Production of nanocrystalline metal powders via combustion reaction synthesis

Abstract

Nanocrystalline metal powders comprising tungsten, molybdenum, rhenium and/or niobium can be synthesized using a combustion reaction. Methods for synthesizing the nanocrystalline metal powders are characterized by forming a combustion synthesis solution by dissolving in water an oxidizer, a fuel, and a base-soluble, ammonium precursor of tungsten, molybdenum, rhenium, or niobium in amounts that yield a stoichiometric burn when combusted. The combustion synthesis solution is then heated to a temperature sufficient to substantially remove water and to initiate a self-sustaining combustion reaction. The resulting powder can be subsequently reduced to metal form by heating in a reducing gas environment.

Claims

1. A method for synthesizing powders by a combustion reaction, the method comprising: forming a combustion synthesis solution by dissolving in water an oxidizer, a fuel, and at least one base-soluble ammonium metatungstate (AMT) in amounts that yield a stoichiometric burn when combusted; heating the combustion synthesis solution to a temperature sufficient to substantially remove the water and to initiate a self-sustaining combustion reaction to form a combustion product of WO.sub.2 crystallites of a size less than 60 nm; and heating the combustion product for less than 6 hours in a reducing atmosphere at a temperature lower than 850° C. to form the W powder.

2. The method of claim 1, further comprising dissolving a nitrate reagent of an alloying metal in the combustion synthesis solution.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the oxidizer comprises the nitrate reagent.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the oxidizer comprises nitric acid.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the oxidizer comprises ammonium nitrate.

6. The method of claim 1, wherein the fuel comprises glycine.

7. The method of claim 1, further comprising cooling the combustion product to a temperature below 100° C. and then introducing an oxidizing gas to passivate the surface of W powder.

8. A method for synthesizing W nanocrystalline metal powders by a combustion reaction, the method characterized by the steps of: forming a combustion synthesis solution by dissolving in water an oxidizer, a fuel, and at least one base-soluble ammonium metatungstate (AMT) in amounts that yield a stoichiometric burn when combusted; heating the combustion synthesis solution to a temperature sufficient to substantially remove the water and to initiate a self-sustaining combustion reaction to form a combustion product of WO.sub.2 crystallites; and heating the combustion product to a temperature below 850° C. in a reducing atmosphere to reduce the WO.sub.2 crystallites to W nanocrystalline metal powder.

9. The method of claim 8 wherein the reducing comprises exposing the WO.sub.2 crystallites to hydrogen.

10. The method of claim 9 wherein the reducing further comprises heating the WO.sub.2 crystallites to a temperature between 600° C. and 800° C.

11. The method of claim 10 wherein the reducing further comprises rapidly heating the WO.sub.2 crystallites to the temperature and rapidly cooling the W nanocrystalline metal powder to room temperature.

12. The method of claim 11 wherein the rapid heating and/or cooling is performed at a rate up to 100° C./min.

13. The method of claim 8 wherein the W nanocrystalline metal powder has an average particle size of less than 60 nm.

14. The method of claim 8 wherein the W nanocrystalline metal powder has an average particle size of less than 30 nm.

Description

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

(1) Embodiments of the invention are described below with reference to the following accompanying drawings.

(2) FIG. 1 is an X-ray diffraction pattern for a tungsten oxide powder, which was formed according to embodiments of the present invention, prior to reduction.

(3) FIG. 2 is an X-ray diffraction pattern of a metallic tungsten powder after reduction of an oxide powder according to embodiments of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

(4) The following description includes the preferred best mode of one embodiment of the present invention. It will be clear from this description of the invention that the invention is not limited to these illustrated embodiments but that the invention also includes a variety of modifications and embodiments thereto. Therefore the present description should be seen as illustrative and not limiting. While the invention is susceptible of various modifications and alternative constructions, it should be understood, that there is no intention to limit the invention to the specific form disclosed, but, on the contrary, the invention is to cover all modifications, alternative constructions, and equivalents falling within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the claims.

(5) Embodiments of the present invention involve both the formation of an aqueous solution containing the appropriate precursors as well as the heating of the combustion synthesis solution to dryness and eventual autoignition. Once the precursor is ignited, a self-sustaining combustion reaction produces a final powder comprising an oxide comprising tungsten, molybdenum, rhenium, and/or niobium. According to the present invention, the resulting powder can exhibit a nanocrystalline nature and a high degree of phase homogeneity.

Example: Nanocrystalline Tungsten Powder Synthesis

(6) In the instant example, a tungsten oxide powder, which can be reduced to yield a nanocrystalline tungsten powder, is synthesized. For 100 g of tungsten metal powder, 138.2 g of Ammonium Metatungstate (AMT; (NH.sub.4).sub.6H.sub.2W.sub.12O.sub.40.5H.sub.2O, F.W.=3048.1 g/mole, % W by weight=72.3%) is required as a tungsten source. Additional combustion synthesis solution materials include nitric acid and glycine. In order to produce the necessary stoichiometric burn when combusted, equal amounts of oxidizing and reducing capacity must be present in the combustion synthesis solution. Additional details regarding the determination of oxidizing and reducing capacities of various materials is provided by J. J. Kingsley and L. R. Pedersen in “Energetic Materials in Ceramic Synthesis” (Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 296 (1993) 361-366), which details are incorporated herein by reference. Briefly, the molecular formulas of each of the reagents are determined to be either net oxidizing agents or net reducing agents on a per mole basis. The relative molar ratios of the reagents required for a stoichiometric burn can then be calculated. The oxidizing and reducing capacities for the reagents of the present example are determined as follows.

(7) $\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{For}\mathrm{AMT}={\left({\mathrm{NH}}_4\right)}_6{H}_2{W}_{12}{O}_{40}& \\ \frac{\begin{array}{c}\begin{array}{c}N=6.Math.0=0\\ H=26.Math.-1=-26\end{array}\\ O=40.Math.+2=+80\\ W=12.Math.-6=-72\end{array}}{\mathrm{Sum}=-18\mathrm{per}\mathrm{mole}\left(\mathrm{net}\mathrm{reducing}\right)}\mathrm{For}\mathrm{Nitric}\mathrm{Acid}={\mathrm{HNO}}_3\frac{\begin{array}{c}\begin{array}{c}H=1.Math.-1=-1\\ N=1.Math.0=0\end{array}\\ O=3.Math.+2=+6\end{array}}{\mathrm{Sum}=+5\mathrm{per}\mathrm{mole}\left(\mathrm{net}\mathrm{oxidizing}\right)\mathrm{For}\mathrm{Glycine}={\mathrm{NH}}_2{\mathrm{CH}}_2\mathrm{COOH}\frac{\begin{array}{c}\begin{array}{c}\begin{array}{c}C=2.Math.-4=-8\\ H=5.Math.-1=-5\end{array}\\ N=1.Math.0=0\end{array}\\ O=2.Math.+2=+4\end{array}}{\mathrm{Sum}=-9\mathrm{per}\mathrm{mole}\left(\mathrm{net}\mathrm{reducing}\right)}}& \end{array}$
In the particular instance, it was desired to keep the AMT to glycine molar ratio at 1 to 6. Therefore, the molar ratio of nitric acid to AMT necessary for a stoichiometric burn ratio can be determined as follows.

(8) $\frac{\begin{array}{c}1.Math.\mathrm{AMT}\left(@-18\mathrm{per}\mathrm{mole}\right)=-18\left(\mathrm{net}\mathrm{reducing}\right)\\ 6.Math.\mathrm{Glycine}\left(@-9\mathrm{per}\mathrm{mole}\right)=-54\left(\mathrm{net}\mathrm{reducing}\right)\end{array}}{\mathrm{Sum}=-72\left(\mathrm{net}\mathrm{reducing}\right)}$
For a stoichiometric burn ratio, net reducing capacity must be equal to net oxidizing capacity, so the sum of the net oxidizing capacity of the nitric acid needs to be +72.
+72÷+5 per mole of Nitric Acid=14.4 mole of HNO.sub.3 per mole of AMT
In view of the above, the molar ratio of the three reactants required for a stoichiometric burn ratio are as follows.
AMT:Glycine:HNO.sub.3=1:6:14.4

(9) The amount of water to produce a satisfactory combustion synthesis solution has preferably been found to be ˜20 g of D.I. water per 50 g of AMT to be used in the procedure. Generally as little water is used as possible in order to produce a stable solution containing the appropriate amounts of the reagent materials. The recipe for preparing the combustion synthesis solution of the present example is determined as follows: 1) 138.1597 g of AMT (0.045327 mole of AMT) 2) (138.1597 g÷50 g).Math.20 g H.sub.2O=55.26 g of D.I. water needed 3) 14.4.Math.(0.045327 mole)=0.652709 mole of HNO.sub.3.Math.63.01 g HNO.sub.3 per mole.Math.0.700=58.7531 g of 70% HNO.sub.3 solution needed 4) 6.Math.(0.045327 mole)=0.271962 mole of glycine.Math.75.07 g glycine per mole=20.4162 g glycine needed

(10) The combustion synthesis solution was prepared in a 500 ml Erlenmeyer flask with a tight fitting screw cap. The AMT was weighed out and transferred to the clean, dry Erlenmeyer flask. D.I. water was then added to the AMT solid in the flask, which was capped and gently shaken periodically until all of the AMT solid had dissolved. The 70% nitric acid solution was slowly added to the flask with periodic shaking. Near the end of the nitric acid addition, a white solid precipitated from the solution. Glycine was then weighed out and also added to the flask. After adding the glycine, the mixture was vigorously shaken to mix the contents. After several minutes the previously precipitated solid had redissolved resulting in a yellow colored solution that was slightly turbid.

(11) The combustion synthesis solution decomposition, or burn, was carried out using a 4 L stainless steel beaker heated on a hotplate to near red heat temperature. After the hotplate has heated the beaker bottom to near red heat, the entire combustion synthesis solution is quickly poured into the hot beaker, then the beaker covered with a clean 100 mesh sieve to contain most of the solid particles produced, while allowing steam and combustion gasses to escape from the beaker. Steam is rapidly evolved for ˜5 minutes, then red colored NO.sub.x fumes are evolved as the combustion process begins to initiate. When the NO.sub.x evolution subsides, the beaker containing the porous ash is removed from the hotplate and allowed to cool to room temperature. The entire burn process was completed within less than 10 minutes. After cooling, the dark brown colored ash was recovered from the beaker, and ground to a fine powder (almost gray in color). The finely divided powder was then ready to be reduced to metallic tungsten powder.

Example: 80 at % W-20 at % Nb

(12) In the instant example, an 80 atom % W-20 atom % Nb powder is synthesized that can yield approximately 10 g of a nanocrystalline W—Nb metal powder after reduction. Standard grade AMT was used as the source of tungsten. Ammonium Niobate(V) Oxalate hydrate (ANO; (NH.sub.4)Nb(O)(C.sub.2O.sub.4).sub.2.xH.sub.2O; F.W.=302.984 g/mole; % Nb by Wt.=20.25%) was used as the source of Nb. Ethanolamine {(NH.sub.2) CH.sub.2CH.sub.2OH; F.W.=61.09 g/mole}, 70% nitric acid, and deionized water were also included to form the combustion synthesis solution.

(13) Using the same methodology as described elsewhere herein, the molar ratio of the reactants to produce a stoichiometric burn is as follows.
AMT:ANO:HNO.sub.3:Ethanolamine=1:3.00:18.6:4.154
Accordingly, the amounts for preparing the combustion synthesis solution is as follows. 1) 12.2663 g of AMT (0.004024 mole of AMT) 2) ˜20 g of D.I. water was used in this procedure 3) 5.5390 g of ANO (0.012073 mole ANO) 4) 18.6.Math.(0.004024 mole)=0.074846 mole of HNO.sub.3.Math.63.01 g HNO.sub.3 per mole.Math.0.700=6.7372 g of 70% HNO.sub.3 solution needed 5) 4.154.Math.(0.004024 mole)=0.016716 mole of ethanolamine.Math.61.09 g ethanolamine per mole=1.0212 g ethanolamine needed

(14) The combustion synthesis solution can be prepared in two steps. A first solution containing the above amount of ethanolamine, half of the above amount of the water, and the above amount of the 70% nitric acid solution was prepared then set aside. A second solution containing the above amount of the ANO and half of the above amount of water was first heated gently to dissolve the ANO solid, then the above amount of AMT was added and again gently heated until all of the solids were dissolved. The two solutions were then mixed together to obtain the final combustion synthesis solution.

(15) The combustion synthesis solution is burned in a 600 ml stainless steel beaker, which is heated on a hotplate to near red heat temperature. After the hotplate has heated the beaker bottom to near red heat, the entire combustion synthesis solution is quickly poured into the hot beaker, then the beaker covered with a clean 100 mesh sieve to contain most of the solid particles produced, while allowing steam and combustion gasses to escape from the beaker. Steam is rapidly evolved for ˜5 minutes, then red colored NO.sub.x fumes are evolved as the combustion process begins to initiate. When the NO.sub.x evolution subsides, the beaker containing the porous ash is removed from the hotplate and allowed to cool to room temperature. Typically, the entire burn process can be completed within less than 10 minutes. After cooling, the ash is recovered from the beaker, and ground to a fine powder. 12.86 g of the finely divided powder was recovered and was ready to be reduced.

Example: 95 at % W-5 at % Mo

(16) In the instant example, a 95 atom % (97.33 wt %) W-5 atom % (2.67 wt %) Mo powder is synthesized that can yield ˜50 g of a nano-particulate W—Mo metal powder. Standard grade AMT was used as the source of W for this procedure. Ammonium Heptamolybdate tetrahydrate (AHM) was used as the source of Mo. Ethanolamine, 70% nitric acid, and deionized water were also included to form the combustion synthesis solution. Using the same methodology as described elsewhere herein, the molar ratio of the reactants required to produce a stoichiometric burn is as follows.
AMT:AHM:HNO.sub.3:Ethanolamine=1:0.09:14.724:4.154
The amounts for preparing the combustion synthesis solution was determined as follows: 1) 67.2355 g of AMT (0.022058 mole of AMT) 2) ˜100 g of D.I. water was used in this procedure 3) 2.4578 g of AHM (0.001989 mole AHM) 4) 14.724.Math.(0.022058 mole)=0.324782 mole of HNO.sub.3.Math.63.01 g HNO.sub.3 per mole.Math.0.700=29.2342 g of 70% HNO.sub.3 solution needed 5) 4.154.Math.(0.022058 mole)=0.091629 mole of ethanolamine.Math.61.09 g ethanolamine per mole=5.5975 g ethanolamine needed

(17) The combustion synthesis solution for this preparation can be done in two steps. A first solution containing the above amount of ethanolamine, half of the above amount of the water, and the above amount of the 70% nitric acid solution was prepared then set aside. A second solution was prepared containing the above amount of the AMT, half of the above amount of water, and the above amount of the AHM. The two solutions were then mixed together to obtain the final combustion synthesis solution.

(18) The combustion synthesis solution burn is carried out using a 4 L stainless steel beaker, which is heated on a hotplate to near red heat temperature. After the hotplate has heated the beaker bottom to near red heat, the entire combustion synthesis solution is quickly poured into the hot beaker, then the beaker covered with a clean 100 mesh sieve to contain most of the solid particles produced, while allowing steam and combustion gasses to escape from the beaker. Steam is rapidly evolved for ˜2-3 minutes, then red colored NO.sub.x fumes are evolved as the combustion process begins to initiate. When the NO.sub.x evolution subsides, the beaker containing the porous ash is removed from the hotplate and allowed to cool to room temperature. Typically, the entire burn process can be completed within less than 5 minutes. After cooling, the ash is recovered from the beaker, and ground to a fine powder. 64.78 g of the finely divided powder was recovered and can be reduced.

Example: 96 at % W-4 at % Re (95.95 wt % W-4.05 wt % Re)

(19) In the instant example, a 96 atom % W-4-atom % Re (95.95 wt % W-4.05 wt % Re) powder is synthesized that can yield ˜50 g of a nano-particulate W—Re metal powder after reduction. Standard grade AMT was used as the source of W and Ammonium Perrhenate (APR; NH.sub.4Re O.sub.4; F.W.=268.24 g/mole; Assay: % Re by Wt.=69.4%) was used as the source of Re for this procedure. Ethanolamine, 70% Nitric Acid Solution, and deionized water were also included to form the combustion synthesis solution.

(20) Using the same methodology as described as described elsewhere herein, the molar ratio of the reactants required to produce a stoichiometric burn is as follows.
AMT:APR:HNO.sub.3:Ethanolamine=1:0.5:14.7:4.154
The amounts for preparing the combustion synthesis solution are as follows. 1) 66.2825 g of AMT (0.021746 mole of AMT) 2) ˜100 g of D.I. water was used in this procedure 3) 2.9300 g of APR (0.010921 mole APR) 4) 14.7.Math.(0.021746 mole)=0.319666 mole of HNO.sub.3.Math.63.01 g HNO.sub.3 per mole.Math.0.700=28.7730 g of 70% HNO.sub.3 solution needed 5) 4.154.Math.(0.021746 mole)=0.090326 mole of ethanolamine.Math.61.09 g ethanolamine per mole=5.5180 g ethanolamine needed

(21) The combustion synthesis solution for this preparation can be done in two steps. A first solution containing the above amount of ethanolamine, half of the above amount of the water, and the above amount of the 70% nitric acid solution was prepared then set aside. A second solution containing the above amount of the AMT, half of the above amount of water, and the above amount of the APR was gently heated to dissolve the solids. The two solutions were then mixed together to obtain the final combustion synthesis solution.

(22) The combustion synthesis solution burn is carried out using a 4 L stainless steel beaker, which is heated on a hotplate to near red heat temperature. After the hotplate has heated the beaker bottom to near red heat, the entire combustion synthesis solution is quickly poured into the hot beaker, then the beaker is covered with a clean 100 mesh sieve to contain most of the solid particles produced, while allowing steam and combustion gasses to escape from the beaker. Steam is rapidly evolved for ˜7-8 minutes, then red colored NO.sub.x fumes are evolved as the combustion process begins to initiate. When the NO.sub.x evolution subsides, the beaker containing the porous ash is removed from the hotplate and allowed to cool to room temperature. Typically, the entire burn process can be completed within less than 10 minutes. After cooling, the ash is recovered from the beaker, and ground to a fine powder. 64.3278 g of the finely divided powder was recovered and was ready to be reduced.

Example: 90 wt % W-7 wt % Fe-3 wt % Ni

(23) In the instant example, a 90 wt % W-7 wt % Fe-3 wt % Ni powder is synthesized that can yield ˜50 g of a nano-particulate W—Fe—Ni metal powder. Standard grade AMT was used as the source of W, Nickel(II) Nitrate hexahydrate (Ni(NO.sub.3).sub.2.6H.sub.2O; F.W.=290.81 g/mole) was used as the source of Ni, and Iron(III) Nitrate nonahydrate (Fe(NO.sub.3).sub.3.9H.sub.2O; F.W.=404.00 g/mole) was used as the source of Fe. Ammonium Citrate (98%) (Am. Citrate; (NH.sub.4).sub.3C.sub.6H.sub.5O.sub.7; F.W.=243.22 g/mole), 70% Nitric Acid Solution, and deionized water were also included in the combustion synthesis solution.

(24) Using the same methodology as described elsewhere herein, the molar ratio of the reactants required to produce a stoichiometric burn is as follows.
AMT:Fe(NO.sub.3).sub.3:Ni(NO.sub.3).sub.2:HNO.sub.3:Am. Citrate=1:3.073:1.252:7.516:3.0
The amounts for preparing the combustion synthesis solution are as follows: 1) 62.1719 g of AMT (0.020397 mole of AMT) 2) ˜100 g of D.I. water was used in this procedure 3) 25.3256 g (0.062687 mole) of Fe(NO.sub.3).sub.3.9H.sub.2O 4) 7.4294 g (0.025547 mole) of Ni(NO.sub.3).sub.2.6H.sub.2O 5) 3.0.Math.(0.020397 mole).Math.243.22 g/mole of Ammonium Citrate÷0.98=15.1866 g of Ammonium Citrate 6) 7.516.Math.(0.020397 mole)=0.153304 mole of HNO.sub.3.Math.63.01 g HNO.sub.3 per mole.Math.0.700=13.8000 g of 70% HNO.sub.3 solution needed

(25) A 500 ml Erlenmeyer flask with a tight fitting screw cap was used for combustion synthesis solution preparation. The AMT was weighed out and transferred to the clean, dry Erlenmeyer flask. D.I. water was next added to the AMT solid in the flask. Then, the flask was capped and gently shaken periodically until all of the AMT solid had dissolved. The Fe(NO.sub.3).sub.3.9H.sub.2O was added to the solution in the flask and was dissolved without heat. The Ni(NO.sub.3).sub.2.6H.sub.2O was then added to the solution in the flask and also dissolved easily without heating. The Ammonium Citrate was dissolved in the solution in the flask. Finally, the 70% nitric acid solution was added to the contents of the flask. Initially, some precipitation occurs that redissolves upon further mixing of the solution. The combustion synthesis solution is then complete.

(26) The combustion synthesis solution burn was carried out using a 4 L stainless steel beaker, which is heated on a hotplate to near red heat temperature. After the hotplate has heated the beaker bottom to near red heat, the entire combustion synthesis solution is quickly poured into the hot beaker, then the beaker was covered with a clean 100 mesh sieve to contain most of the solid particles produced, while allowing steam and combustion gasses to escape from the beaker. Steam is rapidly evolved for ˜2-3 minutes, then red colored NO.sub.x fumes are evolved as the combustion process begins to initiate. When the NO.sub.x evolution subsides, the beaker containing the porous ash is removed from the hotplate and allowed to cool to room temperature. The entire burn process is typically completed within less than 10 minutes. After cooling, the ash is recovered from the beaker, and ground to a fine powder. 63.99 g of the finely divided powder was recovered and was ready to be reduced.

Example: Reduction of Combustion Product

(27) As described elsewhere herein, after a combustion synthesis solution has been stoichiometrically burned, the resultant combustion product comprises a metal oxide. The metal oxide powder can then be reduced to yield a nanocrystalline metal powder according to embodiments of the present invention. In the present example, an agglomerate of an as-burnt oxide powder is ground using a mortar and pestle. The oxide powder is then loaded in a metal crucible (tungsten or molybdenum) with a metal cover and placed in a vacuum furnace or a tube furnace. After purging with nitrogen for ˜30 min, hydrogen is supplied to the furnace. The oxide powder is reduced under hydrogen at the temperature in the range from 600° to 800° C. up to four hours in order to completely reduce the oxide powder to a nanocrystalline metal powder. To minimize the grain growth of the powder, fast heating and cooling (up to 100° C./min) is preferable. The resultant reduced powder forms moderately hard agglomerates of the metallic nanocrystallites, which can be broken down using a milling technique to achieve better densification.

(28) Referring to FIG. 1, an X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern is shown for a tungsten oxide powder prior to reduction. The XRD pattern indicates that the major phase is WO.sub.2 and that the average grain size is 6.1 nm. Referring to FIG. 2, after reduction at 650° C. for approximately 4 hours, the oxide powder is reduced to metallic tungsten having an average grain size of 45.8 nm.

(29) TABLE-US-00001 TABLE 1 Summary of crystallite size for various nanocrystalline metal and/or metal alloy powders synthesized according to embodiments of the present invention. Avg. Alloy Crystallite Size Composition Metal Salt(s) Used (nm) 100W AMT 24.1 99.95W—0.05Ni AMT, Ni(NO.sub.3).sub.2•6H.sub.2O 28.3 99.5W—0.5Ni AMT, Ni(NO.sub.3).sub.2•6H.sub.2O 27.2 97W—3Ni AMT, Ni(NO.sub.3).sub.2•6H.sub.2O 28.3 99W—1Y.sub.2O.sub.3 AMT, Y(NO.sub.3).sub.3•6H.sub.2O 26.8 96W—4Y.sub.2O.sub.3 AMT, Y(NO.sub.3).sub.3•6H.sub.2O 27.6 95.5W—4Y.sub.2O.sub.3—0.5Ni AMT, Y(NO.sub.3).sub.3•6H.sub.2O, 30.0 Ni(NO.sub.3).sub.2•6H.sub.2O 96W—4Mo AMT, (NH.sub.4).sub.6Mo.sub.7O.sub.24•4H.sub.2O 23.4 96W—4Re AMT, NH.sub.4ReO.sub.4 26.9 94W—6Nb AMT, C.sub.4H.sub.4NNbO.sub.9 23.1 90W—7Fe—2Ni AMT, Fe(NO.sub.3).sub.3•9H.sub.2O, 31.5 Ni(NO.sub.3).sub.2•6H.sub.2O

(30) Referring to Table 1, a summary of crystallite size is provided for a variety of nanocrystalline metal and/or metal alloy powders that were synthesized according to embodiments of the present invention.

(31) While a number of embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that many changes and modifications may be made without departing from the invention in its broader aspects. The appended claims, therefore, are intended to cover all such changes and modifications as they fall within the true spirit and scope of the invention.