in FIG. 11, which represents a single open-close cycle of a valve. Many alternative paths are possible, so this is provided for illustrative purposes. The plunger begins in its closed position (displacement s=0 at time t.sub.0), when a constant upward (positive) magnetic force is applied to the plunger through time t.sub.1. This results in a constant upward acceleration a.sub.0. The constant acceleration means that the speed u(t) increases linearly over this time. At t.sub.1, an opposite net force is applied for an equal amount of time, resulting in a negative constant acceleration until the plunger reaches its open position s.sub.2 at t.sub.2. No further net forces are applied until t.sub.3, when the plunger is closed by applying a constant negative force followed by a constant positive force. The magnitudes and durations of the applied forces during closing mirror those during opening. The closing operation is complete at t.sub.S. The valve then remains closed until t.sub.6, at which point the cycle repeats.

[0088] To compare the actual plunger position against the idealized cycle path s(t) of FIG. 11, embodiments of the present disclosure provide for measuring plunger position at selected intervals over the cycle. Embodiments of the present disclosure provide for methods of detection that do not necessarily require dedicated position sensors, thereby avoiding costly hardware and difficult engineering problems associated with the high temperatures and pressures inside the pressure vessels in at least some embodiments. In this context, position measurement intervals are illustrated by example period T.sub.S of FIG. 10. There may be many such intervals within the cycle, e.g., 100, depending on the desired measurement resolution, accuracy, and the speed of measurement and computation.

[0089] By Faraday's law, the voltage v across a solenoid is equal to the number of turns N around the core times the rate of change of magnetic flux ϕ through the core. The flux depends upon solenoid current i and position z of the plunger along its vertical axis. Faraday's law may therefore be expanded as Eqn. 1:

v=N∂ϕdi/∂i dt+N∂ϕdz/∂z dt

The first term of Eqn. 1 is in the form of voltage across a stationary inductor. The second term relates solenoid voltage to plunger speed. The above equation may be re-written as Eqn. 2:

v=LΔi/Δt+Ku

where the current-related differentials are replaced by finite intervals, the coefficient in the first term is replaced by a defined inductance L, the coefficient in the second term is replaced by K, and the plunger speed is denoted u. Inductance L is known to be a function of plunger position because the reluctances of the two pole-ring gaps depend on the areas of overlap, and these change with plunger position. K is known to be a function of current because flux ϕ is a function of current, and the definition of K−N times the partial derivative of ϕ with respect to z—holds current constant. Furthermore, we know based on physical laws that neither plunger speed u nor current i can change instantaneously (as in step functions), even when a voltage is applied or removed at the solenoid terminals. They may, however, change in a continuous fashion.

[0090] In reference to FIG. 10, two sets of measurements are conducted, the first over time interval T.sub.P, and the second over time interval T.sub.Z. In the first set, current is measured at points a and b. In this set, Δt.sub.1 of Eqn. 2 is T.sub.P, Δi.sub.1 of Eqn. 2 is the current as measured at b minus the current as measured at a, and v.sub.1 of Eqn. 2 is v.sub.r. In the second test, current measurements are taken at c and d. These are used in a second instance of Eqn. 2 in which Δt.sub.2 is T.sub.Z, Δi.sub.2 is the difference in current measurements, and v.sub.2 is zero. A system of two equations are thereby produced with two unknowns: L and Ku. These are readily solved for L and Ku. This results in a measurement of inductance L in interval T.sub.S which may be converted by any of several means to the corresponding plunger position z.

[0091] In some embodiments, the conversion to position is based an empirical lookup table developed and added to the valve controller 43 prior to operation. The table may be created by independently measuring position and inductance at several points. Later, when operating the valve, the controller interpolates position based on data contained in the table. In some embodiments, the data may instead be converted into a model function, such as a polynomial, with coefficients selected to fit the function to the measured data. Model coefficients are added to the controller. The controller may then use the same model and coefficients during operation to calculate position as a function of inductance.

[0092] In some embodiments, the controller includes a self-calibration mode that is performed prior to operation. This mode may be automatically performed at any time. This mode assumes a model form, such as a linear relationship, between inductance and position. When operated in such a mode, the controller determines the inductance at each of the two extreme known positions as limited by physical stops. It can do this by measuring inductance over a range of conditions and determining the minimum and maximum inductance. In the upper electromagnet, inductance increases with z, and in the lower electromagnet, the inductance decreases with z, so it is possible to determine in both cases the inductance at the closed position and at the maximum open position. From these two points and the assumed model form, the controller can interpolate to create intermediate points of position z and inductance L. It can then create either a lookup table or model function as described above. The linear model is preferred for its simplicity. The actual relationship is of course not linear because of complicated flux fringing between the poles and ring. However, the intended purpose is not to accurately measure position, but rather to open and close a valve along a smooth, continuous pathway, even if this deviates from s(t).

[0093] Valves never open against a significant pressure gradient. For example, when the valve set is operated as a compressor, gas is drawn into the cylinder through the low-pressure valve, but the valve is only opened when the gas inside the cylinder is approximately equal to the low-pressure source. Also, the drawing of gas by the piston into the cylinder forces open the valve because the expanding cylinder volume results in an internal cylinder pressure lower than the low port pressure. The pressure difference produces a force in the upward direction needed to begin opening it passively, like a check valve. The movement of the plunger may then be detected, triggering the controller to actively open the valve.

[0094] Embodiments of the present disclosure provide for methods of detecting the time at which valves should open. The following cases are relevant: in compression when drawing gas through the low side valve; in compression when expelling gas through the high side valve; in expansion when expelling gas through the low side valve; and in expansion when drawing gas through the high side valve. In all these cases, the valves should open when the pressures on either side of the plunger heads are equal.

[0095] According to one embodiment, whenever either valve is closed, it is not necessary to actively control its position. Instead, the plunger is held closed by the pressure above the valve head. This is true for both valves and for both compression and expansion. Though the plunger when closed does not need active control, the method for detecting position is applied continuously. When the plunger position changes from closed to any detectable positive position above its seat, the time for opening the valve is discovered, and the active motion control is initiated.

[0096] Embodiments of the present disclosure provide for methods of computing sequential PWM duty cycles to reach target solenoid currents. The target solenoid current is the current calculated by the controller in one measurement interval to be carried in the solenoid by the end of the following interval. It may be obtained in any number of ways. In some embodiments a PID controller may be used to calculate a control variable as the sum of PID terms using established PID methods. The control variable may be positive or negative. Referring to FIG. 9, a positive value of corresponds to an increase in current in the upper solenoid, i.sub.2, and a negative value corresponds to an increase current in the lower solenoid, i.sub.1. If I.sub.c is positive, then the target value for i.sub.2 is set equal to i.sub.2+I.sub.c and the target value for i.sub.1 is set to zero. Conversely, if is negative, then the target value for i.sub.2 is set to zero and the target value for i.sub.1 is set to i.sub.1+|I.sub.c| (keeping i.sub.1 positive).

[0097] Regardless of the method for setting target solenoid currents, the following method may be used to set the effective voltage and duty cycles such that the target currents may be reached in the next interval. Inductance L and term Ku are calculated using the methods described previously for determining plunger position. Then, using Eqn. 2, the controller computes effective voltage v required in the next interval. In this calculation, Δi is the required increase in current, i.e., the target current minus the most recent measured current, and Δt is the duration of the interval, T.sub.S. Finally, the duty cycle is the resulting effective voltage v divided by the rail voltage v.sub.r. For example, if the required effective voltage is 75 V and the rail voltage is 100 V, then the duty cycle to be used in the next interval is 0.75. This means that the controller will impose v.sub.r on the solenoid for 75% of the interval, followed by zero volts for 25% of the interval using transistor switching. In some cases, the calculated duty cycle will exceed 1, in which case the duty cycle will be limited, and the target current will not be reachable in a single interval. The resulting error will be reflected in the next duty cycle calculation.

[0098] Embodiments of the present disclosure provide for methods of recovering energy used to open and close the valves during braking periods. In various embodiments, upon opening, electrical energy is converted to kinetic energy by putting the plunger into motion. As the plunger slows, whether slowing to the open position or the closed position, the kinetic energy is recovered and returned to the rail.

[0099] For example, a plunger may be provided in upward motion by activating the upper electromagnet (i.e., current was introduced into the upper electromagnet). To slow the plunger as it approaches an upper limit, the lower electromagnet is be activated, and the upper electromagnet is deactivated. Whether this is performed using PID control or other control method, the effect is the same. Referring to FIG. 9, the current in the upper solenoid S.sub.2 is i.sub.2. To slow the upward motion of the plunger, valve controller 43 switches the transistors into the second configuration by turning OFF both T.sub.3 and T.sub.4. However, i.sub.2 does not stop instantaneously. It is allowed to continue via path p-h-j-e, during which current flows from the negative rail to the positive rail and back to the power supply, thereby recovering energy used to set the plunger in motion. This recovery of energy will continue until such time as i.sub.2 reduces to zero. By inspection of Eqn. 2, it is possible to see that current will decline because voltage v in this example is −v.sub.r and K, u, L and Δt are all positive. Therefore Δi must be negative. By the conservation of energy, the energy needed to put the plunger in motion is recovered, less losses such as joule, windage, and friction losses.

[0100] Although the foregoing text sets forth a detailed description of numerous different embodiments, it should be understood that the detailed description is to be construed as exemplary only and does not describe every possible embodiment since describing every possible embodiment would be impractical, if not impossible. Numerous alternative embodiments could be implemented, using either current technology or technology developed after the filing date of this patent, which would still fall within the scope of the claims. To the extent that any term recited in the claims at the end of this patent is referred to in this patent in a manner consistent with a single meaning, that is done for sake of clarity so as to not confuse the reader, and it is not intended that such claim term by limited, by implication or otherwise, to that single meaning.

[0101] While various embodiments of the present invention have been described in detail, it is apparent that modifications and alterations of those embodiments will occur to those skilled in the art. Moreover, references made herein to “the present invention” or aspects thereof should be understood to mean certain embodiments of the present invention and should not necessarily be construed as limiting all embodiments to a particular description. It is to be expressly understood that such modifications and alterations are within the scope and spirit of the present invention.