Amplifier circuit and method

Abstract

An amplifier arrangement comprises N amplifier stages, wherein N is an integer equal or greater than four. The amplifier arrangement comprises a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage and an output node of the amplifier arrangement, wherein the cascade comprises N−1 quarter wavelength transmission lines. An amplifier of the Nth stage is coupled to the output node, and remaining amplifiers between the first and Nth stages coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines. The amplifier arrangement is further configured such that the amplifier of the Nth stage is coupled to the output node via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line, and whereby each of the remaining amplifiers of the N−2 stages closest to the output node is coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line to a respective junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

Claims

1. An amplifier arrangement comprising N amplifier stages, wherein N is an integer equal or greater than four; the amplifier arrangement comprising: a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage and an output node of the amplifier arrangement, wherein the cascade comprises N−1 quarter wavelength transmission lines for each N amplifier stages; wherein an amplifier of the Nth stage is directly coupled to the output node, and remaining amplifiers between the first and the Nth stages directly coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines; and wherein the amplifier arrangement is further configured such that: the direct coupling of the amplifier of the Nth stage to the output node is via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line; and each direct coupling of the remaining amplifiers of the N−3 stages closest to the output node is via a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line to a respective junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

2. The amplifier as claimed in claim 1, wherein each of the amplifiers in the N amplifier stages is of a substantially equal size.

3. The amplifier as claimed in claim 1, wherein a characteristic impedance of each successive stage in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines is reduced towards the output node in relation to the parallel combination of preceding connecting transmission lines, whereby the characteristic impedance of each successive stage is reduced to 1/M of the impedance of the transmission line from a single amplifier, whereby M relates to the number of preceding amplifiers.

4. The amplifier as claimed in claim 1, wherein the characteristic impedance of each of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines is substantially equal.

5. The amplifier as claimed in claim 1, wherein each of the amplifiers in the first to N−1 amplifier stages is of a substantially equal size, and wherein the amplifier in the Nth amplifier stage which is closest to the output node is different in size to the other amplifiers.

6. The amplifier as claimed in claim 5, wherein the amplifier in the Nth amplifier stage is reduced in size compared to the other amplifiers in the other amplifier stages, and wherein the characteristic impedance of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission line coupling the amplifier in the Nth amplifier stage to the output node is increased by a corresponding ratio compared to the characteristic impedance of each of the other connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines.

7. The amplifier as claimed in claim 6, wherein the amplifier in the Nth amplifier stage is substantially halved in size compared to the other amplifiers in the other amplifier stages, and wherein the characteristic impedance of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission line coupling the amplifier in the Nth stage to the output node is substantially doubled in size compared to the characteristic impedance of each of the other connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines.

8. The amplifier as claimed in claim 1, wherein each of the amplifiers in the N amplifier stages is of a substantially equal size apart from an amplifier in the N−1 amplifier stage that is second closest to the output node, wherein the amplifier in the N−1 stage is increased in size relative to the amplifiers in the other stages.

9. The amplifier as claimed in claim 8, wherein the amplifier in the N−1 stage is increased in size compared to the other amplifiers in the other amplifier stages, and wherein the characteristic impedance of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission line coupling the amplifier in the N−1 stage to the cascade is decreased compared to the characteristic impedance of each of the other connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines.

10. The amplifier as claimed in claim 9, wherein the amplifier in the N−1 stage is increased by about 25-50% in size compared to the other amplifiers in the other amplifier stages, and wherein the characteristic impedance of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission line coupling the amplifier in the N−1 stage to the cascade is substantially decreased by about 20-50% compared to the characteristic impedance of each of the other connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines.

11. The amplifier as claimed in claim 1, wherein the amplifier in the second stage is increased or decreased compared to the other amplifiers in at least the first to N−2 other amplifier stages, and the characteristic impedance decreased or increased in a corresponding manner.

12. A method of improving the efficiency of an amplifier arrangement comprising N amplifier stages, wherein N is an integer equal or greater than four; wherein the amplifier arrangement comprises a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage and an output node of the amplifier arrangement, wherein the cascade comprises N−1 quarter wavelength transmission lines for each N amplifier stages, and wherein an amplifier of the Nth stage is directly coupled to the output node, and remaining amplifiers between the first and Nth stages directly coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines; the method comprising the steps of: directly coupling the amplifier of the Nth stage to the output node via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line; and directly coupling each of the remaining amplifiers in the N−3 stages closest to the output node via a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line to a respective junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

13. The method as claimed in claim 12, wherein each of the amplifiers in the N amplifier stages is of a substantially equal size.

14. The method as claimed in claim 12, further comprising the step of reducing a characteristic impedance of each successive stage in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines towards the output node in relation to the parallel combination of preceding connecting transmission lines, whereby the characteristic impedance of each successive stage is reduced to 1/M of the impedance of the transmission line from a single amplifier, whereby M relates to the number of preceding amplifiers.

15. The method as claimed in claim 12, wherein the characteristic impedance of each of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines is substantially equal.

16. The amplifier as claimed in claim 1, wherein an amplifier of the second stage is directly connected to its corresponding junction without a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line.

17. The method as claimed in claim 12, wherein an amplifier of the second stage is directly connected to its corresponding junction without a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

(1) For a better understanding of the present invention, and to show more clearly how it may be carried into effect, reference will now be made, by way of example only, to the following drawings in which:

(2) FIGS. 1a to 1c show current, voltage and efficiency curves for a known amplifier arrangement;

(3) FIGS. 2a to 2c show current, voltage and efficiency curves for a known amplifier arrangement;

(4) FIGS. 3a to 3c show current, voltage and efficiency curves for a known amplifier arrangement;

(5) FIGS. 4a to 4c show current, voltage and efficiency curves for a known amplifier arrangement;

(6) FIGS. 5a to 5c show current, voltage and efficiency curves for a known amplifier arrangement;

(7) FIG. 6a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention;

(8) FIG. 6b shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention;

(9) FIGS. 6c to 6e show current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIGS. 6a and 6b;

(10) FIG. 6f shows a schematic diagram of the amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of FIGS. 6a and 6b;

(11) FIG. 7 compares average efficiency between an embodiment of the present invention and prior art solutions;

(12) FIG. 8a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention;

(13) FIGS. 8b to 8d show current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 8a;

(14) FIG. 9 compares average efficiency between an embodiment of the present invention and prior art solutions;

(15) FIG. 10a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention;

(16) FIGS. 10b to 10d show current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 10a;

(17) FIG. 11 compares average efficiency between an embodiment of the present invention and prior art solutions;

(18) FIGS. 12 to 15 compare average efficiency between embodiments of the present invention and prior art solutions;

(19) FIG. 16a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention;

(20) FIGS. 16b to 16d show current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 16a;

(21) FIG. 17a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention, with FIGS. 17b to 17d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 17a;

(22) FIG. 18a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention, with FIGS. 18b to 18d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 18a;

(23) FIG. 19a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention, with FIGS. 19b to 19d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 19a;

(24) FIG. 20a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention, with FIGS. 20b to 20d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 20a;

(25) FIG. 21a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention, with FIGS. 21b to 21d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 21a;

(26) FIG. 22a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention, with FIGS. 22b to 22d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 22a;

(27) FIG. 23a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention, with FIGS. 23b to 23d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 23a;

(28) FIG. 24a shows an amplifier arrangement according to an embodiment of the present invention, with FIGS. 24b to 24d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 24a;

(29) FIG. 25 shows a method according to another embodiment of the present invention;

(30) FIG. 26a shows an amplifier arrangement according to another aspect, with FIGS. 26b to 26d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 26a; and

(31) FIG. 27a shows an amplifier arrangement according to another aspect, with FIGS. 27b to 27d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 27a.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(32) FIG. 6a shows an amplifier arrangement according to a first aspect of the present invention. In the example the amplifier arrangement comprises 4 amplifier stages, 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.4, although as will be described below the amplifier arrangement can comprise any higher number of amplifier stages, including both even and odd numbers of amplifier stages.

(33) The amplifier arrangement comprises a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.3 coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage 10.sub.1 and an output node 15 of the amplifier arrangement. The cascade comprises three quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.3 in this example.

(34) An amplifier of the 4th stage 10.sub.4 is coupled to the output node, and remaining amplifiers between the 1.sup.st and 4.sup.th stages (amplifiers 10.sub.2 and 10.sub.3 in this example) are coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.3.

(35) The amplifier arrangement is configured such that the amplifier of the 4th stage 10.sub.4 is coupled to the output node 15 via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1, with each of the remaining amplifiers closest to the output node 15 apart from the first and second amplifiers 10.sub.1, 10.sub.2 (being just the amplifier of stage 10.sub.3 in this particular example), being coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line (13.sub.2 in this example) to a junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(36) The quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.3 are shown as having a decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output node 15 (represented by the comparative thickness of each quarter wavelength transmission line 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.3). Although the embodiments described herein will be described as having a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines with decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output node, it is noted that transformations may be provided in a network, as described later in the application, for providing the same effect as a decreasing characteristic impedance. The use of such transformations in the network might be beneficial when physical constraints are imposed on the amplifier arrangement, for example because of the physical size of the transmission lines required to give a particular characteristic impedance.

(37) The arrangement shown in FIG. 6a can be used with an increasing number of amplifiers stages, for both odd and even numbers of amplifier stages N.

(38) Thus, in more general terms, FIG. 6b describes this aspect of the invention for an amplifier arrangement comprising N amplifier stages, 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.N, wherein N is an integer equal or greater than four.

(39) The amplifier arrangement comprises a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.N−1 coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage 10.sub.1 and an output node 15 of the amplifier arrangement. The cascade comprises N−1 quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.N−1.

(40) An amplifier of the Nth stage 10.sub.N is coupled to the output node, and remaining amplifiers between the first and Nth stages 10.sub.2 to 10.sub.N−1 coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.N−1.

(41) The amplifier arrangement is configured such that the amplifier 10.sub.N of the Nth stage is coupled to the output node 15 via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1, with each of the remaining amplifiers 10.sub.3 to 10.sub.N−1 of the N−2 stages closest to the output node 15 being coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1 to 13.sub.N−2 to a junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(42) The cascade of N−1 quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.N−1 may comprise a decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output node.

(43) This arrangement has the advantage of providing good efficiency for high PAR signals even with equal size transistors, due to high density of transition points at low output amplitudes.

(44) It can be seen from the above that embodiments of the present invention describe 4-stage and higher (“N-stage”) amplifier arrangements, and in particular a Doherty amplifier arrangement, whereby the N−2 amplifiers closest to the output are coupled by quarter wavelength lines to the junctions of the cascade of quarter wavelength lines (consisting of N−1 quarter wavelength lines of decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output, or equivalent transformations in a network).

(45) FIG. 6c shows a plot of current against output amplitude for the four-stage embodiment of the present invention as shown in FIG. 6a. The order of the amplifier starting points in this example is amplifier 10.sub.4 starting at zero, amplifier 10.sub.3 starting at 0.25 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.1 starting at 0.33 of full output amplitude, and amplifier 10.sub.2 starting at 0.62 of full output amplitude.

(46) FIG. 6d shows a plot of voltage against output amplitude for the four-stage embodiment of the present invention as shown in FIG. 6a.

(47) FIG. 6e shows a plot of efficiency against output amplitude for the four-stage embodiment of the present invention as shown in FIG. 6a.

(48) It can be seen from the above that the amplifier stages (transistors, constituent amplifiers) connected to the output node 15 (i.e. amplifier 10.sub.4) and to the quarterwave cascade junction one quarter wavelength from the output (i.e. amplifier 10.sub.3) are connected via quarter wave lines. This is different from a regular multistage Doherty amplifier arrangement in which no such quarter wave lines are used. The quarterwave cascade itself contains three quarter wavelength lines, whereas the arrangement in prior art systems such as EP2403135 only have one quarterwave-connected stage, at the output, and a quarterwave cascade consisting of only two quarter wave lines.

(49) It can be seen from FIG. 6c that the current amplitudes are zero below, and (piecewise) linear above respective transition points (and zero). All current amplitudes are then linear up to the maximum output.

(50) With increasing amplitude, a new amplifier needs to start delivering current only when a previous amplifier has reached its maximum voltage (saturation). As for all Doherty amplifiers, the RF output voltages and currents at an amplifier stage are always in phase in the ideal implementation (and at center frequency).

(51) The relative phases of the drive signals to the amplifiers are easily found by inspection of the electrical length from each amplifier to the common output node 15 (i.e. time delay over the lengths of transmission line). In this specific example, amplifiers 10.sub.2 and 10.sub.3 of the second and third amplifier stages are configured to have phase offsets of −90 degrees (a quarter RF cycle) relative to the phase of amplifier 10.sub.4 of the fourth amplifier stage, and amplifier 10.sub.1 of the first amplifier stage configured to have a phase offset of −180 degrees (a half RF cycle). At least for wideband implementations the offsets can be implemented as time delays (which is also convenient for microwave implementations, where they can be implemented with transmission lines).

(52) In the example of FIG. 6a each of the amplifiers in the amplifier stages (10.sub.1 to 10.sub.4) is of a substantially equal size. By substantially equal size is meant that the amplifiers may be of the same generally type, or that the amplifiers may be configured to provide similar drive currents and/or voltages.

(53) Furthermore, in this example the characteristic impedance of each successive stage in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.3 is reduced towards the output node, and in particular reduced to the parallel combination of the preceding connecting transmission lines. For example, for equal connecting characteristic impedance it reduces to 1/M of the impedance of the transmission line from a single amplifier, where M is the number of preceding amplifiers (i.e. amplifier connected to the input side of a particular point). Therefore, in an example where a particular point has two preceding amplifiers connected by equal connecting characteristic impedances, the characteristic impedance is halved (1/M=½).

(54) Also, in this example, the characteristic impedance of each of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines 13.sub.1 to 13.sub.2 is substantially equal.

(55) Referring to FIG. 6e, the efficiency curve for such an amplifier arrangement designed for four equal size transistors (and substantially the same characteristic impedance in the connecting transmission lines and/or connecting part of the quarterwave cascade junction) has four peaks; at 0.25, 0.33, 0.62 and 1 of full output amplitude.

(56) FIG. 6f shows a schematic diagram of the embodiment of FIG. 6a, illustrated in an alternative manner. Similar schematic diagrams can be drawn for the other embodiments that are described below.

(57) The arrangements shown in FIGS. 6a, 6b and 6f above have the advantage of being more efficient than prior art solutions for signals with Rayleigh distributed amplitudes with PAR above 9 dB, as seen in FIG. 7 which compares efficiency curves for the present embodiment with that of EP2,403,135 and the paper by Raab (whereby the x-axis is back off counted as negative PAR for a signal with Rayleigh distributed amplitude).

(58) Correctly tuned amplifiers have high, ideally infinite, impedance at the output. This high impedance is transformed by a quarterwave line so that the other end has a low (close to short circuit) impedance. Since the amplifier 10.sub.4 of FIG. 6a is connected by a quarterwave line to the output node 15, the output is thus short circuited when seen from amplifiers in the quarterwave cascade. In analogy with the traditional 2-stage Doherty amplifier, the amplifiers in the quarterwave cascade thus work together as an equivalent peaking amplifier to the fourth amplifier 10.sub.4, which consequentially works as a main, or carrier, amplifier.

(59) In the quarterwave cascade, the same situation holds for the third amplifier 10.sub.3 relative to the others. The amplifier 10.sub.3 is connected by a quarterwave line to a junction in the quarterwave cascade. Therefore, this connection point is short circuited for RF voltage from the other amplifiers. These then act together as a peaking amplifier for the third amplifier 10.sub.3 (i.e. “a peaking amplifier to the peaking amplifier”). The quarter wavelength transmission line of the first amplifier 10.sub.1 short circuits the connection point for the second amplifier 10.sub.2, which in the same way acts as a peaking amplifier for the first amplifier 10.sub.1. The short circuiting of the connection points is the reason for the quarterwave cascade; a short circuited junction is displaced from the next by a quarter wavelength line that transforms the low impedance to an open circuit or high impedance.

(60) According to other embodiments of the invention, this scheme can be extended with good results to higher numbers of stages. This is achieved by using the N-stage amplifier, with the quarterwave cascade extended by an extra quarter wavelength (to the right), as the peaking amplifier for an (N+1)-stage. This is always possible, regardless of whether the starting N was even or odd. Higher order versions therefore exist for all numbers of stages, odd and even, contrary to prior art solutions. All higher order versions also have the advantageous property of having many transition points rather evenly distributed in the low amplitude range, for equal size transistors.

(61) FIG. 8a shows an example of an amplifier arrangement comprising five amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.5, i.e. N=5.

(62) The amplifier arrangement comprises a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4 coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage 10.sub.1 and an output node 15 of the amplifier arrangement. The cascade comprises four (N−1) quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4 of decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output node.

(63) An amplifier of the fifth stage 10.sub.5 is coupled to the output node 15, and remaining amplifiers between the first and fifth stages, i.e. the amplifiers of stages 10.sub.2 to 10.sub.4, coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4.

(64) The amplifier arrangement is configured such that the amplifier 10.sub.5 of the fifth stage is coupled to the output node 15 via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1, with each of the remaining amplifiers of the three stages closest to the output node 15 (i.e. amplifiers 10.sub.3 and 10.sub.4 in this example) being coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.2 and 13.sub.3 to a junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(65) FIG. 8b shows a plot of current against output amplitude for the five-stage embodiment of the present invention as shown in FIG. 8a. The order of the amplifier starting points in this example is amplifier 10.sub.5 starting at zero, amplifier 10.sub.4 starting at 0.2 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.3 starting at 0.25 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.1 starting at 0.47 of full output amplitude, and amplifier 10.sub.2 starting at 0.62 of full output amplitude.

(66) Also, in this case (and as we will see, in general) all current amplitudes shown in FIG. 8b are linear from their starting points up to the maximum output. This has the advantage of making the drive signals easier to achieve, since no amplitude limiting is necessary.

(67) FIG. 8c shows the voltages of the respective amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.5 relative to full output amplitude.

(68) Referring to FIG. 8d, the efficiency curve for an amplifier designed for five equal size transistors has five peaks; at 0.20, 0.25, 0.47, 0.62 and 1 of full output amplitude. This distribution of transition points is advantageous for high-PAR signals, and better that the prior art solutions for all relevant Rayleigh PAR values, as shown in FIG. 9.

(69) FIG. 10a shows an example of an amplifier arrangement comprising six amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.6, i.e. N=6.

(70) The amplifier arrangement comprises a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.5 coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage 10.sub.1 and an output node 15 of the amplifier arrangement. The cascade comprises five (N−1) quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.5 of decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output node.

(71) An amplifier of the sixth stage 10.sub.6 is coupled to the output node 15, and remaining amplifiers between the first and sixth stages, i.e. the amplifiers of stages 10.sub.2 to 10.sub.5 in this example, coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.5.

(72) The amplifier arrangement is configured such that the amplifier 10.sub.6 of the sixth stage is coupled to the output node 15 via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1, with each of the remaining amplifiers of the four stages closest to the output node 15 (i.e. amplifiers 10.sub.3 to 10.sub.5 in this example) being coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.2 to 13.sub.4 to a junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(73) FIG. 10b shows a plot of current against output amplitude for the six-stage embodiment of the present invention as shown in FIG. 10a. The order of the amplifier starting points in this example is amplifier 10.sub.6 starting at zero, amplifier 10.sub.5 starting at 0.17 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.4 starting at 0.2 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.3 starting at 0.37 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.1 starting at 0.47 of full output amplitude, and amplifier 10.sub.2 starting at 0.69 of full output amplitude.

(74) Also, in this case all current amplitudes shown in FIG. 10b are linear from their starting points up to the maximum output. This has the advantage of making the drive signals easier to achieve, since no amplitude limiting is necessary.

(75) FIG. 10c shows the voltages of the respective amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.6 relative to full output amplitude.

(76) Referring to FIG. 10d, this shows the efficiency curve, using six transistors of substantially equal size, having six peaks; at 0.17, 0.20, 0.37, 0.47, 0.69 and 1 of full output amplitude. This distribution of transition points is advantageous for high-PAR signals, and improved compared to the prior art solutions for essentially all Rayleigh PAR values, as shown in FIG. 11.

(77) Embodiments for an increasing number of amplifier stages can be configured in a similar manner to the embodiments of FIGS. 6a, 8a, and 10a.

(78) FIG. 12 compares the efficiency of a 7-stage amplifier arrangement with prior art solutions (all designed for substantially equal sized transistors or amplifiers).

(79) FIG. 13 compares the efficiency of a 8-stage amplifier arrangement with prior art solutions (all designed for substantially equal sized transistors or amplifiers).

(80) FIG. 14 compares the efficiency of a 9-stage amplifier arrangement with prior art solutions (all designed for substantially equal sized transistors or amplifiers).

(81) FIG. 15 compares the efficiency of a 10-stage amplifier arrangement with prior art solutions (all designed for substantially equal sized transistors or amplifiers).

(82) It can be seen from the above that the embodiments of the invention thus perform generally better than prior art Doherty amplifiers in relation to average efficiency for high-PAR signals. It is noted that the relative advantage increases with increasing numbers of amplifier stages.

(83) According to another aspect of the present invention, the transition points at which amplifier stages switch into operation can be distributed more evenly.

(84) This improved distribution of transition points may be achieved by making the starting amplifier, i.e. the transistor closest to the output (the Nth amplifier stage of the embodiments described above), smaller compared to the others. For example, according to one example the Nth amplifier is made about half the size (e.g. half the output current rating) compared to the remaining amplifiers. In such an embodiment the connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1 from the Nth amplifier 10.sub.N (i.e. from 10.sub.4) is increased compared to the characteristic impedance of the other connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines 13.sub.1 to 13.sub.N−2 (as illustrated by the reduced comparative thickness of 13.sub.1). For example, in an example where the size of the Nth amplifier is halved, the characteristic impedance of the corresponding connecting quarter wavelength transmission line can be twice the characteristic impedance of the other connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(85) FIG. 16a shows such a configuration for a 4-stage amplifier, although it is noted that this aspect can be used with any number of stages of four and above.

(86) As with the four stage example of FIG. 6a, FIG. 16a shows an amplifier arrangement comprising four amplifier stages, 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.4, and a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.3 coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage 10.sub.1 and an output node 15 of the amplifier arrangement. The cascade comprises three quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.3 in this example, of decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output node.

(87) An amplifier of the 4th stage 10.sub.4 is coupled to the output node, and remaining amplifiers between the 1.sup.st and 3rd stages (amplifiers 10.sub.2 and 10.sub.3 in this example) are coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.3.

(88) The amplifier arrangement is configured such that the amplifier of the 4th stage 10.sub.4 is coupled to the output node 15 via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1, with each of the remaining amplifiers closest to the output node 15 apart from the first and second amplifiers 10.sub.1, 10.sub.2 (being just the amplifier of stage 10.sub.3 in this example), being coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line (13.sub.2 in this example) to a junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(89) According to the embodiment of FIG. 16a the amplifier in the Nth amplifier stage 10.sub.N (closest to the output node), i.e. the fourth amplifier 10.sub.4, is reduced in size compared to the other amplifiers in the other amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.N−1. The characteristic impedance of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1 coupling the amplifier in the Nth amplifier stage to the output node is increased by a corresponding ratio compared to the characteristic impedance of each of the other connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines 13.sub.2 to 13.sub.N−2, (i.e. compared to 13.sub.2 in this example).

(90) For example, in one embodiment the amplifier in the Nth amplifier stage 10.sub.N is substantially halved in size compared to the other amplifiers in the other amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.N−1, and wherein the characteristic impedance of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1 coupling the amplifier in the Nth stage to the output node is substantially doubled in size compared to the characteristic impedance of each of the other connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines 13.sub.2 to 13.sub.N−2.

(91) This has the advantage that the smaller amplifier in the stage closest to the output node allows the distribution of transition points to be improved, as reflected in FIG. 16b, whereby the transition points occur at 0.14, 0.33 and 0.57 of full output amplitude, thus being more evenly spread than the previous embodiments.

(92) FIG. 16c shows the voltages of the respective amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.4 relative to full output amplitude.

(93) Referring to FIG. 16d, the efficiency curve for such an amplifier designed for four amplifier stages with the closest to the output being smaller in size has four peaks; at 0.14, 0.33, 0.57, 0.62 and 1 of full output amplitude. This distribution of transition points is advantageous for high-PAR signals, and better that the prior art solutions for all relevant Rayleigh PAR values. In particular, such an evenly distribution of transition points would generally require more different sizes of transistors if prior art Doherty amplifiers were used.

(94) The same advantageous property is consistently achieved for higher numbers of stages, as shown in FIGS. 17a-17d for a 5-stage amplifier, FIGS. 18a-18d for a 6-stage amplifier, FIGS. 19a-19d for a 7-stage amplifier, FIGS. 20a-20d for a 8-stage amplifier, FIGS. 21a-21d for a 9-stage amplifier, and FIGS. 22a-22d for a 10-stage amplifier. The same applies for higher orders of amplifier stages.

(95) These embodiments have the advantage that the entire set of transition points become evenly distributed even though the size of only one amplifier is changed, for example halved, thus enabling the construction of the amplifier arrangement to be simplified.

(96) According to another aspect of the present invention, another way to achieve a more even distribution of efficiency peaks is by increasing the size of the amplifier second closest to the output (also known as the “first peaking amplifier”) relative to the other amplifiers, For example, according to one embodiment this amplifier may be increased by 25-50% relative to the other amplifiers. In such an embodiment the characteristic impedance of the respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.2 is decreased by some corresponding function (as illustrated by the increased comparative thickness of 13.sub.2).

(97) FIG. 23a shows such a configuration for a 5-stage amplifier, although it is noted that this aspect can be used with any number of stages of four and above.

(98) As with the five stage example of FIG. 8a, FIG. 23a shows an amplifier arrangement comprising five amplifier stages, 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.5, and a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4 coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage 10.sub.1 and an output node 15 of the amplifier arrangement. The cascade comprises four quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4 in this example, of decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output node.

(99) An amplifier of the 5th stage 10.sub.5 is coupled to the output node, and remaining amplifiers between the 1.sup.st and 4th stages (amplifiers 10.sub.2, 10.sub.3 and 10.sub.4 in this example) are coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4.

(100) The amplifier arrangement is configured such that the amplifier of the 5th stage 10.sub.5 is coupled to the output node 15 via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1, with each of the remaining amplifiers closest to the output node 15 apart from the first and second amplifiers 10.sub.1, 10.sub.2, (being the amplifiers of stages 10.sub.3 and 10.sub.4 in this example), being coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line (13.sub.2, 13.sub.3 in this example) to a junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(101) According to the embodiment of FIG. 23a, each of the amplifiers in the N amplifier stages (i.e. 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.5) is of a substantially equal size apart from an amplifier in the N−1 amplifier stage 10.sub.N−1 (i.e. 10.sub.4) that is second closest to the output node, wherein the amplifier in this 4.sup.th stage is increased in size relative to the amplifiers in the other stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.N−2, 10.sub.N (i.e. amplifiers 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.3, 10.sub.5 in this example).

(102) According to one embodiment, the amplifier in the N−1 stage 10.sub.N−1 (i.e. the amplifier of the 4.sup.th stage 10.sub.4 in this example) is increased in size compared to the other amplifiers in the other amplifier stages, and wherein the characteristic impedance of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.2 coupling the amplifier in the N−1 stage (4.sup.th stage in this example) to the cascade is decreased compared to the characteristic impedance of each of the other connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines 13.sub.1, 13.sub.3 to 13.sub.N−2 (13.sub.1 and 13.sub.3 in this example).

(103) For example, according to one embodiment the amplifier in the 4.sup.th stage 10.sub.4 is increased by about 25-50% in size compared to the other amplifiers in the other amplifier stages (10.sub.1 to 10.sub.3, 10.sub.N), and wherein the characteristic impedance of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission line (13.sub.2) coupling the amplifier in the 4.sup.th stage to the cascade is substantially decreased by about 20-50% compared to the characteristic impedance of each of the other connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines (13.sub.1 and 13.sub.3).

(104) For example, the amplifier in the 4.sup.th stage can be about 30% larger than the other amplifiers, and the characteristic impedance of its connecting quarter wavelength transmission line correspondingly 23% lower than for the rest of the connecting quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(105) As mentioned above, this has the benefit of providing a more even distribution of transition points.

(106) This has the advantage that the larger amplifier in the stage second closest to the output node allows the distribution of transition points to be improved further, as reflected in FIG. 23b, whereby the transition points occur at 0.19, 0.3, 0.46 and 0.65 of full output amplitude, thus being more evenly spread than other embodiments.

(107) FIG. 23c shows the voltages of the respective amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.5 relative to full output amplitude.

(108) Referring to FIG. 23d, the efficiency curve for such an amplifier designed for five amplifier stages with the stage second closest to the output being larger in size has five peaks; at 0.19, 0.3, 0.46, 0.65 and 1 of full output amplitude. This distribution of transition points is advantageous for high-PAR signals, and better that the prior art solutions for all relevant Rayleigh PAR values. In particular, such an even distribution of transition points would generally require more different sizes of transistors if prior art Doherty amplifiers were used.

(109) The same advantageous property is consistently achieved for higher numbers of stages,

(110) It is noted that the values of increase and decrease given in the embodiments herein are examples only, and that variations can be made without departing from the invention as defined in the appended claims.

(111) It is noted that the embodiment of FIG. 23a may be used in combination with one or more of the other embodiments described herein. For example, increasing the impedance of the last quarterwave line, for example by 33%, and reducing the size of the amplifier, for example to 75%, and reducing the impedance of the second last line, for example by 13%, and increasing the size of the corresponding amplifier, for example by 15%.

(112) Referring to FIG. 24a, according to another aspect of the invention, the size of the last peaking amplifier (the amplifier of the second stage 10.sub.2) can be increased, such that the entire set of efficiency peaks can be translated to lower amplitudes, and with retained evenness. This is shown in FIG. 24a for a 6-stage amplifier, although it is noted that the same principle can be used for any number of stages from four and above.

(113) As with the 6 stage example of FIG. 10a, FIG. 24a shows an amplifier arrangement comprising 6 amplifier stages, 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.6, and a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.5 coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage 10.sub.1 and an output node 15 of the amplifier arrangement. The cascade comprises five quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.5 in this example, of decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output node.

(114) An amplifier of the 6th stage 10.sub.6 is coupled to the output node, and remaining amplifiers between the 1.sup.st and 6th stages (amplifiers 10.sub.2 to 10.sub.5 in this example) are coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.5.

(115) The amplifier arrangement is configured such that the amplifier of the 6th stage 10.sub.6 is coupled to the output node 15 via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1, with each of the remaining amplifiers closest to the output node 15 apart from the first and second amplifiers 10.sub.1, 10.sub.2 (being the amplifiers of stages 10.sub.3, 10.sub.4 and 10.sub.5 in this example), being coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line (13.sub.2, 13.sub.3 and 13.sub.4 in this example) to a junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(116) According to the embodiment of FIG. 24a the amplifier in the second stage 10.sub.2 is increased or decreased compared to the other amplifiers in at least the first to N−2 other amplifier stages 10.sub.1, 10.sub.3 to 10.sub.N−2, (i.e. compared to at least the amplifiers 10.sub.1 and 10.sub.3 to 10.sub.4 in this example), and the characteristic impedance decreased or increased in a corresponding manner.

(117) By increasing the size of this amplifier in the second stage 10.sub.2, effectively the last peaking amplifier, this causes the entire set of efficiency peaks to be translated to lower amplitudes, with retained evenness. Likewise, decreasing the size of this amplifier causes the whole bunch of efficiency peaks to be translated to higher amplitudes, also with retained evenness

(118) Since the amplifier of the second stage is increased in the example of FIG. 24a, FIG. 24b shows how the transition points have been shifted to occur at 0.06, 0.12, 0.19, 0.27 and 0.35 of full output amplitude, while maintaining the more evenly spread compared to other embodiment.

(119) FIG. 24b shows the voltages of the respective amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.6 relative to full output amplitude.

(120) Referring to FIG. 24d, the efficiency curve for such an amplifier designed for six amplifier stages with the stage second closest to the input being larger in size has six peaks; at 0.06, 0.12, 0.19, 0.27, 0.35 and 1 of full output amplitude. This distribution of transition points is advantageous for high-PAR signals, and better that the prior art solutions for all relevant Rayleigh PAR values.

(121) In the example of FIG. 24a the amplifier of the second stage is four times as large as the four ‘middle’ amplifiers. This efficiency peak shift can be made larger or smaller without disturbing the evenness of the efficiency peaks. A shift in the other direction is achieved by making the transistor smaller instead. Also in this case the evenness of the efficiency peak distribution is retained.

(122) It is noted that the embodiment of FIG. 24a may be used in combination with any one or more of the other embodiments described herein. For example, increasing the impedance of the last quarterwave line, for example by 33%, and reducing the size of the amplifier, for example to 75%, and reducing the impedance of the second last line, for example by 13%, and increasing the size of the corresponding amplifier, for example by 15%.

(123) It is noted that in the embodiments described herein, any quarterwave line can double as an impedance transformer, i.e. the impedance and corresponding maximum RF voltage swings can be individually adjusted for each transistor. This can be useful if one or more of the transistors are made with a different technology having a different voltage rating. It can also be beneficial to use these transformations to accommodate a different load impedance, instead of making this transformation outside of the Doherty amplifier which would require extra impedance transformers. Apart from these considerations, it can be advantageous to have as little extra impedance transformations as possible in the Doherty network, since this generally gives high bandwidth and low sensitivity.

(124) Transistors in general act as controlled RF current sources, so the shape of the amplitudes and phases (relative to that of the output) of the RF currents as functions of the output amplitude also suggest the shaping that must be performed to the input signals to the transistors, i.e. the gate drive voltages. The actual shapes may have to take into account that the voltage-to-current conversion (transconductance) in the transistors is more or less nonlinear, and that the RF voltage swing can influence the output current as well (especially via saturation when close to the upper limit). Causing a transistor to turn on at a higher amplitude is often done by lowering the gate bias to the transistor, i.e. operating in class C. This means that less large-scale amplitude shaping needs to be done earlier in the processing chain, but usually at the cost of lower gain and lower maximum output power.

(125) It is also noted that any of the transmission lines in the examples described herein can be wholly or partially replaced by combinations of lumped elements. For example, the quarterwave lines can be replaced by LC pi- or T-networks with inductors (L) and capacitors (C) with reactances equal in magnitude to the characteristic impedance of the replaced quarterwave line.

(126) The embodiments of the invention provide advantageous Doherty amplifiers with four or more stages. For high PAR signals, the distribution of transition points when equal size transistors are used is improved compared to prior art Doherty amplifiers.

(127) According to some embodiments, by simply halving the size of one transistor, and doubling the characteristic impedance of the corresponding quarterwave line, the efficiency peaks can be distributed even more evenly, which increases average efficiency for high-PAR signals. According to other embodiments, by changing the size of another transistor (for example the second amplifier stage), the whole bunch of efficiency peaks can be moved to higher or lower amplitude ranges, with retained evenness. Good dimensioning is thus easily achieved.

(128) Another advantageous property of the embodiments described herein is that the drive signal shaping is simple. In one embodiment, only different gains and different static gate biases are necessary.

(129) FIG. 25 shows a method of improving the efficiency of an amplifier arrangement comprising N amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.N, wherein N is an integer equal or greater than four, wherein the amplifier arrangement comprises a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage 10.sub.1 and an output node 15 of the amplifier arrangement, wherein the cascade comprises N−1 quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.N−1, and wherein an amplifier of the Nth stage 10.sub.N is coupled to the output node 15, and remaining amplifiers between the first and Nth stages 10.sub.2 to 10.sub.N−1 coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.N−1.

(130) The method comprises the steps of coupling the amplifier of the Nth stage 10.sub.N to the output node 15 via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.1, step 2501.

(131) Each of the remaining amplifiers 10.sub.3 to 10.sub.N−1 in the N−2 stages closest to the output node 15 is coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13.sub.2 to 13.sub.N−2 to a junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines, step 2503.

(132) FIG. 26a shows an amplifier arrangement according to another aspect, with FIGS. 26b to 26d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 26a.

(133) The arrangement of FIG. 26a is a six-stage amplifier arrangement similar to that of FIG. 10a. However, according to this particular aspect, the Nth amplifier 10.sub.6 is coupled directly to the output node 15, rather than via a connecting transmission line as provided in FIG. 10a. Also, in this arrangement the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines comprises N−2 stages, i.e. 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4, rather than N−1 stages as provided in FIG. 10a. Thus, FIG. 26a shows an example of an amplifier arrangement comprising six amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.6, i.e. N=6.

(134) The amplifier arrangement comprises a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4 coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage 10.sub.1 and an output node 15 of the amplifier arrangement. The cascade comprises four (N−2) quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4 of decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output node.

(135) An amplifier of the sixth stage 10.sub.6 is coupled to the output node 15, and remaining amplifiers between the first and sixth stages, i.e. the amplifiers of stages 10.sub.2 to 10.sub.5 in this example, coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4.

(136) The amplifier arrangement is configured such that the amplifier 10.sub.6 of the sixth stage is coupled directly to the output node 15, with each of the remaining amplifiers of the four stages closest to the output node 15 (i.e. amplifiers 10.sub.3 to 10.sub.5 in this example) being coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13 to a junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(137) FIG. 26b shows a plot of current against output amplitude for the six-stage arrangement as shown in FIG. 26a. The order of the amplifier starting points in this example is amplifier 10.sub.5 starting at zero, amplifier 10.sub.4 starting at 0.17 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.3 starting at 0.25 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.1 starting at 0.39 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.2 starting at 0.62 of full output amplitude, and amplifier 10.sub.6 starting at 0.83 of full output amplitude.

(138) FIG. 26c shows the voltages of the respective amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.6 relative to full output amplitude.

(139) Referring to FIG. 26d, this shows the efficiency curve, using six transistors of substantially equal size, having six peaks; at 0.17, 0.25, 0.39, 0.62, 0.83 and 1 of full output amplitude.

(140) FIG. 27a shows an amplifier arrangement according to another aspect, with FIGS. 27b to 27d showing current, voltage and efficiency curves for the amplifier arrangement of FIG. 27a.

(141) The arrangement of FIG. 27a is an example of a eight-stage amplifier arrangement. According to this particular aspect, the Nth amplifier 10.sub.8 is coupled directly to the output node 15, rather than via a connecting quarter wavelength transmission line. Also, in this arrangement the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines comprises N−2 stages, i.e. 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.6, rather than N−1 stages as provided in the earlier embodiments. Thus, FIG. 27a shows an example of an amplifier arrangement comprising eight amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.8, i.e. N=8.

(142) The amplifier arrangement comprises a cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.6 coupled between an output of an amplifier of a first amplifier stage 10.sub.1 and an output node 15 of the amplifier arrangement. The cascade comprises six (N−2) quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.6 of decreasing characteristic impedance towards the output node.

(143) An amplifier of the sixth stage 10.sub.6 is coupled to the output node 15, and remaining amplifiers between the first and sixth stages, i.e. the amplifiers of stages 10.sub.2 to 10.sub.5 in this example, coupled to successive junctions in the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines 11.sub.1 to 11.sub.4.

(144) The amplifier arrangement is configured such that the amplifier 10.sub.8 of the eighth stage is coupled directly to the output node 15, with each of the remaining amplifiers of the six stages closest to the output node 15 (i.e. amplifiers 10.sub.3 to 10.sub.7 in this example) being coupled by a respective connecting quarter wavelength transmission line 13 to a junction of the cascade of quarter wavelength transmission lines.

(145) FIG. 27b shows a plot of current against output amplitude for the eight-stage arrangement as shown in FIG. 27a. The order of the amplifier starting points in this example is amplifier 10.sub.7 starting at zero, amplifier 10.sub.6 starting at 0.12 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.5 starting at 0.17 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.4 starting at 0.27 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.3 starting at 0.37 of full output amplitude amplifier, 10.sub.1 starting at 0.47 of full output amplitude, amplifier 10.sub.2 starting at 0.69 of full output, and amplifier 10.sub.8 starting at 0.87 of full output amplitude.

(146) FIG. 27c shows the voltages of the respective amplifier stages 10.sub.1 to 10.sub.8 relative to full output amplitude.

(147) Referring to FIG. 26d, this shows the efficiency curve, using eight transistors of substantially equal size, having six peaks; at 0.12, 0.17, 0.27, 0.37, 0.47, 0.69, 0.87 and 1 of full output amplitude.

(148) It should be noted that the above-mentioned embodiments illustrate rather than limit the invention, and that those skilled in the art will be able to design many alternative embodiments without departing from the scope of the appended claims. The word “comprising” does not exclude the presence of elements or steps other than those listed in a claim, “a” or “an” does not exclude a plurality, and a single processor or other unit may fulfil the functions of several units recited in the claims. Any reference signs in the claims shall not be construed so as to limit their scope.