JOINT NANOSCALE THREE-DIMENSIONAL IMAGING AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Abstract

A method for in-situ joint nanoscale three-dimensional imaging and chemical analysis of a sample. A single charged particle beam device is used for generating a sequence of two-dimensional nanoscale images of the sample, and for sputtering secondary ions from the sample. which are analysed using a secondary ion mass spectrometry device. The two-dimensional images are combined into a three-dimensional volume representation of the sample, the data of which is combined with the results of the chemical analysis.

Claims

1. A method for joint 3D imaging and chemical analysis of a sample comprising: a) obtaining a sequence of two-dimensional images of said sample by a device, the sequence of two-dimensional images are based on secondary electron detection, the images of said sequence being taken from different viewing angles, and combining said two-dimensional images into a three-dimensional representation of the sample; b) obtaining a representation of a chemical composition of said sample by the device, wherein obtaining the representation of the chemical composition is piston ed in-situ with obtaining the sequence of two-dimensional images of said sample, wherein during said secondary ion mass spectrometry analysis step b), the sample is irradiated using a second primary charged particle beam, thereby releasing secondary ions from the sample, and wherein the second primary charged particle beam is an electron beam; and c) mapping the representation of the chemical composition and the three-dimensional representation of die sample and recording a result in a memory element.

2. The method according to claim 1, wherein during said secondary electron imaging step a), the sample is irradiated using a first primary charged particle beam for taking a two-dimensional image, thereby releasing secondary electrons from the sample.

3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the first primary charged particle beam is an ion beam.

4. The method according to claim 3, wherein a first primary ion beam is an He.sup.+ beam, and wherein a second primary ion beam is an Ne.sup.+ beam.

5. The method according to claim 2, wherein the first primary charged particle beam is an electron beam.

6. The method according to claim 1, wherein during said secondary electron imaging step a), a relative position of said sample with respect to said secondary electron detection is changed.

7. The method according to claim 6, wherein said position is changed by changing an orientation of the sample with respect to the secondary electron detection.

8. The method according to claim 1, wherein step a) is performed prior to step b), vice-versa.

9. A device for performing joint 3D in-situ imaging and chemical analysis of a sample, the device comprising a memory storing instructions when executed by a processor cause the processor to: a) obtain a sequence of two-dimensional images of said sample by the device, the sequence of two-dimensional images are based on secondary electron detection, the images of said sequence being taken from different viewing angles, and combine said two-dimensional images into a three-dimensional representation of the sample; b) obtain a representation of a chemical composition of said sample by the device, wherein to the representation of the chemical composition is obtained by in-situ performance with obtaining the sequence of two-dimensional images of said sample, wherein during said secondary ion mass spectrometry analysis step b), the sample is irradiated using a second primary charged particle beam, to release secondary ions from the sample, and wherein the second primary charged particle beam is an electron beam: and c) map the representation of the chemical composition and the three-dimensional representation of the sample and record a result in a memory element.

10. The device according to claim 9, wherein the device is configured to generate a first primary charged particle beam and a second primary charged particle beam.

11. The device according to claim 10, wherein an ion source is shared and utilized to generate the first primary charged particle beam and the second primary charged particle beam.

12. The device according to claim 11, wherein said ion source comprises a gas field ion source.

13. The device according to claim 9, wherein said sample holder comprises a rotatable stage for rotating the sample with respect to an emission axis utilized during generation of the first primary charged particle beam and the second primary charged particle beam.

Description

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0044] Several embodiments of the present invention are illustrated by way of FIGS., which do not limit the scope of the invention, wherein:

[0045] FIG. 1 illustrates the main method steps of the method in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention:

[0046] FIG. 2 is a schematic partial view of a device for performing the method in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention;

[0047] FIG. 3 is a schematic partial view of a device for performing the method in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention;

[0048] FIG. 4 is a schematic view of a device for performing the method in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention;

[0049] FIG. 5 is a schematic view of a device for performing the method in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention;

[0050] FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a device for performing the method in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention;

[0051] FIG. 7 shows results obtained using an embodiment of the method in accordance with the invention;

[0052] FIG. 8 shows results obtained using an embodiment of the method in accordance with the invention;

[0053] FIG. 9 shows results obtained using, AFM-based 3D reconstruction of a particle;

[0054] FIG. 10 shows a workflow for 3D SIMS imaging in accordance with embodiments of the invention;

[0055] FIG. 11 shows results obtained using an embodiment of the method in accordance with the invention;

[0056] FIG. 12 Shows results obtained using an embodiment. of the method in accordance with the invention;

[0057] FIG. 13 shows post-calibration of a 3D-SIMS analysis in accordance with embodiments of the invention;

[0058] FIG. 14 illustrates model-assisted slicing and layer-by-layer FIB removal or SIMS acquisition and 3D volume reconstruction in accordance with embodiments of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0059] This section describes the invention in further detail based on preferred embodiments and on the figures. Similar reference numbers will be used to describe similar or the same concepts throughout different embodiments of the invention. For example, references 100 and 200 respectively denote two different embodiments of a device for performing the method in accordance with aspects of the invention.

[0060] It should be noted that features described for a specific embodiment described herein may be combined with the features of other embodiments unless the contrary is explicitly mentioned. Features commonly known in the art will not be explicitly mentioned for the sake of focusing on the features that arc specific to the invention. For example, the device for joint 3D imaging and chemical analysis in accordance with some aspects of the invention is evidently powered by an electric supply, even though such supply is not explicitly referenced on the figures nor referred to in the description.

[0061] FIG. 1 illustrates the main steps of a method in accordance with a first preferred embodiment of the present invention, In a first step a). a sequence of two-dimensional images of a sample is obtained. The images are preferably of nanoscale resolution. They are obtained using imaging means based on secondary electron, SE, detection, and the images of the sequence are taken from different viewing angles. The imaging means typically comprise a secondary electron microscope and a corresponding detector. Preferably, subsequent images within the sequence represent partially overlapping fields of view. The images of the sequence are stored in a memory element for further processing by an image processor, which implements a method of photogrammetry. Thereby, the two-dimensional images of the sequence are combined into a three-dimensional representation of the sample's surface, which is in turn stored in a memory element. The memory element may for example be a hard disk drive, solid state drive, or any known digital storage medium, to which the processor has read write access. Photogrammetry is a well known technique, which has been described for example in Eulitz, M.; Reiss, G. “Journal of Structural Biology 2015, DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2015.06.010”, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

[0062] FIG. 2 illustrates by way of example a snapshot of a setup 100 for implementing step a) as describe here above. For obtaining an image of the sequence, the sample 10 is irradiated using a first primary charged particle beam 112, generated by a first primary charged particle beam generator 110. The beam 112 scans at least a part of the sample's surface, whereby the incident beam and loosely hound orbital shell electrons of the sample eject secondary electrons 114, SE, which can be drawn in by a detector 116. The detector 116 may for example be of the Everhart-Thornley type, wherein the detector is positively biased, and wherein the secondary electrons are converted into photons, amplified in a photomultiplier and converted to an electrical signal. Other detectors may be used, including but not limited to a channeltron or a microchannelplate, MCP. The secondary electron signal has the advantage of providing high-resolution surface topography since their low energy permits only near-surface interaction with the specimen. In an SE image, the brightness of a given pixel correlates to the, sum of the detected secondary electrons emitted from the corresponding beam location on the surface of the specimen. The SE image is thus a map of the scanned surface area of the sample, formed by the variation in SE emission as the beam is scanned over the surface, where surface protrusions and features angled toward the detector produce an enhanced SE yield.

[0063] In order to obtain images from different viewing angles, the sample 10, which is held by a sample holder 12 having a plane surface 13, is tilted using a stage with respect to the primary beam direction 112 and rotated around an axis normal to said sample holder's plane surface 13. For each image of the sequence, the rotation angle of the sample holder 12 is changed by a control unit which is not illustrated, Both the tilt angle and rotation angle may be stored together with the captured image data.

[0064] Step b) as shown in FIG. 1 proceeds with obtaining a representation of the chemical composition of the sample, FIG. 3 illustrates by way of example a snapshot of a setup 100 for implementing step N. The representation of the chemical composition is obtained using a secondary ion mass spectrometer, SIMS, device. The sample 10 is irradiated using a second primary charged particle beam 122, generated by a second primary charged particle beam generator 120. The second primary beam 122 strikes the sample 10 with any incidence angle ranging from normal incidence, as shown in FIG. 3, to grazing incidence. The primary charged particles generate various phenomena on sample surface, and particularly they eject surface atoms as neutrals or ions. As a consequence, the primary beam 122 gradually digs a crater at the sample surface, and secondary ions 124 originating from the sample 10 are emitted. The SIMS device 126 collects those secondary ions by appropriate collection means, which comprise for example a system using electrodes configured for generating an electromagnetic field, which accelerates and/or guides the secondary ions into a preferred direction, e.g., towards the device's mass filtering or analysing means. Indeed, the SIMS device 126 furthermore comprises analysing means for filtering them in accordance with their mass-to-charge ratio, and imaging/detection means for visualising and counting the filtered secondary ions. The detection means may be any such means known in the art, comprising for example a Faraday Cup, an electron multiplier, channel electron multiplier, a microchannelplate, MCP, coupled to fluorescent screen and charge coupled device, CCD, camera, or an MCP coupled to anode readout, such as a resistive anode encoder or delay line encoder. The collection. filtering and detecting means make up a secondary ion column. Such a secondary ion column can be designed in such a way that it has a stigmatic property. Several architectures are known in the art for realising the mass filtering means of the secondary ion column. These include for example time-of-flight systems or double-focussing magnetic sector spectrometers comprising an electrostatic sector followed on the secondary ion trajectory by a magnetic sector. The functioning of these well-known mass filtering architectures is not described in details in the context of the present invention.

[0065] As shown in FIG. 4, both first and second primary charged particle beam generation means 110, 120 are part of the same device 100. so that both steps a) and b) are performed in situ. In the final step c), both the representation of the chemical composition and the generated three-dimensional representation of the sample 10 are mapped onto the corresponding locations and recorded in a memory element,

[0066] In accordance with a second preferred embodiment of the invention, the architecture 100 as shown in FIG. 4 comprises a first primary electron beam generator 110 for implementing step a) and a second primary ion beam generator 120 for implementing step b). The orientation of the sample 10, and the electric potential bias applied to it, is altered between steps a) and b). In accordance with the second embodiment, the first step a) is an implementation of scanning electron microscopy, SEM. SEM produces high-resolution micrographs by accelerating an electron beam 112 downward, in a vacuum, within the instrument column through a series of electromagnetic lenses and apertures, which regulate the size and coherency of the beam down to a nanometer-scale focal point. The electron probe scans within a frame a raster line by line over the sample surface via an oscillating magnetic field generated by an electromagnetic coil close to the final lens of the column, Magnification is changed by adjusting the length of the scan lines on the sample. The rastering electron beam 112 creates a volume of primary excitation within the sample which causes the release of the secondary electrons 114. In accordance with this second embodiment, the second step b) is an implementation of SIMS using a primary ion column, including an ion source device. Each primary ion 122 reaches the sample with an energy which typically ranges from 200 eV to 40 keV.

[0067] The primary ion source device 120 uses, as in known primary ion source devices, primarily caesium (under the form of Cs.sup.+ ions) and oxygen (under the form of O.sup.− or O.sub.2.sup.+ ions), but any other ion beams such as He.sup.+, Ne.sup.+, Ar.sup.+, Xe.sup.+, etc., can be used equally well.

[0068] In accordance with a third preferred embodiment of the invention, the architecture 100 as shown in FIG. 4 comprises a first primary ion beam generator 110 for implementing step a) and a second primary electron generator 120 for implementing step b). For step a). a first primary ion beam 112, typically in the range of 100 eV to 50 keV, irradiates the sample 10, which results in the generation of secondary electrons 114. For step h), a second primary electron beam 114, typically in the range of 1 to 50 keV irradiates the sample 10. whereby secondary ions 124 are spattered from the sample's surface, which are in turn collected, analysed and detected by the SIMS device 126.

[0069] FIG. 5 shows an alternative architecture 200 for implementing the method for in-situ joint 3D to imaging and chemical analysis in accordance with aspects of the present invention. The device 200 comprises a single charged particle generator 210, 220, which is configured for generating a beam 212 suitable for SE imaging implementing step a), and for generating a beam 222 suitable for SIMS analysis implementing step b). Using a single beam generator I column provides the advantage of reducing the complexity, scale and production cost of the device, as compared to using a dedicated beam generator/column for the steps of 3D imaging and chemical analysis respectively.

[0070] In accordance with a fourth preferred embodiment of the invention, the architecture 200 as shown in FIG. 5 comprises a single primary electron beam generator 210, 220. In accordance with the fourth embodiment, the first step a) is an implementation of scanning electron microscopy, SEM. The rastering electron beam 212 creates a volume of primary excitation within the sample which causes the release of the secondary electrons 214, which are detected and imaged by the detector 226. In accordance with this fourth embodiment, the second step b) is an implementation of SIMS using a primary electron column. An electron beam 214 irradiates the sample 10, whereby secondary ions 224 are sputtered from the sample's surface, which are in turn collected, analysed and detected by the SIMS device 226.

[0071] In accordance with a fifth, and most preferred embodiment of the invention, the architecture 200 as shown in FIG. 5 comprises a single primary ion beam generator 210, 220. For step a), a first primary ion beam 212 irradiates the sample 10, which results in the generation of secondary electrons 224. The secondary electrons are detected and imaged by the detector 226. In accordance with this fifth embodiment, the second step b) is an implementation of SIMS using a primary ion column. A second primary ion beam 214 irradiates the sample 10, whereby secondary ions 224 are sputtered from the sample's surface, which are in turn collected, analysed and detected by the SIMS device 226. The first and second primary ion beams 212, 214 may be the similar, i.e., they may comprise the same ion species, same energy and ion mass, or they may alternatively comprise two different ion species. Preferably, the first primary ion beam may be a beam comprising He.sup.+ ions and the second primary ion beam may be a beam comprising Ne.sup.+ ions. The architecture 200 may therefore comprise an ion column that is similar to an ion column comprised in an HIM device.

[0072] In all of the embodiments, step b) may alternatively be performed prior to step a). However, performing step b) first generally results in a degradation of the sample's surface due to the destructive nature of secondary ion sputtering that is required for the chemical analysis using a SIMS device.

[0073] In what follows a description of an experimental setup will be given, which conforms to the fifth embodiment as described here above, i.e., in which a single ion column is used for implementing both steps a) and b) of the method.

[0074] Experimental Setup

[0075] In this embodiment, the in-situ approach to 3D-SIMS in accordance with aspects of the invention is illustrated. The embodiment makes use of the unique capabilities of the Helium ion microscope, HIM, in the form of the Zeiss ORION NanoFab™. The Zeiss NanoFab™ Helium/Ncon Ion Microscope is a high resolution scanning ion microscope that allows for structural analysis and manipulation on the nanometer scale by Helium Ion Microscopy, HIM. Using an appropriate mass analyzer, the device enables the investigation of chemical aspects of a specimen via SIMS with an high spatial resolution, as recently demonstrated in the field of solar cells, see for example Wirtz, T. et al., “SIMS on the Helium Ion. Microscope” in Helium Ion Microscopy; Hlawacek, Gregor; Gōlzhäuser, Armin, Eds,; Springer International Publishing: Cham, 2016.

[0076] This unique combination of instrumental techniques is therefore perfectly suited for a combination of, on the one hand, the aforementioned 3D surface reconstruction extracted from secondary electron detection and, on the other hand , chemical mapping or depth profiling by secondary ion microscopy. The viability of this in-situ approach using one single sample probing beam to correlative 3D SIMS is investigated in the following.

[0077] An ORION NanoFab™ was used for Helium ion microscopy and, in combination with a mass analyzer for secondary ion mass spectrometry. Details on the microscope and spectrometer are known in the art and will not be discussed in detail in the context of this invention. High-resolution secondary electron data for the P3D process was acquired using He.sup.+ as primary ion species to avoid sample damage. The beam current was set to 1.3-1.7 pry at an energy of 12.5 to 12.8 keV for the InP particle sample. This results in imaging doses of less than 2×10.sup.14 ions/cm.sup.2 per micrograph, for a total imaging dose of less than 6×10.sup.16 ions/cm.sup.2. As the NanoFab was not equipped with a dedicated system for eucentric rotation under tilted conditions, the region of interest was manually positioned in the center of the image frame between rotation steps. Ne.sup.+ primary ions (25 keV, 4-5 pA) were used for mass spectrometry and imaging SIMS in positive secondary ion mode. The stage tilt was set to 0° in this case, i.e., the primary ion beam was perpendicular to the sample surface. A single imaging SIMS dataset, comprising of up to four, simultaneously sampled mass channels. corresponds to an ion dose of approx. 1.5×10.sup.15 ion/cm.sup.2. The total Ne.sup.+ ion dose during setup and SIMS data acquisition was estimated to be less than 10.sup.17 ions/cm.sup.2.

[0078] FIG. 6 illustrates the image acquisition for photogrammetric 3D reconstruction in the Helium Ion Microscope. Instead of rotating a camera around a given object to acquire the data set for reconstruction, the sample is rotated at a given stage tilt (e.g., 30°, 45°, 54°, so that the of of interest is located at the intersection of the beam axis and sample holder normal (i.e., the rotational axis). For each rotation step of, e.g., 15°, an image is recorded and added to the data set. In order to improve the reconstruction, multiple tilt angle series may be required.

[0079] Atomic force microscopy data for comparative purposes was captured with an Agilent 5100™ AFM using standard beam type cantilevers (Nanosensors PPP-NCHR™) in acoustic AC mode.

[0080] The SIMS and image data was analyzed using ImageJ in the form of the Fiji distribution. AFM data was evaluated using Gwyddion. Autodesk ReMake™ was used for photoarammetric 3D reconstruction and the data was visualized using the Paraview software package.

[0081] For the cell sample, differentiated THP1 cells were grown on wafer silicon, and fixed in 2% glutaraldehyde in PBS for 30 min. The samples were post fixed with 1% OSO.sub.4 for 1 at 4° C. They were washed 3 times with PBS and thereafter they were dehydrated with ethanol concentrations (30, 50, 70, 90 and 100% ×2 ethanol). Samples were dried in air before being coated with a thin platinum layer.

[0082] The InP wafer sample (Wafer Technology Ltd, Milton Keynes, UK) was used without further treatment after mechanical eleaving in ambient conditions.

[0083] Photogrammetric 3D (P3D) from HIM Micrographs

[0084] The applicability of the photogrammetric 3D (P3D) reconstruction from SEM images was discussed e.g. by Eulitz and Reiss. Helium ion microscopy operates on a very similar imaging principle to SEM: a focused beam of charged particles (electrons in the case of SEM, He.sup. or Ne.sup.+ ions m the case of HIM) is directed onto a sample, interacts with the material and causes the emission of low-energy secondary electrons (among other interaction products), which are detected by a suitable detector.

[0085] While the details of image formation may vary, the resulting micrographs are similar in appearance and should therefore be suitable for P3D.

[0086] FIG. 7 illustrates the reconstruction of a cell group from a sample of differentiated THP1 cells using Helium ion microscopy. The sample was sputter-coated with a thin layer of Pt: a) Top-down view of the sample, tilt angle 0°, b) Reconstruction of the specimen via Autodesk ReMake™ (textured solid); c) rotational series of acquired micrographs (20° steps) at a tilt angle of 45°.

[0087] This assumption was tested using a platinum-covered cell colony sample (differentiated THP1) deposited on a silicon wafer. An isolated group of three cells was selected and imaged at a stage tilt of 0°, i.e., the primary beam axis coincides with the surface normal of the wafer (FIG. 7a). The data set for P3D was then recorded at a stage tilt of 45° by rotating the sample in 20° increments around the surface normal (c.f. FIG. 6). The data set is shown in FIG. 7c).

[0088] The P3D reconstruction of the cell group was achieved using the free online version of the ReMake™ software package. The reconstruction yields both a three-dimensional model of the object topography (the “solid”) as well as the corresponding image of the surface (the “texture”).

[0089] FIG. 7b) shows a side-on view of the model with the applied texture (“textured solid”). It is apparent that the 3D structure of the cell group is captured in the P3D model, leading to the conclusion that F3D reconstruction is indeed a viable route for the in-situ analysis of surface topography in HIM without the need for additional instrumentation.

[0090] Comparison of P3D from HIM Micrographs and AFM

[0091] An InP particle on an InP wafer was used as sample for the evaluation of the reconstruction quality as well as subsequent analysis, as it provided a complex surface topography as well as some variety in the surface composition (dark vs. bright regions indicate differences in chemical composition). The particle was imaged by HIM at tilts of 45° and 54° and rotation increments of 15° and 30°, respectively. The model resulting from the reconstruction is shown in FIG. $ in the form of the solid (light gray) with artificial shading to accent the topography to-d) and with the applied texture (d, right part). FIG. Pa is the on-top view, b) and c) are selected side-on views and d) is a perspective projection of the model (left: shaded only, right: textured). The viewing directions are indicated by black and white bars and arrows. In summary, FIG. 8 shows photogrammetric 3D reconstruction (shaded surface) of an InP particle in top view (a), side-on views (b, c) and perspective view (d). The right part of (d) is displayed with the respective texture applied to the model. The arrows indicate the viewing direction of (b) and (c). Notice that vertical and even overhanging sections of the particle are captured in the 3D-model. The undulating boundary of the model is a result of the lack of features of the InP wafer substrate.

[0092] As a control, the same particle was analyzed by AFM (Acoustic mode). The data is presented in FIG. 9 in the form of shaded solid models. FIG. 9 illustrates AFM-based 3D reconstruction (shaded surface) of the InP particle in top view (a), side-on views (b, c) and perspective view (d). Colored arrows indicate viewing direction. Notice that steeply angled as well as overhanging sections of the particle sections are not captured in the model, as the AFM data is actually a convolution of the (macroscopic) tip shape and the investigated sample. The colored arrows in (d) point to regions of featureless, uniform slope, whereas the P3D model in FIG. 8 as well as the respective HIM micrographs indicate overhangs at these position. The selected views correspond to those presented in FIG. 8. with the exception of the textured model. Please note that the AFM data was recorded after a limited amount of He.sup.+/Ne.sup.+ ion irradiation (<10.sup.16 He.sup.+/cm.sup.2, <10.sup.17 Ne.sup.+/cm.sup.2, see experimental section) on the HIM during the acquisition of SE and SIMS data. This ion irradiation did not significantly alter the shape of the particle, as judged from post-irradiation HIM micrographs.

[0093] It is immediately apparent that the AFM model suffers from pronounced artifacts due to the macroscopic shape of the tip. Especially the steep sidewalls of the particle (FIGS. 8a, 9a: black arrow) cannot be imaged due to the convolution of tip shape and surface topography. This kind of artifacts is intrinsic to AFM and cannot be circumvented. Areas of relatively low inclination like the larger sloped section (white arrow) can be imaged at high resolution.

[0094] The P3D approach is capable of modeling steep and even overhanging substructures, as it is not limited by the top-down geometry of the AFM. Improved or better adapted algorithms for the reconstruction will likely be able to further improve on the detail level of the reconstruction. The textured P3D model effectively combines the 2D and 3D imaging capabilities of the HIM and thus allows for evaluation of details even at lower “3D fidelity”.

[0095] Correlation of P3D and SIMS Data Both Obtained on the HIM

[0096] The successful application of P3D to 1-FIM data sets in combination with the analytical capabilities of the SIMS analyzer opens up the possibility for correlative microscopy in three dimensions. After the P3D data set is acquired using a low current He.sup.+ ion beam, the NanoFab™ was switched to Neon as a working gas. The spectrometer was set up using a similar particle in close proximity to avoid any disturbance to the target particle during the tuning process. The initial scan of the particle revealed an unexpected .sup.40Ca signal, most likely a contamination resulting from the sample cleavage in ambient conditions. The distribution of this Ca signal was mapped in the following analysis in addition to the indium signal.

[0097] The .sup.40Ca and intensities were recorded in the form of SIMS intensity maps. The maps where registered to the on-top view of the P3D model using the manual landmark based registration in Fiji. The registered maps where then used as textures for the P3D models in Parkview™ to yield the representations shown in FIG. 10. The viewing directions of textured models in FIG. 10 correspond to those in the previous figures.

[0098] FIG. 10 shows a workflow for 3D SIMS imaging on the HIM: a) Helium ion microscopy and 3D reconstruction from SE images: b) Ne.sup.+ SIMS data acquisition yields intensity maps of .sup.115In (top) and .sup.40Ca (bottom); c) registration and alignment of SIMS and P3D data sets; d) particle model with applied SIMS intensity maps. The black and white bars indicate the viewing direction (c.f. previous figures). The is relatively evenly distributed, suggesting that the particle is most likely a fragment of InP wafer. The calcium signal is locally confined to a smaller particle on the main slope and the summit region of the particle, where it locally suppresses the indium signal. The Calcium is likely due to an impurity covering the InP particle.

[0099] The textured models in FIG. 10 show a bimodal distribution of the .sup.115In and .sup.40Ca signals. The Indium signal show's a relatively even distribution on the main slope (bottom half of FIGS. 8/9a and 10 top), except for a low-indium region in the middle of the slope, on top of the “ridge” of the particle and for the top-most third of the particle. The .sup.40Ca is mostly localized in the Indium-free region on the slope and on the ridge the “ridge”. The lack of signal intensity for any ion in the top third of the particle will be addressed in the next sections, In summary, the data suggests that the particle is actually a fragment of the InP wafer and covered by localized Ca-containing particles.

[0100] Analytical Insights Based on the P3D Model

[0101] The availability of a 3D model from the P3D approach allows for a detailed analysis of the topography of the investigated object. FIG. 11 comprises an analysis of the polar and azimuthal contributions of the surface normals of each cell in the polygonal mesh, FIG. .11 illustrates color-coded polar (top) and azimuthal angle (bottom) of the surface normals of the model. The polar angle θ of the surface normal corresponds to the angle of incidence of the primary beam and can be used to evaluate e.g., sputter rates. The azimuthal angle φ shows the in-plane component of the surface normal and indicates the emission direction of secondary particles, which can be used to characterize the acceptance angles of the ion extraction system.

[0102] The polar angle θ describes the deviation of the surface normal n with regards to the z-axis (which is parallel to the primary beam axis) and thus the incidence angle of the primary beam with respect to the cell. A darker shade of gray indicates a more grazing incidence, while a light shade highlights regions where the local surface normal points towards the −z direction, i.e., the wafer surface.

[0103] In ion-beam based techniques like focused ion beam, FIB, machining or SIMS, the sputter yield is a function of the incidence angle, which affects the local sputter rate and secondary ion yield. As the angle can be calculated from the P3D model, it should be possible to post-correct SIMS data for variations in surface tilt of non-flat surfaces.

[0104] The bottom part of FIG. 11 addresses the azimuthal component of the cells' surface normal. The azimuthal angle φ corresponds to the rotational component in the x-y-plane (i.e., perpendicular to the primary beam axis), with an arbitrary 0°. The azimuthal angle is of some importance for a detection system with a limited acceptance angle. The derived values can also be used for modeling/simulation/post-correction of acquired data. The grayscale-coded models show that the particle features four distinct slopes, with an exception at the center-left position in the on-top graph, which corresponds to the freestanding wall that can be easily identified in, e.g., FIG. 8c/d.

[0105] As discussed before, an unexpectedly low ion yield was observed for the top third of the particle as displayed in the on-top view of the .sup.115In-signal in FIG. 10. The analysis of the polar angle in FIG. 11 for the respective region shows a higher angle of incidence compared to the main slope, which should result in a higher or at least similar secondary ion signal due to an increase in the sputter yield. This is clearly not the case. The azimuthal angle analysis, on the other hand. shows that the two slopes are oriented with a difference in φ of almost 180°. Assuming a limited azimuthal acceptance angle of the spectrometer, this may account for the missing signal.

[0106] The sample was therefore rotated by 90° around the vertical axis and subjected to SIMS analysis for a second time. The results are juxtaposed in FIG. 12. FIG. 12 shows a comparison of the .sup.115In SIMS intensity observed for the same particle at 0° (a) and after a 90° relative rotation (b). The initial. SIMS intensities are plotted on the left and mapped to the P3D-model on the right. Black and white bars indicate the viewing angles of the shaded model. The difference in the Indium signal is attributed to a strong directional component of the acceptance angle of the ion-optical system under the given experimental parameters. Slopes with an azimuthal component towards the lower left of the SIMS map exhibit higher intensities compared to all other directions (c.f., FIG. 11). Note that only the intensities of recorded on the particle are affected, while the surrounding (flat) wafer surfaces exhibit similar intensities. The SIMS intensity map in a) is oriented to match the internal x-y-orientation of the microscope and defined to have a rotation of 0°. The SIMS map in b) was recorded after a clockwise rotation of 90°. The on-top projections of the textured P3D models have been rotated to match the respective SIMS maps, while the side and perspective views remain unchanged.

[0107] It is immediately apparent that there is much higher signal intensity for all particle surfaces where the azimuth of the normal is oriented towards the lower left of the SIMS map. The signal levels for the MP-wafer surrounding the particle seem not to be strongly affected by the rotation, except for what could be considered as a shadowing effect on the opposite side of the particle.

[0108] This preferential detection angle is most likely related to a limited acceptance angle of the spectrometer. It is unclear at this point whether this is an intrinsic quality of the spectrometer design or caused by the spectrometer alignment during the experiment setup.

[0109] Potential Applications

[0110] The possibility to generate a three-dimensional model of almost any 3D structure during HIM analysis without the need for sample exchange, ex-situ processing or additional instrumentation opens up a number of potential application both for FIB and SIMS applications.

[0111] a) Post-Calibration of 3D-SIMS

[0112] As previously discussed, 3D data in SIMS is typically acquired in the form of a. stack of pseudo-2D maps, which yield a 3D volume data set comprised of voxels in a regular lattice. If the surface topography is not explicitly taken into account, the assumption of a flat surface will introduce subsurface deformations in in the volume model (FIG. 13, section 4). Using the P3D method to generate a 3D surface model of the specimen as proposed by aspects of the invention, it becomes possible to post-calibrate the z-coordinates to match the non-flat surface and thus reduce the deformation in subsurface layers, as described in more detail in FIG. 13. FIG. 13 shows the concept of post-calibration of a 3D-SIMS analysis. If a flat surface is assumed for the reconstruction, protrusions or depressions in the surface will incur subsurface deformations (3., 4.). Using the 3D surface model, it becomes possible to correct for the actual surface topography and thus reduce the error in the volume data.

[0113] b) Modelling/Simulation of 2D/3D-SIMS

[0114] As discussed before, the analysis of the polar and azimuthal angles can be used as the starting point for a complete modelling of the sputtering process and/or image formation of a 2D SIMS map to better understand the as acquired data. Modelling and simulation of full 3D-SIMS data sets can benefit the accuracy of post-calibration.

[0115] c) Accurate Layer-by-Layer Analysis and Machining

[0116] A 3D surface model generated by the P3D method on the HIM can be used to generate a 3D volume model. The volume model can be sliced into a stack of cross-sectional layers perpendicular to the z-axis, much like a model is sliced for additive manufacturing purposes before being printed in a layer-by-layer fashion.

[0117] In a reversal of the 3D-printing process, the structure in question can be decomposed in a layer-by-layer fashion from the top down, so that only the respective layer is removed. For FIB machining, which can be done directly on the HIM, this could be used to remove particles without damaging the surrounding surface in an automated fashion. For SIMS. the same damage-free removal could be achieved with the added benefit that each layer is inherently flat and no post-calibration is required. FIG. 14 illustrates the concept of model-assisted slicing and layer-by-layer FIB removal or SIMS acquisition and 3D % volume reconstruction.

[0118] It should be understood that the detailed description of specific preferred embodiments is given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the scope of the invention will be apparent to the person skilled in the art. The scope of protection is defined by the following set of claims.